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纳撒尼尔霍桑是美国十九世纪最杰出的浪漫主义作家之...

纳撒尼尔霍桑是美国十九世纪最杰出的浪漫主义作家之...
纳撒尼尔霍桑是美国十九世纪最杰出的浪漫主义作家之...

Abstract

Nathaniel Hawthorne‘s ―The Birthmark‖, s imilar to other Hawthorne‘s short stories, is allegorical and gloomy, digging deep to reveal the darker aspect of human nature. Throughout the story, Hawthorne employs overwrought symbolism and other various literary devices to enhance his theme that limitless power of science is destructive. With the purpose of examining how Hawthorne uses stylistic techniques to engross readers in this incredible story, this thesis will firstly present an overview of stylistics and introduce some influential previous researches on Hawthorne and ―The Birthmark‖, which are followed by a brief account of Dark Romanticism. Furthermore, it will carry out a comprehensive stylistic analysis of this story in phonetic, lexical, syntactic, semantic and contextual aspects. Finally, since ―The Birthmark‖ bears major features of the unique writing style of Dark Romanticism, a conclusion will be drawn to summarize the main characteristics of this genre which are embodied in ―The Birthmark‖. Thus, a fuller appreciation of this story as well as that of the American Dark Romanticism will be ultimately achieved.

Key Words: Hawthorne, Dark Romanticism, stylistic analysis, psychology, moral seriousness, complexity

摘要

纳撒尼尔·霍桑是美国十九世纪最杰出的浪漫主义作家之一,其小说风格独特,对美国文学发展产生了积极深远的影响。《胎记》描述了一个企图依靠科学手段将妻子脸上胎记除去的科学家最终导致妻子死亡的悲剧,批判了人类掌握科学技术后日益膨胀的欲望。正如霍桑其他揭露人性之“恶”的作品,《胎记》运用了象征手法为故事增添了浓厚的神秘主义,此外,多种文学创作手段的结合也使《胎记》在内容与形式上达到和谐统一并产生强烈的艺术美感。这部作品基调忧郁暗淡,因此被视为消极浪漫主义的代表作之一。本文将首先对文体学的相关理论进行归纳,接着总结前人对霍桑及《胎记》所做的研究分析,再简单介绍“消极浪漫主义”的艺术风格。全文将结合文体学及语言学的理论分别从语音、词汇、语义、句法等方面对《胎记》的文体风格进行详细的剖析,力求通过展现故事的文学美感来深化对其主题的理解,最终归纳出《胎记》中“消极浪漫主义”的显著文体特点。

关键词:霍桑,消极浪漫主义,文体分析,心理描写,忧郁严肃,复杂

Acknowledgements

It was really a laborious task to accomplish a B.A. thesis. I have received much support and help in the process of writing the thesis. Particularly, I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my supervisor, Mr. Zhang Huahong, for his valuable suggestions, generous instructions and patient revision of my thesis. Without his willingness to share knowledge and ideas, it would be much more difficult for me to work through the thinking and writing process.

Additionally, I owe much to the teachers and professors who have ever taught me throughout my college years. Their teaching and assistance have been always pushing me along my academic road.

I am also grateful to my good friends and classmates for their care. Without them, I might not be able to enjoy such a loving and pleasant studying environment in which I gradually become mature.

Finally, I would also like to thank my family especially my parents for their absolute confidence in me. Their constant encouragements have always supported me to overcome any obstacle in my studies and their understandings have eventually made my thesis-writing much easier.

CONTENTS

Chapter 1Introduction (1)

1.1 Overview of Stylistics (1)

1.2 Brief Account of Nathaniel Hawthorne and “The Birthmark” (2)

1.2.1 Brief Account of Nathaniel Hawthorne (2)

1.2.2 Brief Account of ―The Birthmark‖ (2)

1.2.2.1 Summary and Theme (2)

1.2.2.2 Context of ―The Birthmark‖ (3)

1.2.2.3 Previous Researches of ―The Birthmark‖ and Th eir Limitations (3)

1.3 Brief Introduction of Dark Romanticism (4)

1.4 Objective and Methodology of This Thesis (5)

Chapter 2 Phonological Features of “The Birthmark” (6)

2.1 Alliteration (6)

2.2 Phonemic Repetitions (6)

2.3 Polysyndeton (7)

2.4 Other Sound Effects (7)

Chapter 3 Lexical Features of “The Birthmark” (8)

3.1 Lexical Repetition (8)

3.2 Formal Expression (9)

3.3 Latin Terms, Middle English and Loanwords (9)

3.4 Semantic Repetition of Words Indicating ?Red‘ (10)

3.5 Words of Similar Semantic Field (10)

3.5.1 Semantic Field of Psychology (10)

3.5.2 Semantic Field of Pessimistic Feelings (11)

3.5.3 Semantic Field of Sensory Perceptions (12)

3.6 Morphemic Repetition (12)

3.7 Plural Nouns (13)

3.8 Adverbs of Manner (13)

Chapter 4 Semantic Features (Figure of Speech) of “The Birthmark” (15)

4.1 Simile (15)

4.2 Quasi-simile (15)

4.3 Metaphor (15)

4.4 Overstatement (15)

Chapter 5 Syntactic Features of “The Birthmark” (17)

5.1 Parenthetical Constructions (17)

5.2 Inversion (18)

5.3 Asyndeton (18)

5.4 Stylistic Convergence (18)

5.5 Sentence Length (19)

5.6 Subjunctive Mood (20)

5.7 Active V oice & Passive V oice (21)

Chapter 6 C ohesion of “The Birthmark” (22)

6.1 Linkage (22)

6.2 Pronouns (22)

6.3 Cross-reference (22)

Chapter 7 Conclusion (24)

7.1 Subjective & Fantastic (24)

7.2 Gloomy & Sentimental (24)

7.3 Elusive & Mysterious (24)

7.4 Subtle & Elaborate (25)

Appendix (26)

Bibliography (39)

“The Birthmark”: Ineffaceable Mark Left on Readers? Mind

—A Stylistic Analysis on Nathaniel Hawthorne?s Dark Romanticism

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Overview of Stylistics

Throughout the history, with regard to the definition of stylistics, different claims have been made. Wales (2001) simply defines stylistics as ―the study of style‖ while Widdowson (1975) views it as the link between linguistics and literary criticism. Brumfit and Carter (1986 3) agree by emphasizing that there is a certain overlap between these two disciplines. In addition, Jean (1996) claims that major changes in linguistic theory or theory of interpretation will engender new kinds of stylistic analysis. Hoffmannová(1993 287-98) holds a similar view and maintains that since stylistics has been connected with different branches of knowledge in the last fifty years, it has been subdivided into literary stylistics, socio-stylistics, pragmatic stylistics, discourse stylistics, radical stylistics, cognitive stylistics and processing stylistics, etc., among which literary stylistics which tries to explain ―the relation between style and literary or aesthetic function‖ becomes the main concern of stylistic analysis (Leech, 1982).

Peter (2002) further studies the aim of stylistic analysis, arguing that stylistic analysis is helpful to overall textual interpretation. As Michael (2001 12-30) specifies the significance of stylistic analysis, maintaining that it firstly provides a detailed description of a particular text and then facilitates the process of interpretation; thus readers‘ understanding of the text can be deepened.

Although many stylisticians agree on the importance of stylistic analysis, they hold different opinions on how to carry it out. According to James (1969), stylistic analysis can be done at two levels, namely micro level and macro level. The former focuses on particular features of the text while the latter is concerned with larger units such as the text and the novel. Jean (1996) then proposes a bottom-up method, that is, from micro to macro, from superficial features to underlying implications. Another prominent approach is German stylistician Leo Spitzer's philological circle (1970 30) which involves moving back and forth between analysis and synthesis. This process usually undergoes three stages: identify, describe and explain. In recent years, with the development of computers, in order to increase the objectivity and reliability of stylistic analysis, a new approach has come forth, characterized by making use of corpora as important sources of data in stylistic research (De Vito, 248-55).

1.2 Brief Account of Nathaniel Hawthorne and “The Birthmark”

1.2.1 Brief Account of Nathaniel Hawthorne

Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804–1864), being a central figure in the American Romantic Period, is a prominent novelist and short story writer who contributed greatly to the modern literature.

According to Millington‘s Companion to Nathaniel Hawthorne(2004), Nathaniel Hawthorne was born in a New England Puritan family in Salem, Massachusetts on July 4, 1804. After his father‘s death when he was only four years old, Hawthorne was raised by his seclusive mother, who exerted a great influence on Hawthorne‘s introversive and reclusive character. As a child, Hawthorne rarely left the house but endlessly read, developing his meditative temperament. After graduating from Bowdoin College in 1825, he spent nearly twelve years at home in his room, reading and working to become a professional writer.

In 1828, his first novel, Fanshawe was published anonymously, yet unsuccessful. After his marriage in 1842, he began to produce a huge amount of world-renowned literary works which explore penetratingly moral and spiritual conflicts, including The Scarlet Letter (1850) and The House of Seven Gables (1851). Hawthorne's other books include Twice-Told Tales (1837) and The Marble Faun (1860). From 1853 to 1859 Hawthorne lived in England and in Italy, but returned to the United States and died on May 19, 1864 in New Hampshire.

Hawthorne and his works have been extensively studied. Sara (2005) regards Hawthorne as a writer of complication and mixture who may bewilder and overwhelm the reader. As for Poe (1862), another renowned Dark romanticist, once noted that Hawthorne distinguished himself by his creativity, imagination and originality. He further commented Hawthorne‘s ―effective‖ tone, ―plaintive, thoughtful, and in full accordance with his themes.‖ Hawthorne's major themes include gender roles and the impossibility of earthly perfection. Another recurring theme is secret sin (Newman, 1979). In his numerous short stories, he examined ―the nature of sin, evil, and guilt.‖ (Michael, 2001) Henry James (1880) also sees Hawthorne‘s particular interest in moral problems especially in his science fictions. In order to give a moral lesson, Hawthorne originates an ―allegorical, didactic and moralistic‖ writing style, combining the techniques of gothic romance which is characterized by its symbolic, fantastic and subtle manner (Reuben). Male agrees with Reuben by observing ―[…] the romantic strain that runs through Hawthorne‘s fiction‖ (1964 33).

1.2.2 Brief Account of “The Birthmark”

1.2.2.1 Summary and Theme

―The Birthmark‖ (1943), one of the best romantic short stories written by Nathaniel Hawthorne, was first published in Pioneer and later included in Mosses from an Old Manse (1846). With various literary devices, the story examines the obsession of human perfection and hidden

evils of human mind.

The protagonist Aylmer, a fanatical scientist, marries a beautiful woman with a single physical flaw: a birthmark on her left cheek. Aylmer then becomes obsessed with this imperfection and applies his scientific knowledge to removing it but Georgiana finally dies as the birthmark disappears. The story demonstrates the theme that the pursuit of earthly perfection is not only impossible, but in a sense, destructive.

1.2.2.2 Context of “The Birthmark”

The 19th century is a time of dramatic change in America which provides the backdrop for Hawthorne‘s ―The Birthmark‖.Robert Spiller (1969) describes the explosion of science at that time in The Literary History of the U.S.:―[…] never has this conquest of nature led to more surprising frustration, decadence‖. Similarly, Hawthorne detected a hidden crisis in the increasing acclamations of new scientific discoveries and was severely concerned about the possible consequence that science may corrupt nature. Therefore, during that period, Hawthorne characterized scientists as malevolent and produced many science fict ions. ―The Birthmark‖ is one of the most impressive one that establishes Hawthorne as a unique author of the 19th century who fashions a new genre of Romanticism—-Dark Romanticism.

Apart from the social influence, personal experience may also exert impact on the creation of ―The Birthmark‖. Samuel (2000) points out that in the early 19th century, many people regarded mesmerism as science to cure illness. Hawthorne's wife Sophia Peabody was one of these patients, which worried Hawthorne so much that he displayed great dread for science. According to Millington (2004), "The Birthmark" may reflect Hawthorne's anxiety of his marriage. Thus, he expressed his worries by elaborating the psychological tension between the couple in ―The Birthmark‖.

1.2.2.3 Previous Researches of “The Birthmark” and Their Limitations

Hawthorne‘s ―The Birthmark‖ has been numerously studied in different perspectives. Nevertheless, most of the researches concern about the symbolism, deep psychology and gender roles in this short story.

Symbolism, a traditional literary device favored by Romanticists, is employed throughout ―The Birthmark‖. Thus most studies centre on Hawthorne‘s skillful symbolism. In this story, Georgiana‘s birthmark has been given various symbolic meaning by different scholars. Firstly, it directly represents nature thus the removal of it indicates a disturbance of nature (Rountree, 1972). Mellow (1980) regards it as a symbol of imperfection. However, Millington (2004) takes a different view, he maintains that the birt hmark simply symbolizes Georgiana, thus Aylmer‘s

removal of it actually offend her humanity. Moreover, the birthmark can also represent Georgiana‘s ―liability to sin, sorrow, decay and death.‖ (Mollinger, 1981) Besides the birthmark, there are other symbols. Goldsmith (1979) shows interests in the symbolism in Aylmer and claims that he represents culture. Nevertheless, Colacurcio (1981) sees in a different aspect, taking Hawthorne‘s Puritan background into consideration. He explains that Aylmer in essence s ymbolizes the goal of purification and Georgiana‘s death symbolizes that purification cannot be realized. Even Aminidad, Aylmer‘s assistant has symbolic implication. On the one hand, he represents barbarism, while on the other hand the correct choice because he is not obsessed with the birthmark but values Georgiana‘s integrity (Goldsmith, 1979).

As for Frederick Crews (1966), he studies Hawthorne in the psychological perspective and discerns the acute psychological awareness in ―The Birthmark‖. In this sto ry, Hawthorne pioneers the mode of psychological fiction (Joel, 1991). Stephens (2005) elaborates on the psychological dimensions of the story. Based on her findings, throughout the text, many indications prove of Alymer‘s various ―psychological quirks and dysfunctions‖.

Additionally, femininity and masculinity in this story have also been enormously studied, especially from a feminist perspective. Hawthorne portrays Alymer as a vain, delusive and obstinate man while characterizes Georgiana as a gentle and obedient woman (Rita). Sara (2005) is interested in female‘s image in ―The Birthmark‖ and emphasizes that the society gave women ―the psychological incentive to pathologize themselves‖. For Baym (1982 58-77), the central issue in ―The Birthmark‖ is also fe mininity. She argues that Georgiana represents many women who devalued certain feminine in attempt to gain recognition in the man-dominated society. Nevertheless, disagreed with Baym‘s claim of the femininity in ―The Birthmark‖, Richard (2006) argues that what Baym calls "feminism" is essentially masculinity. In his viewpoint, the male mistreatment or female destruction in ―The Birthmark‖ underscores the traditional notion of masculinity.

However, among all the findings of ―The Birthmark‖, there seems to b e a lack of stylistic analysis which is indeed essential. Associating these findings with Hawthorne‘s choice of style, stylistic analysis can undoubtedly provide concrete evidence thus verify those findings and enrich them. On the other hand, based on thes e known facts concerning the story‘s theme, characterization and psychological dimension concluded by previous research, the thesis can carry out a convincing and comprehensive stylistic analysis of ―The Birthmark‖ with relative ease.

1.3 Brief Introduction of Dark Romanticism

American Romanticism originated in the late 18th century and flourished in 19th century, rebelling against the age of the Enlightenment and its faith in reason, and was characterized by

interest in nature, emphasis on imagination and belief in the goodness of man (Seignueret, 1988). However, disapproving of most Romanticists, some writers of the period such as Edgar Allan Poe, Herman Melville, and Nathaniel Hawthorne were less optimistic. They doubt whether man‘s knowledge will cause his salvation or his ruin (Kathy, 2002). Thus they moved towards a new genre of Dark Romanticism.

As one of the most popular sub-genres of American literature, Dark Romanticism resembles Romanticism in that both worship nature, value emotion over logic and favor symbolism (Thompson, 1974). However, Dark Romanticism stresses the existence of human evils. In this respect, it shifts attention away from the fundamental goodness of human towards the dark side of their soul and thus generates a grotesque, gloomy and horrific style (Platzner, 1971). Furthermore, Male (1964) claims the major themes of Dark Romanticism are tragic vision of life, awe at nature, fascination of mystery and belief in the reality of evil.

1.4 Objective and Methodology of This Thesis

Bas ed on the previous literary criticisms of ―The Birthmark‖ such as its theme, gender roles, psychological dimension and symbolism which have been summarized above, this thesis will address itself to a comprehensive stylistic analysis of this story in the hope of intensifying the readers‘ aesthetic awareness. Moreover, since ―The Birthmark‖ bears significant characteristics of Dark Romanticism, the stylistic analysis may deepen the understanding of Hawthorne‘s unique writing style as well as that of Dark Romanticism.

Firstly, this thesis adopts Fowler‘s(1977) concept of ―new stylistics‖ which requires to apply techniques of modern linguistics to the study of literature. Secondly, on the basis of the theories of Leech as well as the approach of Leo Spitzer's philological circle (identify, describe and explain), it will carry out a detailed stylistic analysis of ―The Birthmark‖ in phonetic, lexical, syntactic, semantic and contextual aspects. Additionally, in order to make this thesis more objective and convincing, statistical analysis which studies the frequency and distribution of some obvious literary features will also be employed to provide concrete evidence for the stylistic analysis.

Chapter 2 Phonological Features of “The Birthmark”

2.1 Alliteration

Alliteration refers to the repetition of initial identical sounds at the beginning of words. In this story, alliteration is often used by the author to create a harmony of sound. Consider several examples:

sin, sorrow; decay and death (L64) soul or sense (L66) grandeur and grace (L168) grunt or growl (L219) anxious and absorbed (L315)

It is easy to find that the underlined letters indicate places of alliteration. As is shown above, they are good examples of alliteration. Furthermore, phonaesthetic effect is also created, since in these pairings, the similarities of sound connote similarities of meaning.

2.2 Phonemic Repetitions

Repetitions of certain sounds or clusters of sounds produce a euphonic effect and an aesthetic impression on the reader. Various phonemic repetitions establish a clear and musical style of ―The Birthmark‖. Firstly, notice the listed words ended with the suffix ?–ness‘.

distinctness (L39) loveliness (L51) prettiness (L55) paleness (L75) directness (L97) madness (L114) watchfulness (L127) openness (L140) whiteness (L148) readiness (L155) earthiness (L157) consciousness (L163) faintness (L164) restlessness (L304) watchfulness (L316) firmness (L329) tenderness (L349) completeness (L431) happiness (L432)

The words above, without exception, all share the same root repetition ?-ness‘ which creates a rhyme. Same with alliteration, rhyme creates beauty of sound. Similar root repetition is also formed by words ended in ?-less‘. (See Suffix Repetition)

Another notable phonemic repetition consists of words ended in –y, forming the rhyme /i/. See the sentence below:

In those days when the comparatively recent discovery of electricity and other kindred mysteri es of Nature […] (L5)

From what has been discussed above, it can be inferred that Hawthorne attaches importance to human emotion, thus he wants to arouse readers‘ emotion not only by his beautiful sentences

but also by the emotively reinforcing effect of sound. Therefore, phonemic repetitions as well as alliteration do achieve Dark Romanticism‘s appeal to the emotions.

2.3 Polysyndeton

Polysyndeton is a marked repetition of a conjunction before each parallel phrase. It is often used for the sake of rhythm. In the following sentence, rhythmic parallelism not only accompanies the parallelism of grammar, but also connotes to the reader an endless show-off of Aylmer‘s great scientific achievements; therefore, his self-conceit is underscored.

[…] he had satisfied himself […]; and had explained […], and how it is […], and others […], and attempted to fathom […], and from the spiritual world […] (L133)

Polysyndeton is pleasing to the ear. Taking this sentence for example, if it is rewritten by eliminating the repetition of the conjunction ?and‘, the emphatic sound effect will be undoubtedly lost. More importantly, since scientists‘ excess use of power is a persistent theme in the Dark Romanticism. Hawthorne actually conveys his fear of the limitless power of science to readers by using this structure to create an endless feeling.

2.4 Other Sound Effects

It is reasonable that Hawthorne excels at using sound effects to convey his message, which can be proved by his impressing on readers the harsh auditory effect in the characterization of Aminadab. Notice the words below:

bulky, shaggy, grimed, mechanical, smoky, incrusted (Para.25) uncouth (L228) grunt or growl (L229) clay (L319) gross, chuckle (L409)

These words used on Aminadab are similar in the way that they all contain the sound /k/ or /g/ which naturally gives readers an implication of a brute and vulgar personality. This sound effect is perfectly in accordance with the character of this uncultivated, crude assistant who ―seemed to represent man‘s physical nature.‖

Lastly, excessive polysyllables (See Lexical Feature) in this story may also create a rhythmical effect and carry through a melodious tone which seems to bring the reader back to the ancient times. Thus, the beautiful and mysterious style of Dark Romanticism has been enhanced.

Chapter 3 Lexical Features of “The Birthmark”

3.1 Lexical Repetition

One of Hawthorne‘s means of deepening his theme is his lexical repetition. While reading through the story, the reader may be repeatedly reminded by certain individual words. These words enjoy such a high frequency that readers are impelled to ponder on Hawthorne‘s serious message. For example, words referring to the birthmark such as ?mark‘, ?birthmark‘ and ?hand‘ occur altogether 52 times; words like ?perfect‘, ?perfection‘ and ?imperfection‘ appear 29 times; besides, ?science‘ or ?scientific‘ occur 15 times while ?nature‘ and ?natural‘ 19 times. These recurring words actually reflect recurring theme of ―The Birthmark‖.In "The Birthmark", Georgiana's birthmark symbolizes a natural imperfection, so when Aylmer tries to remove it, nature was defied by man‘s overuse of his spiritual and scientific power. Therefore, lexical repetitions which mostly serve as symbolism, a device favored by Dark Romanticists, has effectively emphasized this theme.

3.2 Formal Expression

A general impression of this story is Hawthorne‘s excessive use of formal vocabulary and expressions, avoiding vulgar language or words which are offensive to the ear. Thus a well-read and cultivated style is formed. Consider his precise word selection in Paragraph 1:

eminent; proficient; made experience of; affinity; kindred; rival; congenial; aliment; ardent; possessed; weaned(Para.1)

At the beginning of narration, Hawthorne strikes the reader with so many formal expressions which establish a serious tone of Dark Romanticism for the story. Moreover, the characterization of Aylmer is also realized. When describing the protagonist, formal words exactly outline Aylmer as a learned, exalted and proud scientist of a high social status. Similar evidence can be found elsewhere:

countenance (L4) convert (L49) apprised (L126) fathom (L137) recondite (L166) assented (L205)

Furthermore, lexical formality also embodies in the idealized speech throughout the story. Even Aylmer‘s emotional outburst seldom contains displeasing or uncultivated language:

―[…] has it never occurred to you that the mark upon your cheek might be removed?‖ (L20)―[…] have you any recollection of a dream last night about this odious hand?‖ (L79)

―Drink, then, thou lofty creature!‖ (L379)

Although Hawthorne‘s dialogue was overly formal, it was an effective tool in describing human emotion (Gale, 1996). Exception is only found in the description of Aminadab, Aylmer‘s assistant. Vulgar and short words, such as bulky (L152); shaggy (L153); smoky (L157); grunt, growl (L219), perfectly depict a clumsy, uneducated and rude man in contrast to Aylmer. Additionally, informal expressions like contraction and colloquial phrase can exclusively be found in Aminadab‘s direct speech:

―If she were my wife, I’d never part with that birthmark.‖ (L162)

3.3 Latin Terms, Middle English and Loanwords

It is notable that Hawthorne favors Latin terms and Middle English expressions in ―The Birthmark‖. Firstly, in respect that the story happens ―in the latter part of the last century‖, Middle English can precisely establish a remote and ancient setting for the story. Secondly, Latin has long been cherished as a noble and sacred language spoken by well-educated people. Therefore, struck by such indigestible vocabulary, readers can infer that Aylmer is a knowledgeable intellect with a civilized background. Examples are found as follows:

eminent; proficient (L1) affinity (L3) countenance (L4) votaries (L10) aught (L54) mimic (L55) abode (L167) nay (L68) lore (L184) minute (L206) vitae elixir (L216) nostrum (L218) vial (L231) lotion (L249) conjecture (L254) friar (L265) folio (L272) sorcerer (L292) mien (L317) thou (L319) hither (L326) goblet (L360)

It is worth mentioning that Latin wordiness which indicates lexical complexity is evident in the frequent use of polysyllables:

eminent; proficient; philosophy; experience; affinity; spiritual; attractive; chemical; laboratory; countenance (Para.1)

interviews; generally; inquiries; atmosphere; confinement; temperature; sensations (Para.49)

Another obvious lexical feature is the loanwords especially used for describing the decoration of the luxurious furnishings of the couple‘s room, creating a mysterious, exotic and

gorgeous sense. Loanwords, mostly French words, abound in Paragraph 28:

boudoir, pastil (L160) grandeur (L168) pavilion (L171) perfumed (L173)

On all accounts, Latin terms, Middle English and loanwords all accord with Dark Romanticism‘s obsession of ancient mystery.

3.4 Semantic Repetition of Words Indicating …Red?

American critic Miller (1982) maintains that semantic repetition involves two kinds of repetition, namely immediate and distant (remote) repetitions. The former is explicit because it refers to the repetition of the same words, while the latter is implicit characterized by the recurring of words of similar meaning. ―The Birthmark‖ contains numerous words that indicate the concept of ?red‘. Consider Hawthorne‘s distant repetition in the story:

furnace(L4)reddening (L29) crimson (L35) rosiness (L35) blushed (L36) blood (L37) fire (L73) roses (L75) ruby (L77) flushed (L209) redhot (L225) hot; feverish (L306) glow (L307) sanguine (L317) parched (L384) sunset (L385)

As is mentioned above, Dark Romanticism stresses emotion. Accordingly, Hawthorne employs words indicating ?red‘ to impart a disturbed, anxious and unrestful mood to the reader, producing a strong emotional feeling. On the one hand, these word s suggest Aylmer‘s arrogant personality, sinful acts and boundless passion for science; on the other hand, they remind the reader regularly of the psychological tension between the husband and the wife. Thus, by this distant repetition of the concept of red, the author successfully transfers his message to readers and makes ―The Birthmark‖ highly emotional.

3.5 Words of Similar Semantic Field

As ―The Birthmark‖ is psychological, it is noteworthy that Hawthorne‘s preference for words belonging to certain semantic fields in the story conduces to a plaintive, romantic and imaginative style in full accordance with his recurring theme.

3.5.1 Semantic Field of Psychology

Above all, what strikes the reader is the large quantity of words referring to psychology or imagination, mostly abstract nouns and non-factive verbs. Furthermore, among all the words denoting psychology, words like ?seem‘ and ?as if‘ occur most frequently, indicating Hawthorne‘s

preoccupation with the psychological states and events. Since many non-factive verbs are employed, most of them suggesting attitudes (hesitate, love, doubt) and cognitions (knew, considered, comprehending), it suggests that the characters‘ acts largely base on their subjective hypothesis rather than on known facts. As Dark Romanticism emphasizes intuition and imagination, the following words do contribute greatly to the psychological dimension as well as the Dark Romantic style of ―The Birthmark‖:

Nouns:intellect; imagination; spirit; (L8) heart (L9); intelligence (L10) feeling; thought (L69) fancy (L81) mind (L182) ideas (L184) illusion (L186) belief (L187) sensation (L257) experience (L289) conception (L341) musings (L350) mood (L390)

Verbs:believed (L10) imagine (L24) discovered (L52) dream (L80) wonder (L85) remembered (L90) doubt (114) feel (L118) comprehending (L156) perceive (L194) forgot (L208) considered (L351) knew (L358) seemed (L362) wish (L366) as if (L386)

Adjectives:resolved (L93) spiritual (L187) curious (L268) fantastic (L313) perceptible (L392)

3.5.2 Semantic Field of Pessimistic Feelings

Secondly, another semantic field in the story contains words that connote pessimistic feelings like fear, anxiety, despair and sorrow. Owing to this lexical feature, the author has indeed reinforced the characters‘ anxiety and conveyed a lingering melancholy mood to the reader who will naturally feel depressed with such a psychological burden. This is also a remarkable characteristic of Dark Romanticism which will be specified later. Now pay attention to the words cited:

Nouns: trouble and horror (L65) disgust (L110) fear (L220) tedium (L261) despair (L287) misery (L317) anxiety (L331) guilty; treason (L355) death (L371) fatality (L420)

Verbs: affrighted (L205) miserably (L287) relinquishing (L367) suffered (L408) scare (L417) repent;rejected (L423)

Adjectives: frightful (L65) disastrous (L68) terrible (L85) hateful; dreadful; wretched (L109) mortifying (L208) melancholy; sad (L285) uneasy; displeased (L293) detrimental (L294) painful (L304) tormented; severe (L311) mad (L346) solemn (L349) awful (L403)

Owing to these words above, Dark Romanticism‘s gloom and melancholic feelings which

dominate ―The Birthmark‖ can easily be sensed by the reader.

3.5.3 Semantic Field of Sensory Perceptions

Thirdly, regard must be paid to a third semantic field that comprises words suggesting sensory perceptions which make ―The Birthmark‖ typical of Dark Romanticism, highly subjective and emotional. In the story, most nouns have been abstracted to imply feeling, while verbs are chiefly dynamic, indicating actions like seeing (largely occur in Paragraph 32 where Georgiana occupies herself with the observation of her abode decorated by Aylmer), hearing (largely employed in Paragraph 42 which dwells on Georgiana‘s imagination and curios ity) and olfaction. Examples are found as follows:

Words denoting seeing: recognized (L71) beheld (L72) optical (L186) look (L188) scenery (L189) shadow; image; picture (L191) cast her eyes (L192) find (L205) appeared (L206) raised his eyes (L323) gaze (L396) Watch (L403) visible (L400)

Words denoting hearing: hear (L227) audible (L228) tones (L228) sound; footsteps (L360) Words denoting olfaction:fragrance (L232) fragrant (L255) odors (L311)

Words denoting gustation:deliciousness (L383)

Impressed by these recurring words of sensory perceptions, the reader is presented with a vivid description of the inner world of the characters which enables them to see, hear and feel as in the same way of the protagonists. Hence, their sympathy for the tragedy is gradually intensified in the atmosphere of Dark Romanticism.

3.6 Morphemic Repetition

One cannot fail to discover morphemic repetitions,to be exact, affix repetition and suffix repetition in the story. The former is characterized by the reiteration of words containing negative affixes such as un-, in- and dis-, while the latter is reoccurring of words ended with the negative suffix –less. Words express oddness or incomprehension (unaccountable, incapable, indistinct, indescribable, indefinable) serve to represent the characters‘ confused minds and thus suggest a mystery and create suspense. Evidence is found especially in Paragraph 32:

Affix Repetition:

unreservedly(L13)uncompromising (L97)unconscious (L98) unclasping (L104) unfit (L167) unsubstantial (L184) unfolded (L195) uncouth (L228) uneasy (L293) unworthy (L297) unsightly (L375) unobtrusive (L383) unaccountable (L397)

imperfection (L28) indistinct (L36) intolerable (L14) ineffaceably (L59) ineludible (L61) invariably (L67) innumerable (L69) inexorably (L93) imperfect (L120) incapable (L155) indescribable (L191) indefinable (L206) inharmonious (L223) inestimable (L233) indefinite (L257) irresistibly (L302) irregularity (L392)

discord (L217) displeased (L293) misshapen (L228) mistrust (L330)

Suffix Repetition: cureless (L102) faultless (L118) bodiless (L184) colorless (L361) peerless (L420)

Additionally, throughout the story, Hawthorne has employed large numbers of negative words such as without (L67); nay (L68) None (L81) nothing (L109) or words implying negation such as hardly (L77) little (L193) half painfully, half pleasurably (L258) scarcely (L293). Interestingly, these negative words together with the morphemic repetitions mentioned above occur mainly in Aylmer‘s acts, thoughts and speech, which not only reflects Dark Romanticists‘ dislike for science but also strengthens the dark tone of this story.

3.7 Plural Nouns

Another lexical means of forming a depressed and suffocating atmosphere is the centralized use of plural nouns, mostly used for describing Georgiana‘s helplessness and humbleness when faced with the horrible machines. Aylmer‘s fancied experiment and numerous scientific achievements are too great for her like a mountain. While reading along, readers will naturally feel the same oppression with Georgiana and have to struggle for breath. Consider the plural nouns mainly found in Paragraph 57 and in the first two sentences of Paragraph 32.

things (L183) secrets (L184) figures; footsteps; forms (L185) ideas (L186) tones (L228) products (L230) treasures (L231) breezes (L233) retorts; tubes; cylinders; crucibles; apparatus (L308)

It is known that Dark Romanticists are good at engrossing readers. There is no exception to Hawthorne. By using so many plural nouns at a time, Hawthorne does invite his readers to develop an apprehensive sympathy for Georgiana.

3.8 Adverbs of Manner

Adverbs are excessively used in this story and most of them are those of manner, specifying the characters‘ acts. According to the statistical analysis, out of the 92 adverbs in the whole text, 62 are those of manner, occupying nearly 67% of the total number. Only several such adverbs are

listed:

deeply (L29) strongly (76) hastily (84) solemnly (101) rapturously (115) tenderly (124) calmly (131) severely (141) earnestly (174) sadly (180) anxiously (249) painfully (258) miserably (287)

In this way, Hawthorne‘s detailed description gives the story texture as well as satisfies readers‘ curiosity. Therefore, the frequent use of adverbs not only contributes to the painstaking description which greatly impresses the readers but also establishes the subtle style of Dark Romanticism.

Chapter 4 Semantic Features (Figure of Speech) of “The Birthmark”

4.1 Simile

Altogether, the author employs 27 comparisons by applying figures of speech such as simile, quasi-simile and metaphor. Simile, often introduced by ?like‘ or ?as‘, is most frequently used in ―The Birthmark‖. By simile, Hawthorne successfully depicts a dreamy and fancied world where the protagonists‘ minds are active but highly imaginative. As a result, the imaginative component of Dark Romanticism has also been emphasized. Some examples are cited below:

[…] lik e whom their visible frames return to dust. (L63)

[…] like a bass–relief of ruby on the whitest marble. (L76)

[…] as a white rose (L259)

4.2 Quasi-simile

Besides conventional similes, the author also employs a range of quasi-similes which express or imply similarity introduced by ?seem‘ or ?as if‘. These constructions suggest something is not true and thus establish a mysterious style of Dark Romanticism. The following quasi-similes imply a confused and disturbed mind:

[…] as if a redhot iron had touched her cheek. (L225)

[…] as if her thoughts were answered […] (L188)

[…] as if by the agency of fire […] (L201)

4.3 Metaphor

Apart from what has been mentioned above, Hawthorne also uses metaphors regularly to make his story romantic, and most of them are applied to refer to the birthmark whose symbolic significance is then underscored progressively. Note the example:

[…], a crimson stain upon the snow […] (L38)

All in all, Hawthorne‘s employment of similes, quasi-similes and metaphors in essence strengthen the subjective and imaginative mood of Dark Romanticism.

4.4 Overstatement

Another effective semantic feature which contributes greatly to the romantic style of this

十九世纪浪漫主义

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(精选)十九世纪初期浪漫主义文学

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19世纪浪漫主义文学 浪漫主义文学在各国的发展: (一)德国浪漫主义 ?18世纪末、19世纪初浪漫主义思潮在德国兴起。 早期浪漫派,因在德国城市耶拿的小团体而得名,缅怀过去,歌颂中世纪。 晚期浪漫派,1806--1830 等为代表。 年之后出现,以海涅为代表的。 代表作家: 1、施莱格尔兄弟 奥古斯特·威廉·施莱格尔 弗里德里希·施莱格尔 主要贡献:浪漫主义理论的奠基人。 2、格林兄弟 是日耳曼语言学的奠基人。 代表作品: 《儿童与家庭童话集》(1812-1815) 另有两卷《德国传说》。 3、霍夫曼 复杂和有争议的作家 他的作品具有奇异和荒诞的色彩。

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美国文学浪漫主义时期 浪漫主义时期开始于十八世纪末,到内战爆发为止,是美国文学史上最重要的时期。华盛顿·欧文出版的《见闻札记》标志着美国文学的开端,惠特曼的《草叶集》是浪漫主义时期文学的压卷之作。浪漫主义时期的文学是美国文学的繁荣时期,所以也称为"美国的文艺复兴。" 美国社会的发展哺育了"一个伟大民族的文学"。年轻的美国没有历史的沉重包袱,很快在政治、经济和文化方面成长为一个独立的国家。这一时期也是美国历史上西部扩张时期,到1860年领土已开拓到太平洋西岸。到十九世纪中叶,美国已由原来的十三个州扩大到二十一个州,人口从1790年的四百万增至1860年的三千万。在经济上,年轻的美国经历向工业的转化,影响所及不仅仅是城市,而且也包括农村。蒸汽动力在工、农业生产上的运用、工厂的建立、劳动力的大量需求以及科技上的发明创造使经济生活得到了重组。另外,大量移民促进了工业更加蓬勃的发展。政治上,民主与平等成为这个年轻国家的理想,产生了两党制。值得一提的是这个国家的文学和文化生活。随着独立的美国政府的成立,美国人民已感到需要有美国文学,表达美国人民所特有的经历:早期清教徒的殖民,与印第安人的遭遇,边疆开发者的生活以及西部荒原等。这个年轻国家的文学富有想象,已产生了一种文学环境。报刊杂志如雨后春笋,出现了一大批文学读者,形成了十九世纪上半叶蓬勃的浪漫主义的文学思潮。 外国的,尤其是英国的文学大师对美国作家产生了重大影响。美国作家由于秉承了与英国一样的文化传统,形成了同英国一样的浪漫主义风格。欧文(Irving)、库柏(Cooper),坡(Poe),弗伦诺(Freneau)和布雷恩特(Bryant)一一反古典主义时期的文学样式和文学思潮,开创了较新的小说和诗歌形式。这一时期大多数美国文学作品中,普遍强调文学的想象力和情感因素,注重生动的描写、异国情调的表达、感官的体会和对超自然力的描述。美国作家特别注意感情的自由表达和人物的心理描写。作品中的主人公富有敏感激动的特质。注重表现个人和普通人是这一时期作品的强烈倾向,几乎成了美国的信仰。富雷诺、布雷思特和库柏等人的作品对客观自然的描写有强烈的兴趣。富雷诺在"帝国的废墟"主题中对过去情景的描写绘声绘色,布雷恩特对北美五大湖区的史前印第安人描述引人入胜,欧文对哈德逊河传说的巧加利用炉火纯青,库柏的长篇历史小说深入细致。总的来说,美国浪漫主义时期的文学上接英国文学传统,下开美国文学之风。 虽然美国文学受到外国文学的影响,但这一时期著名的文学作品表现的却是富有美国色彩的浪漫主义思想。"西部开拓"就是一个说明美国作家表现自己国家的恰好的例子。他们大量描述了美国本土的自然风光:原始的森林、广袤的平原、无际的草原、沧茫的大海、不一而足。这些自然景物成为人们品格的象征,形成了美国文学中离开尘世,心向自然的传统。这些传统在库柏的《皮袜子的故事》(Leather Stocking Tales〉、梭罗的《沃尔顿》(Walden)以及后来马克·吐温的《哈克贝里·芬历险记》(Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn)中都得到了明显的表现。随着美国民族意识的增长,在小说、诗歌中美国人物都越来越明显地操本地方言,作品多表现农民、穷人、儿童以及没有文化的人,还有那些虽然没文化但心地高尚的红种人和白种人。美国清教作为一种文化遗产,对美国人的道德观念产生了很大影响,在美国文学中也留下了明显的印迹。一个明显的表现就是,比起欧洲文学,美国文学的道德倾向十分浓厚。在霍桑(Hawthorne)、梅尔维尔(Melville)以及其他一些小作家的作品中加尔文主义的原罪思想和罪恶的神秘性都得到了充分的表现。 美国浪漫主义文学运动足能标炳的是新英格兰的超验主义运动。该运动开始于19世纪30年代的新英格兰的先验主义俱乐部。本来,这个超验主义只是对新英格兰人提出来的。它是针对波士顿的唯一神教派的冷淡古板的理性主义而提的。而后来逐渐影响到全国,特别是在高级知识分子和文学界人士当中影响颇大。超验主义文学的主要代表是爱默生(Emerson)和梭罗(Henry Davd Thoreau),他们的作品对美国文学产生了很大影响。超验主义"承认人类具有本能了解或认识真理的能力,能够超过感官获取知识"。爱默生曾说:"只有人心灵的尊严才是最神圣的。"超验主义还认为自然是高尚的,个人是神圣的,因此人必须自助。 这一时期涌现了许多作家,著名的有富雷诺(Philip Freneau〉、布雷恩特(William Cullen Bryant)、郎费罗(Henry Words worth longfellow)、娄威尔(James Rassel Lowell)、惠特(John Greenleaf whitter〉、爱伦·坡(Edgar Ellen Poe)、以及惠特曼(Walt Whitman)。惠特曼的《草叶集》(Leaves of Grass)是美国十九世纪最有影响的诗歌。美国浪漫主义时期的小说富有独创性、多样性,有华盛顿·欧文的喜剧性寓言体小说,有爱

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第六章十九世纪浪漫主义文学 一、单项选择题 1.德国最早的一个浪漫主义文学流派是()。 A.海德堡浪漫派 B.耶拿派 C.湖畔派 D.“自然派” 2.1805年左右,德国一批作家在海德堡创办了《隐士板》形成的文学流派是()。 A.耶拿派 B.湖畔派 C.海德堡浪漫派 D.“自然派” 3.德国第一次提出浪漫主义名称,并且系统阐述了期浪漫主义文学主张的作家是()。 A.格林兄弟 B.施莱格尔兄弟 C.诺瓦利斯 D.蒂克 4.海涅结束了浪漫主义在德国文学的统治地位的论著是()。 A.《<克伦威尔>序言》 B.《论浪漫派》 C.《拉辛和莎士比亚》 D.《拉奥孔》5.拉涅的早期代表作是()。 A.《德国——一个冬天的神话》 B.《西里西亚的纺织工人》 C.《论浪漫派》 D.《罗曼采罗》 6.英国“湖畔派”中成就最高的诗人是() A.华兹华斯 B.柯勒律治 C.骚塞 D.司各特 7.被恩格斯称为“天才的预言家”的英国浪漫主义诗人市()。 A.拜伦 B.雪莱 C.济慈 D.华兹华斯 8.首先体现雪来“预言”的长诗是()。 A.《麦布女王》 B.《伊斯兰起义》 C.《解放了的蒲罗米修斯》 D.《西风颂》9.名句“冬天来了,春天还会远吗?”出自《西风颂》,这首诗的作者是()。 A.拜伦 B.雪莱 C.济慈 D.华兹华斯 10.司各特是19世纪前30年英国最主要的作家之一。1833年司各特的去世标志着()。 A.英国浪漫主义的开始 B.英国浪漫主义的结束 C.英国现实主义的开始 D.英国现实主义的结束 11.《傲慢与偏见》的作家是()。 A.司各特 B.济慈 C.哈代 D.奥斯丁 12.标志浪漫主义对古典主义的最后胜利的是剧作《欧那尼》的演出,这部剧作的作者是()。 A.拜伦 B.雪莱 C.雨果 D.席勒 13.《阿达拉》和《勒内》两部中篇小说的作者是()。 A.拉马丁 B.维尼 C.夏多布里昂 D.大仲马 14.法国文学中第一个“世纪病”的形象是()。 A.欧那尼 B.勒内 C.夏克塔斯 D.黛尔菲娜 15.两部有自传性的小说《黛尔菲娜》和《柯丽娜》的作者是()。 A.夏多布里昂 B.乔治·桑 B.史达尔夫人 D.小仲马 16.《论文学》和《论德国》这两部重要的理论著作的作者( )。 A.海涅 B.史达尔夫人 C.诺瓦利斯 D.蒂克 17.法国19世纪前期写有《意弗教国王》的具有民主主义倾向的诗人是()。 A.拉马丁 B.维尼 C.缪塞 D.贝朗瑞 18.被成为法国的“莎士比亚”,写有自传体小说《世纪儿的忏悔》作家是()。 A.乔治·桑 B.拉马丁 C.缪塞 D.雨果 19.法国浪漫派的领袖是()。

十九世纪浪漫主义文学

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19世纪浪漫主义作家

19世纪浪漫主义作家 十九世纪的浪漫主义文学是文艺的基本创作方法之一,与现实主义同为文学艺术上的两大思潮。在创作方法上与现实主义的不同,浪漫主义侧重于从主观内心世界出发,抒发对理想世界的追求,常用热情奔放语言、瑰丽的想象和矿长的手法来塑造形象。而浪漫主义作为思潮,是十八世纪后半叶到十九世纪上半叶盛行并发展于欧洲。 浪漫主义文学思潮的兴起,同这一时期流行的德国古典哲学有密切的联系。德国古典哲学奠定了浪漫主义文学思潮的理论基础。康德、费希特、谢林、黑格尔,夸大主观作用,强调天才、灵感和主观能动性,把“自我”提到高于一切的地位。这一时期,空想社会主义在欧洲一些国家里传播很广。圣西门、傅利叶、欧文,批判资本主义制度,幻想消灭阶级对立、企图通过空想实现全人类的解放,助长了耽于空想、脱离现实的倾向。 浪漫主义作家: (一)德国 弗里德利希·史雷格尔(1772-1829)是浪漫主义理论的奠基者。他发挥了席勒在《素朴的诗和感伤的诗》中的论点,使“古典的”和“浪漫的”两个概念逐渐传播于西方文论中。他在美学论著《断片》中阐述了他的浪漫主义理论,认为人的主观精神高于一切,“而世界便是它的艺术品”。诗人写诗,是为了表现自我,表现人类的完整个性,因此,“浪漫主义的诗是包罗万象的进步的诗”,“许多艺术家虽然不过存心只写一部长篇小说,实际下却描绘了自己本人”。史雷格尔的浪漫主义,是主观唯心论在文学理论上的反映,他的论点通过英国柯勒律治、法国史达尔夫人等人在西方产生了深远影响。 诺瓦利斯(1772-1801)是耶拿派的作家代表。他敌视启蒙运动和法国大革命,主张恢复中世纪君主专制和天主教统治。诗集《夜的颂歌》是为悼念他所爱的一个14岁便死去的女孩而写的,歌颂黑夜和死亡,充满病态心理和神秘主义色彩。在未完成的长篇小说的《亨利希·封·奥夫特丁根》里,他把中世纪描绘成牧歌式的黄金时代。 阿尔尼姆(1781-1831)、布伦塔诺(1778-1842)。他们重视发掘民族文化遗产,对中世纪的民间文学感兴趣。民间诗歌的朴素、单纯,对当时的文学发生了很大影响。阿尔尼姆和布伦塔诺搜集整理民间诗歌,合编了民歌集《男童的神奇号角》。 格林兄弟是雅各布·格林(1785-1863)和威廉·格林(1786-1859),当时涌现出来的童话作家。格林兄弟共同搜集民间故事、传说和童话,整理出版了《儿童与家庭童话故事》,即《格林童话集》(1812-1814),成为世界儿童文学的财富。其中脍炙人口的《灰姑娘》、《小红帽》、《白雪公主》等,这些童话所宣扬的正义、忠诚、善良、勇敢等品德对全世界都有教育作用。 霍夫曼(1776-1822)是一个有广泛影响的浪漫主义作家,他的作品具有奇异和荒诞的色彩。主题上,写人的生活受到一种阴暗的、幽灵般的力量的支配,无法主宰自己的行动,对社会进行批判,别具一格的讽刺。艺术上,幻想和现实相交织的手法,深刻的心理描绘,丰富的想象力。为20世纪现代派开启先河主要作品有《金罐》、《公猫摩尔》、《小查克斯》。海涅(1797-1856)是在浪漫主义的影响下走上创作道路的。他的理论著作是《论浪漫派》(1832),对德国早期浪漫主义进行了批评。他早期创作的诗歌体现浪漫主义特色。一是歌颂爱情,描写理想女性。二是想象丰富,描写梦境。通过对形形色色的梦境描写,来延伸诗人的现实感受,追求超脱现实之外的理想境界或幻想世界。梦幻性超过现实性。三是热爱大自然,描绘自然美,采用民间文学题材。主要作品《诗歌集》和《新诗集》、《德国,一个冬天的童话》和《罗曼采罗》

外国文学史19世纪文学复习资料

19世纪文学复习资料 第一节19世纪浪漫主义文学 (产生于18世纪末,19世纪上半叶繁盛) 一、浪漫主义文学的特征: (对个人的独立和极端自由的强调,是浪漫主义文学的核心思想。)浪漫主义把创作视为一种自我表现,一种个性的外化和一种情感的宣泄,因而作品具有强烈的主观抒情色彩。 浪漫主义文学表现了对自然的崇拜,对都市文明的厌倦,对“异国情调”的浓烈兴趣。在浪漫主义诗人那里,自然的崇高和“异国情调”与都市文明的庸俗丑恶形成了鲜明的对照。 浪漫主义文学有一种“中世纪精神”(Medievalism),它表现为对基督教的美化、对民间文学的重新发现、对非古希腊罗马的神话的浓厚兴趣 浪漫主义文学反对古典主义的清规戒律,倡导艺术的独创性和个人色彩,强调情感、想象、天才、灵感和无意识。 二、浪漫主义文学在各国的发展状况 (一)德国浪漫主义文学(浪漫主义思潮的发源地) 早期浪漫主义( 1797至1802) 1、“耶拿派”:是欧洲第一个浪漫主义团体,核心人物是施莱格尔兄弟,创办《雅典娜神殿》杂志,宣传浪漫主义的文艺主张。

2、“耶拿派”的另一作家是诺瓦利斯,诗的内容多为赞美死亡,描写黑暗,充满浓厚的悲观情绪和宗教神秘主义色彩,如诗集《夜的颂歌》是为悼念早逝的未婚妻而作;另一作家则是蒂克,他著有《民间童话集》三卷,开创了童话小说的新题材。 ●中期浪漫主义(1803至1815 ) 1、“海德尔堡浪漫派”:代表是布仑塔诺和阿尔尼姆,他们关注现实,重视发掘民族文化遗产,搜集整理民间诗歌,编纂了德国民歌集《男孩的神奇号角》。 2、格林兄弟《儿童与家庭童话集》所搜集的童话是世界文化遗产中

塞三诗人结成的诗歌流派。他们厌恶都市文明,反对资产阶级文明,致力于描写远离现实斗争的题材,讴歌农村生活和自然风景,描写神秘而离奇的情节和异国风光。 2、华兹华斯和柯勒律治共同构思创作的《抒情歌谣集》标志着浪漫主义文学在英国正式出现。1800年华兹华斯为诗集再版写序言,主张“诗歌是强烈感情的自然流露”“想象力是诗歌的灵魂”。1815年又从诗集中抽出自己的诗作单独成册,又附加一篇序言,这一前一后两篇序言,后来被称为英国浪漫主义诗歌的“美学宣言”。 ●第二代诗人:(拜伦、雪莱)恶魔派/积极浪漫主义 拜伦 拜伦式英雄: 高傲而倔强,忧郁而孤独、神秘而痛苦、与社会格格不入从而对之进行彻底反抗的叛逆者英雄性格—-烫烙着拜伦的思想个性气质。孤傲的反叛者,心怀人间悲哀同整个社会抗争 代表作品:长诗《恰尔德·哈洛尔德游记》; ?《恰尔德?哈洛尔德游记》主要内容:通过对哈洛尔德游历生活的叙述和抒情主人公的议论、抒情,反映了19世纪初期欧洲一些重大历史事件。主题思想:渴望自由、反对侵略、憎恨专制统治、歌颂民族解放斗争。拜伦带有自传色彩的长篇叙事诗《恰尔德?哈罗德游记》主要歌颂了欧洲民族民主解放运动。(反暴政、反侵略) 第一章主要写主人公在葡萄牙和西班牙的见闻,反映了拿破仑铁蹄下当地人民的苦难,反抗和对自由的渴望。

(完整版)第一章19世纪浪漫主义文学复习题

第一章 19世纪浪漫主义文学 一、单项选择题 1.德国最早的一个浪漫主义文学流派是( )。 A.海德堡浪漫派 B.耶拿派 C.湖畔派 D.“自然派” 2.1805年左右,德国一批作家在海德堡形成的文学流派是( )。 A.耶拿派 B.湖畔派 C.海德堡浪漫派 D.“自然派” 3.德国第一次提出浪漫主义名称,并且系统地阐述了其浪漫主义文学主张的作家是( )。 A.格林兄弟 B.施莱格尔兄弟 C.诺瓦利斯 D.蒂克 4.海涅结束了浪漫主义在德国文学的统治地位的论著是( )。 A.《(克伦威尔)序言》 B.《论浪漫派》 C.《拉辛和莎士比亚》 D.《拉奥孔》 5.海涅早期代表作是( )。 A.《德国——一个冬天的童话》 B.《西里西亚纺织工人》 c.《论浪漫派》 D.《罗曼采罗》 6.英国“湖畔派"中成就最高的诗人是( )。 A.华兹华斯 B.柯勒律治 C.骚塞 D.司各特 二、多项选择题 1.浪漫主义文学的背景是( )。 A.英国工业革命 B.法国大革命 C.思想领域的浪漫主义思潮D.18世纪文学传统 E.对古典主义的反抗 2.浪漫主义文学的基本特征有( )。 A.强烈的主观色彩 B.喜欢描写和歌颂大自然 C.重视中世纪民间文学,喜欢采用民间文学的题材、语 言和表现手法 D.注重艺术效果

E.注意细节描写 3.耶拿派是德国最早的一个浪漫主义文学流派,cheng员有( )。 A.施莱格尔兄弟 B.诺瓦利斯 C.蒂克 D.海涅 E.席勒 4.英国文学中最早出现的浪漫主义作家是所谓三诗人。他们是( )。 A.华兹华斯 B.拜伦 C.柯勒律治 D.骚塞 E.雪莱 三、名词解释: 耶拿派、海德尔堡派、柏林团体、湖畔派、《抒情歌谣集》、《抒情歌谣集》序言。 四、简答: 浪漫主义文学基本特征。 夏多布里昂创作的文学价值与美学意义。 五、分析解答: 加西莫多形象分析 冉阿让形象分析。 如何理解《九三年》作家的人道主义思想。

郑克鲁《外国文学史》(修订版)课后习题详解(19世纪浪漫主义文学)【圣才出品】

第1章19世纪浪漫主义文学 1.浪漫主义文学思潮的产生原因和基本特征。 答:19世纪浪漫主义文学产生于18世纪末,在19世纪上半叶达到繁荣时期。 (1)浪漫主义文学思潮的产生原因 19世纪欧美的浪漫主义文学的产生有着复杂的社会背景: ①英国工业革命和法国大革命催生的社会思潮的产物。一方面,工业革命使人们自我意识和个性解放思想增强,这些为浪漫主义的产生提供了条件;另一方面,法国大革命激发了各国民主革命和民族解放运动,催生了浪漫主义这一文学上的自由主义。 ②德国古典主义和英法空想社会主义为其提供了思想理论基础。德国康德、谢林和黑格尔等哲学家肯定人的主体精神和能力,为浪漫主义的主观性提供了理论支撑。圣西门、傅立叶等人的空想社会主义,则为人们提供了一种理想的大同世界模式,激发了人们富于想象和幻想的特点。 ③文学自身发展的结果。18世纪英国感伤主义文学、哥特式小说、德国狂飙突进运动,以及法国卢梭对“返归自然”的提倡与实践,都为浪漫主义文学思潮的出现提供了条件。而旧有的古典主义原则与创作方法已经变得毫无生气,严重束缚了作家的创作,直接导致作为反拨力量的浪漫主义文学之出现。 (2)浪漫主义文学的思想特点

①强调创作的绝对自由,反对古典主义“三一律”等清规戒律,要求突破文学描绘现实的范围,宣扬个性解放和创作自由。 ②具有民主主义精神,同情下层民众的苦难,以人道主义思想为武器,或从资产阶级的角度抨击封建制度,或站在留恋旧制度的立场,抨击资本主义的罪恶。 ③重视民间文学,追求异国情调,具有怀旧倾向。浪漫主义作家喜欢挖掘中世纪民间文学的成果,借鉴中世纪文学重情感和想象的特点。同时,他们还喜欢异国生活,沉浸于异国他乡的神奇风光中。 ④偏重于描写自然风光,寄情山水,着力歌颂大自然,标举卢梭“返归自然”的主张。浪漫主义作家厌恶资本主义文明和现实,借大自然来反衬现实的丑恶。 (3)浪漫主义文学的艺术特点 ①强调个人感情的自由抒发,具有强烈的主观性。浪漫主义注重主观与自我的表现,善于展示人物的内在情感,抒情色彩浓厚。 ②浪漫主义文学对各种艺术形式进行了卓有成效的探索,尤其重视对民间文学的挖掘,以及诗歌体长篇小说的创作。 ③浪漫主义文学喜欢运用对比、夸张和想象,描写超凡、孤独、怪异的形象,重视丑的美学价值,大力提倡想象,追求强烈的艺术效果。 ④偏好忧郁感伤的情调,着重探索忧郁、感伤和痛苦的精神境界,表现出贵族怀旧式和资产阶级不满现实的忧郁,如勒内所代表的“世纪病”式的忧郁。 2.欧美各国浪漫主义文学的基本特点。

(完整word版)19世纪浪漫主义文学各作家要点

19世纪浪漫主义文学 第一节概述: 一、浪漫主义文学的形成和基本特点 产生于18世纪末,19世纪上半叶为繁荣时期 产生背景:1、它法国大革命催生的社会思潮的产物:自由、平等、博爱,浪漫派作家往往从个性受压抑、个人才能得不到发展、个人愿望和抱负得不到实现等角度,表现人物与社会的矛盾。法国大革命对这些作家的浪漫主义倾向的形成起了决定性的作用。 2、德国古典哲学和空想社会主义为欧美浪漫主义文学提供了思想理论基础。 3、19世纪浪漫主义文学经历了历史的发展过程。从英德——法国——俄国。 思想特点:1、强调创作的绝对自由,反对古典主义的清规戒律,要求突破文学描绘现实的范围,提倡个性解放,反对社会对人的精神束缚和压迫:古典主义崇尚“三一律”,典雅和崇高的风格,浪漫主义突破了这道顽 固的藩篱。 2、从民主主义立场,或者从留恋旧制度的立场,抨击封建制度或者资本主义的罪恶现象。 3、酷爱描写中世纪和以往的历史。 4、偏重与描写自然风光,厌恶资本主义文明和现实,标举卢梭“回归自然”的主张。 艺术特点:1、强调个人感情的自由抒发,有强烈的主观性。 2、浪漫派对各种艺术形式进行了卓有成效的探索,最引人注目的是对民间文学的重视以及实体长篇小说的 创造:学习表现手法,采用民间口语、名额韵律创作,丰富了文学的表现手法,在当时一味仿古的低劣 作品充斥文坛的情况下,无疑带来了清新、活泼、健康的新气象。 3、浪漫主义文学惯用对比和夸张,重视丑的美学价值,大力提倡想象。雨果是对比艺术的提倡者和大师。 4、忧郁感伤的情调为浪漫派作家所喜好。 二、欧美各国的浪漫主义文学 英国最早出现浪漫主义文学的国家之一。 ?罗伯特.彭斯和威廉.布莱克是浪漫主义文学的前驱,彭斯从苏格兰民歌中吸取养料,擅长抒情和讽刺。 ?湖畔诗人:华兹华斯,萨缪尔.柯勒律治和罗伯特.骚赛:寄情山水,缅怀中世纪和宗法式农村生活。 ?拜伦和雪莱将英国浪漫主义文学推向高峰,两人加强了对现实的关注,具有批判精神。雪莱:冬天如果来了,春天还会远吗? 德国浪漫主义文学思潮的发源地,早期浪漫主义文学具有浓厚的唯心主义和宗教色彩。 ?“耶拿派” ?“海德尔堡浪漫派” ?格林童话:雅科布.格林和威廉.格林 法国浪漫主义具有鲜明的政治色彩。 ?雨果,大仲马 俄国浪漫主义文学以诗歌为主 ?强烈战斗精神,向往自由和民主。 ?茹科夫斯基,俄国第一位抒情诗人,革新了诗歌的形式和个格律,受到伤感主义影响,充满神秘色彩。 ?普希金、果戈里 东欧 美国:爱默生,梭罗、华盛顿.欧文(美国文学之父)、华兹华斯 第二节华兹华斯 英国浪漫主义文学先驱,“湖畔派”诗人中创作成就最大的一位。 一、创作特色: 1、最乐于、善于描写大自然。

第六章十九世纪浪漫主义文学

第六编十九世纪初期文学 第一节:十九世纪浪漫主义文学概述 浪漫主义产生的社会背景 1789年法国大革命 自由主义思潮 雨果:“文学自由正是政治自由的新生女儿”,“浪漫主义不过是文学上的自由主义而已”。 德国古典哲学: 天才,灵感,自由、创造、想象、情感,直觉 空想社会主义 名词解释:浪漫主义 “浪漫主义”概念源于中世纪的“罗曼司”(Romance),来自拉丁语,指中世纪的骑士生活、骑士传奇、英雄美女的爱情和风流韵事等。罗曼司在17世纪中叶转为“浪漫的”(Romantic),具有“想象的”、“传奇般的”、“不切实际的”、“忧郁的”多重含义。 “浪漫主义”(Romanticism)是指19世纪初在英、法、德三个主要国家出现的文化环境,共同的特点是崇拜感情,崇拜大自然,反对古典主义的权威和传统。19世纪初期政治、哲学、音乐、绘画、文学都表现出浪漫主义的特点,结成了一个统一的浪漫主义文化环境,展示了浪漫主义时代的风貌。 名词解释:浪漫主义文学思潮 18c90s-19c30s,首先在德国产生,影响到英法,很快在欧洲各国流行起来,并波及美洲和其他地区的文学思潮。它是法国大革命后,欧洲封建制度开始崩溃、资本主义制度逐步确立、劳资矛盾日益尖锐以及民族民主运动高涨时期的产物。 作为创作方法的浪漫主义古已有之。 德国文学

海涅 海涅在德国文学史上具有特殊的地位。他既是德国浪漫主义的“幻想之王”,又宣告了浪漫主义的结束。1833年他发表了《论浪漫派》一文,对德国浪漫派进行全面抨击,宣告浪漫主义在德国文学中的统治地位的结束。之后他转向了现实主义。 海涅抒情诗的语言音乐性强,许多音乐家从中取材谱曲。《一棵松树在北方》被谱成77种不同的歌曲,《你好像一朵鲜花》有250多种曲谱,仅舒曼一人就谱了《诗歌集》中的数十首诗为歌曲。 英国文学 英国浪漫主义文学代表: 第一代:“湖畔派诗人”华兹华斯、柯勒律治、骚塞 (英国北部昆布兰湖区) 第二代:拜伦、雪莱、济慈、司各特 法国文学 法国浪漫主义文学早期的代表是夏多布里昂和斯塔尔夫人; 30年代现实主义文学兴起时期,浪漫主义文学的代表作家是雨果、乔治·桑、缪塞和大仲马。 “世纪病”

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