胡壮麟 语言学 复习及答案

胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后答案胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后答案1. Design feature:are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2.Function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds. 21．Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22．Voicing:pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23．Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24．Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. 25．Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26．Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27． Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28．Manner of articulation: in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29.Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30．Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31．Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. 32．IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33．Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.34．Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compoundoly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37.inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38.affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41.allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42.Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44.free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45.lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46.lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47.grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,suchconjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49.open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such asnouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52.loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54.acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.55.loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57.assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which ismore specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58.dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59.folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60.category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61.concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63.paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.64.immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65.endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66.exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67.deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68.surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive. 69.c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.ernment and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.municative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72.ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74.textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75.conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76.denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77.connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78.reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79.reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.80.sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81.synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.plentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83.gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such aslong:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84.converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitutea positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85.relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. Theshorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86.hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87.superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88.semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with twovalues,e.g<+human>positionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90.selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.91.prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92.proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93.predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94.assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95.cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumesa “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96.context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97.frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98.inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinarysense,e.g.in a specific context.99.immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.nguage perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight. nguage comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.nguage production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.nguage production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104.lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105.macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story. 106.modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107.parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriateaccidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108.propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109.psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110.psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111.schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112.story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113.writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuingdevelopmeng.municative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set ofrules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115.gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”116.linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines thought.117.linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118.linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119.sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120.sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community. 121.variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.122.performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123.constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false. 124.locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125.illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126.perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127.conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literalutterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knowswhy and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128.entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from theother:e.g.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.129.ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.municative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131.relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.132.Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale,i.e.Make your contribution necessary (G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).133.division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarkeda(simpler,less”effortful”)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).134.constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..135.third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.136.I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.137.direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form. 138.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form. 139.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140.narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech representation would be.141.narrator”srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example,,she considered his unpunctuality.142.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late.143.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.144.narrator’s representation of thought acts:a kind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.145.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would be late.146.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.147.narrator”s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.148.free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late. 149.direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..puter system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,diskdrives,programs,etc.puter literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.puter linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processing of human language.153.Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154.programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students into appropriate lessons,material,etc.155.local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or building.They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156.CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.157.machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.158.concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information, 160.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information. rmational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of actrvity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not infor(i.e.change the knowledge of)the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162.document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retrieval.163.precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164.recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165.applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,etcmunicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.167.syllabus:the planning of course of instruction.It is a description of the cousr content,teaching procedures and learning experiences.168.interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language,i.e.the language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.169.transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second language.When structures of the two languages are similar,we can get positive transfer of facilitation;when the two languages are different in structures,negative transfer of inference occurs and result in errors.170.validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to measure.There are four kinds of validity,i.e.content validity,construct validity,empirical valiodity,and face validity.171.rebiability: can be defined as consistency.There are two kinds of reliability,i.e.stability reliability,and equiralence reliability.172.hypercorrection: overuse of a standard linguistic features,in terms of bothfrequency,i.e.overpassing the speakers of higher social status,and overshooting thetarget,i.e.extending the use of a form inalinguistic environment where it is not expected to occur,For example,pronouncing ideas as[ai’dier],extending pronouncing post-vocalic/r/ in an envorienment where it’s not supposed to occur.173.discrete point test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.174.integrative test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.。

第一部分选择题1、As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for "correct" linguistic behavior,it is said to be ___.A、prescriptiveB、sociolinguisticC、descriptiveD、psycholinguistic2、Of all the speech organs, the ___ is/are the most flexible.A、mouthB、lipsC、tongueD、vocal cords3、The morpheme "vision" in the common word "television" is a(n) ___.A、bound morphemeB、bound formC、inflectional morphemeD、free morpheme4、A ___ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A、coordinatorB、particleC、prepositionD、subordinator5、"Can I borrow your bike?" ___ "You have a bike."A、is synonymous withB、is inconsistent withC、entailsD、presupposes6、The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ___.A、semanticsB、pragmaticsC、sociolinguisticsD、psycholinguistics7、Grammatical changes may be explained, in part, as analogic changes, which are ___ or generalization.A、elaborationB、simplificationC、external borrowingD、internal borrowing8、___ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication. A、Lingua francaB、CreoleC、PidginD、Standard language9、Psychologists, neurologists and linguists have concluded that, in addition to the motor area which is responsible for physical articulationof utterances, three areas of the left brain are vital to language, namely, ___ .A、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and the angular gyrusB、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and cerebral cortexC、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and neuronsD、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and Exner's area10、According to Krashen, ___ refers to the gradual and subconcious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally indaily communicative situations.A、learningB、competenceC、performanceD、acquisition第二部分非选择题II. Directions: Fill in the blank (1%×10=10%)11、Chomsky defines "competence" as the ideal user's k of the rules of his language.12、The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b .13、M is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.14、A s is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.15、Synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances are called c synonyms.16、The illocutionary point of r is to commit the speaker tosomething's being the case, to the truth of what has been said.17、Words are created outright to fit some purpose. Such a method of enlarging the vocabulary is known as word c .18、Wherever the standard language can use a contraction (he+is→he's), Black English can d the form of "be".19、The basic essentials of the first language are acquired in the shortperiod from about age two to puberty, which is called the c period forfirst language acquisition.20、As a type of linguistic system in 12 learning, i is a product of L2 training, mother tongue intereference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and learning and communicative strategies of the learner.III. Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. (2%×10=20%)()21、In modern linguistic studies, the written form of language is given more emphasis than the spoken form for a number of reasons.()22、V oicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.()23、The compound word "bookstore" is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound is the sum total of the meaningsof its components.()24、Syntactic categories refer to sentences (S) and clauses (C) only.()25、Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found withinthe variety itself, for example, within British English or AmericanEnglish.()26、Only when a maxim under Cooperative Principle is blatantly violated and the hearer knows that it is being violated do conversational implicatures arise.()27、The territory in which the Indo-European languages are mainly spoken today also includes languages that are not Indo-European.()28、In most bilingual communities, two languages have the same in speech situations known as domains.()29、According to the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, speakers' perceptions determine language and pattern their way of life.()30、All normal children have equal ability to acquire their first language.IV. Directions: Explain the following terms, using one or two examples for illustration. (3%×10=30%)31、duality32、diachronic linguistics33、broad transcription34、morphological rules35、phrase structure rule36、relational opposites37、componential analysis38、context39、euphemism40、brain lateralizationV. Answer the following questions. (10%×2=20%)41、Explain how the inventory of sounds can change, giving some examples inEnglish for illustration.42、Briefly discuss the individual factors which affect the acquisition ofa second language.语言学试题参考答案一、单项选择题（本大题共10小题，每小题2分，共20分）1、C2、C3、D4、D5、D6、B7、B8、C9、A 10、D二、填空题（本大题共10小题，每小题1分，共10分）11、knowledge12、bilabial13、morphology14、sentence15、complete16、representatives17、coinage18、delete19、critical20、interlanguage三、判断改错题（本大题共10小题，每小题2分，共20分）21、FActually modern linguistics lays more emphasis on the spoken form of language than the written form for a number of reasons.22、FV oicing distinguishes meaning in English but not in Chinese.23、FThe meaning of some compound words has nothing to do with the sum total of the meanings of their components, such as the compound "redcoat".24、FApart from S and C, they also refer to a word, or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function.25、FDialectal synonyms can often be found not only in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but also within the variety itself. For example, within British English, "girl" is called "lassie" in Scottish dialect, and "liquor" is called "whishey" in Irish dialect.26、T27、T28、FThey have a fairly clear fairly clear functional differentiation, i.e. one language may be used in some domains, other language in other domains.29、FThe true statement is "According to the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, language determines speakers' perceptions and patterns their way of life"30、T四、名词解释题（本大题共10小题，每小题3分，共30分）31、One of the major defining features of human language. Human language consists of two levels. At the lower level, there are a limited number of sounds which are meaningless while at the higher level there are an unlimited number of combinations of these sounds. It is also known as double articulation.32、Linguistics that studies language over a period of time, also known as historical linguistics,e.g.the study of the Chinese language since the end of the Qing dynasty up to the present.33、A way to transcribe speech sounds. The basic principle is to use one letter to indicate one sound. It is generally used in dictionaries and language teaching textbooks.34、The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word,e.g.-ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.35、a rewrite rule that allows for the possible combinations of words to form phrases and sentences36、Relational opposites, a kind of antonyms, refer to pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items. For example, "husband" and "wife", "father" and "son" etc.37、Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example, the word "man" is analyzed as comprising of +HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMA TE,+MALE.38、Context is regarded as constituted by all kinds of knowledge assumed to be shared by the speaker and the hearer, For example, the knowledge of the language used and the knowledge of the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.39、A euphemism is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression that replaces a taboo word or serves to avoid more direct wording that might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive, e.g. "pass away" for "die".40、Brain lateralization refers to the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain. For example, the right hemisphere processes stimuli more holistically and the left hemisphere more analytically. In most people, the left hemisphere has primary responsibility for language, while the right hemisphere controls visual and spatial skills.五、论述题（本大题共2小题，每小题10分，共20分）41、The inventory of sounds can change, and sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, sound loss, sound addition, and sound movement.1) V owel sound change: English has undergone the systematic and regular change in the vowel sounds, known as the Great V owel shift which occurred at the end of the Middle English period and which involved seven long, or tense vowels. These changes led to one of the major discrepancies between the phonemic representations of words and morphemes, i.e. between pronunciation and the spelling system of Modern English, e.g.five→ /fi:v/(Middle English)→ /faiv/(Modern English)2) Sound loss: Sounds can change by the loss of phonemes. In the history of English the velar fricative /x/ was lost. This sound existed in Old English, so "night" was pronounced as /nixt/, but in Modern English, its pronunciation is /nait/.3) Sound addition: Sound addition includes the gain or insertion of a sound. For example, the word leisure was borrowed from French, so the phoneme /3/ was added to the inventory of English sounds. A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis, e.g.spinle--spindle.4) Sound movement: Sound change as a result of sound movement known as metathesis involvesa reversal in position of two adjoining sound segments. Metathesis is less common, but it does exist. In some dialects of English, for example, the word ask is pronounced /? ks/. Also, bridd ("bird") is an Old English word. When metathesis occurred to this word, the movement of /r/ sound to the right of the vowel sound resulted in its Modern English counterpart "bird".评分标准：满分为10分，总论及四小点各占2分。

胡壮麟语言学教程测试题解析下面是一些胡壮麟《语言学教程》测试题的解析：第1题：语言的本质是什么？答案：语言的本质是人类社会交际的工具，是人们进行思想交流、传递信息的手段。

解析：语言是人类社会所特有的现象，它是人类社会交际的工具，是人们进行思想交流、传递信息的手段。

语言具有以下几个特征：●社会性：语言是人类社会所特有的现象，是人们进行社会交际的工具。

●交流性：语言是人们进行思想交流、传递信息的手段。

●符号性：语言是符号系统，具有能指和所指的关系。

●系统性：语言是一个复杂的系统，由词汇、语法、语音等要素构成。

第2题：语言的功能是什么？答案：语言具有以下几个功能：●交际功能：语言是人们进行社会交际的工具，是人们进行思想交流、传递信息的手段。

●思维功能：语言是思维的工具，是人们进行思维活动的载体。

●情感功能：语言是表达情感的工具，是人们表达情感、情绪的手段。

●审美功能：语言是表达审美情趣的工具，是人们创造美、欣赏美的手段。

第3题：语言的结构是什么？答案：语言的结构可以分为以下几个层次：●词汇层：词汇是语言的构成单位，是语言中表示意义的最小单位。

●语法层：语法是词汇之间的组合规则，是语言中表示结构关系的规则。

●语音层：语音是语言的物质载体，是语言中表示音响形象的规则。

第4题：语言的类型是什么？答案：语言可以分为以下几个类型：●自然语言：自然语言是人类社会所使用的语言，是人们进行社会交际的工具。

●人工语言：人工语言是人类设计出来的语言，用于特定的目的。

●书面语言：书面语言是人们在书面上使用的语言，具有一定的规范性。

●口头语言：口头语言是人们在口头上使用的语言，具有一定的灵活性。

第5题：语言的变异是什么？答案：语言的变异是指语言在使用过程中发生的变化。

语言的变异具有以下几个特点：普遍性：语言的变异是语言发展的必然现象，是语言的普遍规律。

多样性：语言的变异是多种多样的，表现在不同的方面。

规律性：语言的变异具有一定的规律性，可以通过科学的方法进行研究。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题第一章：语言学导论I. Choose the best answer。

（20%)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________。

A。

contact B。

communicationC。

relation D。

community2。

Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. typewriterC。

crash D。

bang3。

The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is __________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informative D。

performative4。

In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎(岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives。

Which functions does it perform？A. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC。

Performative D. Recreational5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place，due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. Transferability B。

胡壮麟语言学试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学的主要研究对象是什么？A. 语言B. 文学C. 历史D. 地理答案：A2. 下列哪项不是语言学的分支学科？A. 语音学B. 句法学C. 心理学D. 社会语言学答案：C3. 语言的最小意义单位是？A. 词B. 音素C. 语素D. 句子答案：C4. 语言的任意性是指什么？A. 语言的规则性B. 语言的系统性C. 语言符号与其所指对象之间没有必然联系D. 语言的稳定性答案：C5. 以下哪项是语言的双重性？A. 语言的任意性B. 语言的稳定性C. 语言的双重性D. 语言的系统性答案：D6. 语言的演变遵循什么规律？A. 经济原则B. 社会原则C. 心理原则D. 所有以上答案：D7. 语言的功能不包括以下哪项？A. 信息传递B. 情感表达C. 艺术创作D. 物理治疗答案：D8. 语言的方言是指？A. 同一语言内部的变体B. 不同语言之间的相似性C. 语言的书面形式D. 语言的口头形式答案：A9. 语言的层级结构包括哪些？A. 音素、语素、词、短语、句子B. 词、短语、句子C. 语素、词、短语D. 音素、词、短语答案：A10. 语言的交际功能包括哪些？A. 表达、理解B. 表达、理解、记忆C. 表达、理解、记忆、创造D. 表达、理解、记忆、创造、评价答案：A二、填空题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学的创始人是________。

答案：费迪南·德·索绪尔2. 语言的两个基本功能是________和________。

答案：表达、理解3. 语言的________性是语言学研究的重要内容。

答案：任意性4. 语音学研究的是语言的________。

答案：声音系统5. 句法学研究的是语言的________。

答案：结构规则6. 社会语言学研究的是语言与________之间的关系。

答案：社会7. 语言的________性是语言变化的动力之一。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》(修订版)测试题第一章:语言学导论I. Choose the best answer。

(20％)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________.A. contact B。

communicationC. relation D。

community2。

Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary？A。

tree B. typewriterC。

crash D。

bang3。

The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is __________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4。

In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform？A。

Interpersonal B. EmotiveC. Performative D。

Recreational5。

Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place，due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题第一章：语言学导论I.Choose the best answer. (20%)nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human .A.contactB. communicationC. relationD. community2.Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A.treeB. typewriterC. crashD. bang3.The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.”is.A.interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4.In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?A.InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5.Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A.TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6.Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language?—A nice day, isn’t it?—Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A.EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7.refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A.PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole8.When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now.It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of .A.cultural transmissionB. productivityC. displacementD. duality9.answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A.PsycholinguisticsB. Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10.deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A.Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) nguage is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language.nguage change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.13.Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems.nguage is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages.15.We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted.16.Only human beings are able to communicate.17.. De Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist.18.A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.19.Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20.All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.III.Fill in the blanks. (10%)nguage, broadly speaking, is a means of communication.22.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed .nguage has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is .24.Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the theory.25.Linguistics is the study of language.26.Modern linguistics is in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27.One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of over writing.28.The description of a language as it changes through time is a study.29.Saussure put forward two important concepts. refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.30.Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s. IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Design feature32.Displacementpetence34.Synchronic linguisticsV.Answer the following questions. (20%)35.Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature?（南开大学，2004）36.Why is it difficult to define language?（北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI.Analyze the following situation. (20%)37.How can a linguist make his analysis scientific? （青岛海洋大学，1999）第二章：语音I.Choose the best answer. (20%)1.Pitch variation is known as when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A.intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2.Conventionally a is put in slashes (/ /).A.allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3.An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are of the p phoneme.A.analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4.The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as .A.glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5.The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as diphthongs.A.wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6.A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called .A.minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7.Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A.Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8.Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9.Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10.What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A.VoicelessB. VoicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11.Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12.The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.13.Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.14.[p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15.Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16.All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17.When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18.According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.19.Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.20.The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to placea consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.III.Fill in the blanks. (20%)21.Consonant sounds can be either or , while all vowel sounds are .22.Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing.23.The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the and the lips.24.One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the to which that part of the tongue is raised.25.Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without.26.In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating .27.In English there are a number of , which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28.refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29.is the smallest linguistic unit.30.Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the coming from the lungs.IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Sound assimilation32.Suprasegmental featureplementary distribution34.Distinctive featuresV.Answer the following questions. (20%)35.What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）36.What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开04）VI.Analyze the following situation. (20%)37.Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1)voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2)low front vowel(3)lateral liquid(4)velar nasal(5)voiced interdental fricative第三章：词汇I.Choose the best answer. (20%)1.Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as .A.lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2.Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called morpheme.A.inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational3.There are morphemes in the word denationalization.A.threeB. fourC. fiveD. six4.In English –ise and –tion are called .A.prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems5.The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and .A.derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation6.is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A.affixationB. back-formationC. insertionD. addition7.The word TB is formed in the way of .A.acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending8.The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by .A.blendingB. clippingC. back-formationD. acronymy9.The stem of disagreements isA.agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement10.All of them are meaningful except for .A.lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. allomorphII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11.Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while thesecond element receives secondary stress.12.Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13.Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14.In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15.Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.16.Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17.The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18.In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19.Back-formation is a productive way of word-formations.20.Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.III.Fill in the blanks. (20%)21.An is pronounced letter by letter, while an is pronounced as a word.22.Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with .23.Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: ,and .24.All words may be said to contain a root .25.A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong toclass, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to class.26.is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27.is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28.Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on thelevel.29.A word formed by derivation is called a , and a word formed by compounding is called a .30.Bound morphemes are classified into two types: and . IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Blending32.Allomorph33.Closed-class word34.Morphological ruleV.Answer the following questions. (20%)35.How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they?（厦门大学，2003）36.What are the main features of the English compounds?VI.Analyze the following situation. (20%)37.Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN II （武汉大学，2004）I II(1)acronym a. foe(2)free morpheme b. subconscious(3) derivational morpheme c. UNESCO(4) inflectional morpheme d. overwhelmed(5) prefix e.calculation第四章：句法I.Choose the best answer. (20%)1.The sentence structure is .A.only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical2.The syntactic rules of any language are in number.rgeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite3.The rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A.lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational4.A sentence is considered when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A.rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical5.A in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A.coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator6.Phrase structure rules have properties.A.recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional7.Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand .A.how words and phrases form sentences.B.what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC.how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD.all of the above.8.The head of the phrase “the city Rome” is .A.the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome9.The phrase “on the shelf” belongs to construction.A.endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10.The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.” is asentence.A.simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complexII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.12.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.13.In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.14.Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.15.Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.16.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.17.In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.18.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.19.A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.20.It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.III.Fill in the blanks. (20%)21.A sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.22.A is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.23.A may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.24.The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called .25.A sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.26.In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an clause.27.Major lexical categories are categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.28.condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.29.are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between andamong natural languages.30.The theory of condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Syntax32.IC analysis33.Hierarchical structure34.Trace theoryV.Answer the following questions. (20%)35.What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction? （武汉大学，2004）36.Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis. （北京二外国语大学，2004）VI.Analyze the following situation. (20%)37.Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The student wrote a letter yesterday.第五章：意义I.Choose the best answer. (20%)1.The naming theory is advanced by .A.PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2.“We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents.A.the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD. behaviorism3.Which of the following is NOT true?A.Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B.Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C.Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D.Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.4.“Can I borrow your bike?”“You have a bike.”A.is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes5.is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components,called semantic features.A.Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6.“Alive” and“dead” are.A.gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above7.deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non- linguistic world of experience.A.ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense8.refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A.PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9.Words that are close in meaning are called .A.homonymsB. polysemiesC. hyponymsD. synonyms10.The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by .A.grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic featuresII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11.Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.12.Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.13.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.14.In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.15.Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.16.Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.17.The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.18.Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.19.“It is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.20.In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.III.Fill in the blanks. (20%)21.can be defined as the study of meaning.22.The conceptualist view holds that there is no link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.23.means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.24.Words that are close in meaning are called .25.When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called .26.opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.27.analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.28.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules calledrestrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.29.A(n) is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s)in a sentence.30.According to the theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Entailment32.Propositionponential analysis34.ReferenceV.Answer the following questions. (20%)35.What are the sense relations between the following groups of words?Dogs, cats, pets, parrots; trunk, branches, tree, roots （青岛海洋大学，1999）36.What are the three kinds of antonymy? （武汉大学，2004）VI.Analyze the following situation. (20%)37.For each group of words given below, state what semantic property or properties are shared by the (a) words and the (b) words, and what semantic property or properties distinguish between the classes of (a)words and (b) words.(1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chiefb.bull, rooster, drake, ram(2) a. table, stone, pencil, cup, house, ship, cark, alcohol, rice, soup(3) a. book, temple, mountain, road, tractorb.idea, love, charity, sincerity, bravery, fear （青岛海洋大学，1999）第七章：语言、文化和社会[注：第六章无测试题]I.Choose the best answer. (20%)1.is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.A.PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. General linguistics2.The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its .e of wordsB. use of structuresC. accentD. morphemes3.is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A.Regional variationB. Language variationC. Social variationD. Register variation4.are the major source of regional variation of language.A.Geographical barriersB.Loyalty to and confidence in one’s native speechC.Physical discomfort and psychological resistance to changeD.Social barriers5.means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.nguage interferenceB. Language changesC. Language planningD. Language transfer6.in a pers on’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.A.Regional variationB. Changes in emotionsC. Variation in connotationsD. Stylistic variation7.A is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.A.lingua francaB. registerC. CreoleD. national language8.Although are simplified languages with reduced grammatical features, they are rule-governed, like any human language.A.vernacular languagesB. creolesC. pidginsD. sociolects9.In normal situations, speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than theircounterparts with the same social background.A.female; maleB. male; femaleC. old; youngD. young; old10.A linguistic refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.A.slangB. euphemismC. jargonD. tabooII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) nguage as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers.12.The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations.13.From the sociolinguistic perspective, the term “speech variety” can not be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin.14.The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary.15.A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features.16.Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect.17.A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds.18.A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax.19.Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing.20.The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting.III.Fill in the blanks. (20%)21.The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech .22.Speech refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.23.From the sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than avariety of a language.nguage standardization is also called language .25.Social variation gives rise to which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories that reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational background, etc.26.variation in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.27.A regional dialect may gain status and become standardized as the national orlanguage of a country.28.The standard language is a , socially prestigious dialect of language.nguage varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or languages.30.A pidgin typically lacks in morphemes.IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Lingua franca32.Regional dialect33.Register34.SociolinguisticsV.Answer the following questions. (20%)35.Is American English superior to African English? Why or why not? （中国人民大学，2003）36.If we take it as rule that language is intimately related to culture, then how do the kinship words, such as uncle and aunt, reflect the cultural differences between English and Chinese? （东北师范大学，2004）VI.Analyze the following situation. (20%)37.Explain the differences between registers and regional/social dialects. Give examples if necessary. （东北师范大学，2005）。

胡壮翳《语言学教程》课后答案胡壮㈱《语言学教程》课后答案1・Design feature:are features that define our human Ianguages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2.Function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think z nguage functions include imformative fun ctionjnterperso nal functi on .performative functionjnterpers on al functio n, performative function,emotive function z phatic communion z recreational function and metalingual function.3.etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike's distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike's distinct!on of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator's ingen uith or in tuition alone ・5.synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6.diachronic:study of a Ianguage is carried through the course of its history.7.prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to bej.e」aying down rules for language use.9.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described・10.arbitrariness: one design feature of human Ianguage,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no n atural relati on ship to their meaning ・11.duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary」evel and each of the two levels has its own principles of organizatio n.12.displacement: one design feature of human language.which means human Ianguage enable their users to symbolize objects z events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the momentof communication.13.phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language ・14.metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies・15.macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology.ethnograph,scienee of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics in dude psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, an thropological li nguistics,etpetence: Ianguage user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules・17.performance: the actual use of language in con Crete situatio n.ngue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19.parole: the actual phe no me na or data of linguistics(utterances)・20・Articulatory phonetics : the study of production of speechsounds・21・Coarticulation : a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulatio n.22・Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23・Broad and narrow transcription : the use of a simple set of symbols in transcript!on is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while，the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcriptio n.24・Consonant: are sound segments produced by constrict!ng or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert z impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity・25・Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language ・26・Allophone:a ny of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like stepjt is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/ ・27・ Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruct!on,so no turbulenee of a total stopping of the air can be perceived・28・Manner of articulation : in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29.Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30・Distinctive features : a term of phonologyj.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31・Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32・IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small lettersjtalics uprighted.obsolete letters z Greek letters,diacritic^etc ・33・Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone〃and intonation. 34・Suprasegmental: aspects of speech that involve more tha n angle sou nd segme nts.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone.and intonation.35.morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36.coinpoundoly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard’s no wwhite,etc ・37.inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person.finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class ofthe stems to which they are attached・38.affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39.derivation: different from compounds z derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes・40.root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity・41.allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme.For examplejn English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme・42.Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added・43.bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to z e.g・ the plural morpheme in ''dog's".44.free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45」exeme:A separate unit of meanin g,usually in the form of a word(e.g./z dog in the man ger")46」exicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation・47.grammatical word: word expres引ng grammatical meanings,suchconjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48.lexical word: word having lexical meanings z that is .those which refer to substanee,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives刁nd verbs・49.open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such asno uns,verbs,adjectives,a nd many adverbs ・50.blending: a relatively complex form of compounding」n which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51.loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation^ n some cases,to eh phono logical system of the new Ian guage that they enter. 52.loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed・53.leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native・54.acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword ・55」oss: the disappearanee of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system・56.back-fonnation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language・57.assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjace nt sou nd, which is more specifically called.〃contact"or'contiguous"assimilation.58.dissimilation: the in fluence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of ano ther, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59.folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase z resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60.category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject z predicate z etc ・61.concord: also known as agreementjs the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories・62.syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequenee,or between elements which are all present.63.paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure z or between one element present and he others absent. 64.immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents…word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached・65.endocentric construction: one construct! on whose distributi on is functi on ally equivalent, or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre z or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66.exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67.deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb z or a verb and its object.68.surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive・69.c-command: one of the similarities^ of the more general features, in these two government relationsjs technically called constituent command.c・command for short・emment and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky's TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point z of the utterance・municative dynamism: the extent to which the sen tence eleme nt con tributes to the development of the communication.72.ideational function: the speaker's experience of the real worldjncluding the inner world of his own consciousness・73.interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the commu nication roles created by Ian guage itself; a nd also for getting things done,by mea ns of the in teraction betwee n one perso n and another.・74.textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used・75.conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content ・76.denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77.connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes ・78.reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79.reference: the use of anguage to express a propositi onj.e. to talk about things in con text ・SO.sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context・81.synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.plentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely z such as male,female,absent・83.gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat; thin,etc.84.converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell」end,borrow,above,below,etc・85.relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.one presupposes the other. Theshorter z better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites・86.hyponymy: a relation between tow wordsjn which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87.superordinate: the upper term in hyponymyj.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animaljor example z there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88.semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values z e.g<+humapositionality: a principle for sente nee an alysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined・90.selection restrlction:sema ntic restrict!ons of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.91.prepositional logic: also known as prepo引tional calculus or sentential calculuses the study of the truth conditions for propositions: how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them・92.proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93.predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94.assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows・95.cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid・l980s.lt saaumes a''recognition lexiconSn which each word is represented by a full and independent"recognistion element". Whe n the system receives the begi nning of a relevant acoustic sign al,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active・96.context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97.frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language・98.inference in context: any con clusi on draw n from a set of propositi on,from something someone has said,and so on.lt includes things that z while not following logically,are implied,!n an ordinarysense z e.g.in a specific context.99.immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relati on ship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encou ntered. 100.1anguage perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight. nguage comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language・102・Ianguage production: a goal-directed activetyjn the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friendsj nflue nee people,c on vey in formation and so on.103・Ianguage production: a goal-directed activity,!n the sense that people speak and write in order to make friendsjnfluenee people,concey information and so on.104.1exical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by referenee to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others z stable tennis bat.105・n】acrop『oposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story・106.modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or comp on ents,each gover ned by its own principles and operating in depe ndently of others ・107・parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriateaccidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.10& propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sente nee which makes a stateme nt. It is aproperty of propositions that they have truth values・109・psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110.psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar z etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity z elegance,and internal consistency・111.schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing・112・story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized・U3.writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng ・municative competence: a speaker's knowledge of the total set ofrules,conventions z erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley's concept of competence^n the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar ・115.gender difference: a differenee in a speech between men and women is勺enden difference'' 116.linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothe引s」.elanguage determines thought・117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis.i.e.there's no limit to the structural diversity of languages・118 .linguistic sexism: many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women's place in society・119.sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguisticsjn which we want tolook at structural things by paying attention to Ianguage use in a social context・120.sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics)n which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community ・121.variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship betweenspeakers'social starts and phono logical variations ・122・ performative: an utteranee by which a speaker does something does something's apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false・123・constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a propo引tion which may be true or false.124・Iocutionary act: the act of saying something;it's an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexic on,and pho no logy. Namely.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125・illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker's in tention ・126・perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it's thecon sequence of z or the change brought about by the utterance ・127・conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literalutterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker's knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle・128.entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from theother:e.g.z,Mary is running"entails,among other things/r Mary is not standing still"・129.ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is osten sive-infer-ential.municative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal releva nee.131.relevance: a property that any utteran ce,or a propositi on that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication.necessarily have・132.Q-principle: one of the two principles in Hom's scaleJ.e.Make your contribution necessary(G.Relation,Quantity2z Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).133.division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expres引on whena corresponding unmarkeda(simpler/less,/effortful//)alternate expression is available tends to be in terpreted as convey! ng a marked message(one which the un marked alter native would not or could not have conveyed)・134.constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that in formation provided is the most the speaker is able to..135.third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third -person narrator.136.1-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.137.direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.138.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form. 139.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech・140.narrator's repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded than in direct speech represe ntation would be.141.narrator^srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example z/she considered his unpunctuality・142・indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example z she thought that he woule be late.143 .fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur, which is an amalgam of direct speech and in direct speech features ・144. narrator's representation of thought acts:a kind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking・145・indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present in direct speech.For example,she thought that he would belate.146.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and in direct speech features ・147.narrators representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.148 .free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late・149.direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..puter system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printei;screer\diskdrives,programs,etc ・puter literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software・152・computer linguistics: a branch of applied liguistic^dealing with computer processing of human language ・153 ・Call: computer-assisted language learning(call)z refers to the use of a computer in the teachi ng or learning of a second or foreign Ianguage・154. programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students into appropriate less on s,material,etc ・155 .local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab z or building.They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language・156・ CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can access in formation quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the dassroom.157. machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from onelanguage to another.158・concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word z usually in a context z which is a further aid to the linguist.lt can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered・159.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information,160.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.rinational retrieval: the term convent!onally though somewhat inaccurately z applied to the type of actrvity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not infor(i.e.change the knowledge of)the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non・existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request・162.document representative: information structure is concerned with exploitingrelati on ships,betwee n docume nts to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.lt covers specifically a logical organizati on of in format! on z such as document represe ntativesjor the purpose of in formation retrieval.163・precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164.recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165.applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teachi ng,and other areas such as tran slati on,the compiling of dictio naries,etcinunicative competence: as defined by Hymes龙he knowledge and ability involved inputting language to communicative use・167・syllabus:the planning of course of instruction.lt is a description of the cousr contentteaching procedures and learning experiences・168 ・interlanguage:the type of language con strutted by second or foreign Ian guage learners who are still in the process of learning a Ianguage,i.e.the Ianguage system between the target language and。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题第一章：语言学导论I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________.A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. bang3. The function of the sentence “Water b oils at 100 degrees Centigrade.”　is__________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people presentare likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which theybelieves feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?A. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcomethe barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functionsof language?—A nice day, isn’t it?— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonals knowledge7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole。

语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第一章)Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on languagefacts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studiesthe basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. 7.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies thecombinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningfulsentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words iscalled morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies themorphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning notin isolation, but in context.14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point intime.19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the writtenlanguage.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed bySaussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.is one of the design features of human language which refers to the pheno广告网址n that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________. A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmatic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics 42. Phonology 43. Syntax 44. Pragmatics 45. Psycholinguistics 46. Language 47. Phonetics 48. Morphology 50. Sociolinguistics 51. Applied Linguistics 53 Productivity 54. Displacement 56. Design Features 57. Competence 58 Performance 59. Langue 60 ParoleV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance ?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the le tter given: 21. knowledge 22. abstract 23. Duality 24. arbitrary 25. syntax 27. Parole 28. applied 29. productive 30. scientific (or systematic)III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.IV. Define the following terms: 41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 42. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. : The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. 49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. 50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. 51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability. 52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds 53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users.54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. 56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the idealuser's knowledge of the rules of his language, 58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.59. langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rule s which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently 60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of lang ue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the appli cation of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation t o situation.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give exam ples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in of all, language is a system, beca use elements of language are combined according to rules. Secondly, languag e is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and mea ning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have dif ferent words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature o f language: words are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary m edium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed their writin g systems are. The term "human" in the definition indicates that languagei s possessed by human beings only and is very different from the communica tion systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with ex amples. 1) Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of langu age means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer t o the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirelyarbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sound s by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound word s are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 2) Productivity Language is prod uctive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand a n infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have ne ver said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ev er sent before. Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal comm unication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. 3) Duality The du ality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning s. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk abou t anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duali ty or even comes near to possessing it. 4) Displacement Displacement mea ns that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not pre sent, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away p laces. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed fro m the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation. 5) Cultural transmission Human beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of an y language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically transmi tted.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) writte n language. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mai nly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in a n objective and scientific way.64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study anda diachronic study? The description of a language at some point in timeis a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes throu gh time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describesa language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language o ver a period of time.65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written? First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten for m and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of langua ge. Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purp oses Finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire o ur mother tongue.66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole? The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguisticsystem shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole ref ers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conve ntions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Lang ue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is c oncrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is rel atively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from per son to person, and from situation to situation.67. How do you understand competence and performance? American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between comp etence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules e nables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large n umber of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mista kes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarras sment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the co mpetence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphaz ard.68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you thi nk are their major differences? Although Saussure’s distinction and Cho msky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a soci ological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social c onventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why? Language isarbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia,words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds s uch as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two el ements “photo”and “copy”in “photocopy”are non-motivated, but t he compound is not arbitrary.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第二章)Chapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of thestream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machinecalled spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulationand the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into whichthe consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alv eolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. 18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over asequence of two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with t he letter given:21. A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22. A ____ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, , theyare all b_______ sounds.24. Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25. English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p____ of articulation.26. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released a nd the air passing out again is called a s________. <![endif]>27. S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____ rules.29. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is calledbroad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31. P______ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units t o effect linguistic communication.32. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the na sal cavity.33. T____ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates ofvibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just li ke phonemes. <![endif]>34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are twokinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stressIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark t he choice that can best complete the statement.35. Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible. A. mouth B. lips C. tongue D. vocal cords36. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds. A. voiceless B. voiced C. vowel D. consonantal37. __________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/38. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________. A. identical B. same C. exactly alike D. similar39. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be _________ __.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40. The sound /f/ is _________________. A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position. A. back B. central C. front D. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two ormore phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________. A. phonetic components B. immediate constituents C. suprasegmental features D. se mantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstractunit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features. A. phone B. so und C. allophone D. phoneme44. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme. A. phones B. sounds C. phonemes D. allophones <![endif]>IV. Define the terms below:45. phonology 46. phoneme 48. international phonetic alphabet 49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics52. acoust ic phonetics 53. phone 54. phonemic contrast 55. tone 56.minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begin s with the letter given:21. Aspiration 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. place 26. stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation 31. Phonology 32.oral 33. Tone 34. sentenceIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:IV. Define the terms below:: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it ai ms to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unitof distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationallyaccepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i ntonation.50.51. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages52. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.53. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.54. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we usewhen speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Itdoes not necessarily distinguish meaning.55. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.56. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.57. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stri ngs, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:58. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing? 1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. 3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue,and writing is learned and taught later at school.59. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth. 2) According to how wide our mouth i s opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-clo se vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. 3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowel。