ThedefinitionofC...

definition的英语范文In the vast and intricate tapestry of human communication, the thread of definition plays a pivotal role. It is the fundamental building block of understanding, the starting point for all knowledge and wisdom.Definitions are not mere words or labels; they are windowsto the soul of concepts, ideas, and phenomena. They揭示事物的本质，揭示它们如何相互关联，以及它们在更广泛的知识体系中的位置。

The art of defining is not a simple exercise. Itrequires a delicate balance between precision and accessibility. A good definition must be both concise and comprehensive, capturing the essence of a concept while remaining open to interpretation and further exploration.It must strike a chord with the reader, resonating deeply and sparking curiosity.Consider the definition of "love." Love is often described as a feeling of strong affection and attachment, but this definition falls short of capturing its true essence. Love is much more than a feeling; it is an action, a commitment, a choice. It is the willingness to牺牲个人利益，to embrace the other despite their flaws and imperfections. It is the courage to stay, the patience to understand, and the compassion to forgive. This expanded definition encompasses the multifaceted nature of love, inviting readers to delve deeper into its meaning and implications.Definitions also play a crucial role in shaping our understanding of the world. They help us categorize and organize information, allowing us to make sense of the chaos and complexity of the universe. Without definitions, we would be lost in a maze of confusion, unable to grasp the fundamental principles that govern our existence.However, definitions are not static; they evolve and transform over time. As our knowledge and understanding of the world expand, so do our definitions. This fluidity is a testament to the dynamic nature of language and human thought. Definitions are not meant to be rigid or inflexible; they are meant to be dynamic and responsive to the needs of communication and comprehension.In conclusion, definitions are the lifeblood of language and understanding. They are the bridges thatconnect ideas and concepts, the keys that unlock the doorsof knowledge. By mastering the art of defining, we open ourselves to a world of deeper understanding and richer communication. We become active participants in the ongoing dialogue of human thought and knowledge, shaping our world and shaping ourselves in the process.**定义的本质：探索语言的深度**在人类沟通的广阔而复杂的织锦中，定义的线索起着至关重要的作用。

中考英语调研测试一试卷15注意事项 :1. 本试卷共 5 大题，满分100 分 ( 不含听力口语30 分 ) ，考试用时100 分钟 ;2.答题时，考生务势必自己的姓名、考点名称、考场号、座位号用 0.5 毫米黑色墨水署名笔填写在答题卡相片的地点上，并仔细填写好准考号、姓名;3.答题一定用0.5 毫米黑色墨水署名笔写在答题卡指定地点上，不在答题地区内的答案一律无效，不得用其余笔答题 ;一、单项选择( 共 15 小题 ; 每题 1 分，满分15 分 )请仔细阅读下边各题，从题中所给的A、 B、 C、 D 四个选项中，选出最正确选项。

1.一 Are you going out with Jade tonight?一 That's my. Mind your own !A. offerB. businessC. questionD. chance2.一 What is a writing brush， do you know?一 It's writing and drawing.A. withB. toC. forD. By3.一 Who is the woman over there? Is it Mrs. White ?一 NO， it be her. Mrs. White is much shorter.A. mustn'tB. may notC. can'tD. needn't4.一 Haven't I told you that you should be home earlier?一 Yes， but I home earlier than I usually do.A. was comingB. will comeC. cameD. had come5. 一 Tom，how are you feeling today?一 Much. I don't think I can go to school tomorrow.A. betterB. worseC. brighterD. happier6.一 Do you know that the Terracotta Army in China is more than 2 000 years old?一 Wow! !A. How large it isB. How modern it isC. What a long history it hasD. What a beautiful place it is7. 一 Will you go to the costume Party with me tonight?一 Oh， you have to go there alone. I because I am not a VIP.A. am invitedB. am not invitedC. was invitedD. wasn't invited8.The car broke down suddenly on the country road and the heavy rain at night thehelplessness of the poor driver.A. resulted fromB. made upC. turned outD. added to9.一is it from our school to Lupu Bridge?一About half an hour's bus ride. Shall we go and visit it?A. How longB. How oftenC. How farD. How much10. 一 Why don't we take a little break?一 Didn't we just have?A. itB. thatC. oneD. this11. 一 Leonardo didn't win an Oscar he acted in The Revenant.一Yeah. The road to success is always hard.A. afterB. untilC. unlessD. because12.We arrived at the station too early and had to go，so we sat there and chattedwith each other.A. somewhereB. anywhereC. everywhereD. nowhere13. I want to know you will come back at 8:00 tomorrow. Your package has arrived here.A. thatB. whenC. whereD. whether14. 一 There's little meat left in the fridge，?一. I'll get some on my way home.A. is there; YesB. isn't there; YesC. is there; NoD. isn't there; No15. 一 I can't believe you have finished the work.一 My friends helped me out. Just as the saying goes，"".A. Practice makes perfectB. Put al1 your eggs in one basketC. Burn the candle at both endsD. Many hands make light work二、完形填空( 共10 小题 ; 每题 1 分，满分10 分 )请先阅读下边的短文，从短文后各题所给的A、 B、 C、 D 四个选项中，选出最正确选项。

Communicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.The term was coined by Dell Hymes in 1966,[1]reacting against the perceived inadequacy of Noam Chomsky's (1965) distinction between competence and performance.[2]To address Chomsky's abstract notion of competence, Hymes undertook ethnographic exploration of communicative competence that included "communicative form and function in integral relation to each other".[3]The approach pioneered by Hymes is now known as the ethnography of communication.Debate has occurred regarding linguistic competence and communicative competence in the second and foreign language teaching literature, and scholars have found communicative competence as a superior model of language following Hymes' opposition to Chomsky's linguistic competence. This opposition has been adopted by those who seek new directions toward a communicative era by taking for granted the basic motives and the appropriateness of this opposition behind the development of communicative competence.[Use in educationThe notion of communicative competence is one of the theories that underlies the communicative approach to foreign language teaching.[3]Canale and Swain (1980) defined communicative competence in terms of three components:[5]1.grammatical competence: words and rules2.sociolinguistic competence: appropriateness3.strategic competence: appropriate use of communication strategiesCanale (1983) refined the above model, adding discourse competence: cohesion and coherenceA more recent survey of communicative competence by Bachman (1990) divides it into the broad headings of "organizational competence," which includes both grammatical and discourse (or textual) competence, and "pragmatic competence," which includes both sociolinguistic and "illocutionary" competence.[6]Strategic Competence is associated with the interlocutors' ability in using communication strategies (Faerch & Kasper, 1983; Lin, 2009).Through the influence of communicative language teaching, it has become widely accepted that communicative competence should be the goal of language education, central to good classroom practice.[7] This is in contrast to previous views in which grammatical competence was commonly given top priority. The understanding of communicative competence has been influenced by the field of pragmatics and the philosophy of language concerning speech acts as described in large part by John Searle and J.L. Austin.Linguistic competence is the system of linguistic knowledge possessed by native speakers of a language. It is in contrast to the concept of Linguistic performance, the way the language system is used in communication. The concept was first introduced by Noam Chomsky[1]as part of the foundations for his Generative grammar, but it has since been adopted and developed by other linguists, particularly those working in the generativist tradition. In the generativist tradition competence is the only level of language that is studied, because this level gives insights into the Universal Grammar, that generativists see as underlying all human language systems. Functional theories of grammar tend to dismiss the sharp distinction between competence and performance, and particularly the primacy given to the study of competence.According to Chomsky, competence is the 'ideal' language system that makes it possible for speakers to produce and understand an infinite number [nb 1]of sentences in their language, and to distinguish grammatical sentences from ungrammatical sentences. This is unaffected by "grammatically irrelevant conditions" such as speech errors.[1]Competence and components of grammarFurther information: Theoretical LinguisticsOne's competence is defined by the grammar,[nb 2][3]or set of language rules, that is represented mentally and manifested based on his or her own understanding of acceptable usage in a given linguistic idiom. Therefore, grammatical competence defines an innate knowledge of rules rather than knowledge of items or relations. According to Chomsky, it is regarded to be innate because one does not have to be trained to develop it and will still be able to apply it in an infinite number of unheard examples.[4]The core components of the grammar are included in the speaker's linguistic competence and these components corresponds to five of the major subfields of linguistics:•Phonetics: The physical production and perception of the inventory of sounds used in producing language.•Phonology: The mental organization of physical sounds and the patterns formed by the way sounds are combined in a language, and the restrictions on permissible sound combinations.E.g.: slip vs *slib and *sbill•Morphology: The identification, analysis and description of units of meaning in a language. One will know the inflectional andderivational morphology present in the language, such as theaffixes of words.E.g.: re-cuddle can be derived but not *re-rich•Syntax: The structure and formation of sentences. One can distinguish between grammatical sentences and ungrammaticalsentences.E.g.: My hair needs washing is acceptable but not *My hair needswash•Semantics: Understanding the meaning of sentences. This is also howa user of the language is able to understand and interpret thenon-literal meaning in a given utterance. They are threedistinctions drawn here:(i) Meaningful and non-meaningful sentencesE.g.: The accident was seen by thousands is meaningful but not *Theaccident was looked by thousands(ii) Same structure but different meaningsE.g.: The cow was found by the stream but not *The cow was foundby the farmer(iii) Different structures and still be able to relate the meaningsE.g.: The police examined the bullet.The bullet was examined by the police.Competence in PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics is primarily concerned with language as a psychological phonomenon.[18] It provides insights into how we assemble our own speech and writing and how we understand that of others; into how we store and use vocabulary; into how we manage to acquire language in the first place.[19]According to experimental linguist N.S. Sutherland, the task of psycholinguistics is not to confirm Chomsky's account of linguistic competence by undertaking experiments. It is by doing experiments, to find out what are the mechanisms that underlie linguistic competence.[20] Psycholinguistics generally do not see the distinction between performance and competence to accurately reflect the empirical data, but tend to prefer usage based theories.[21]There are 3 important elements of psycholinguistics that are used to describe the mechanisms underlying our language understanding and production.(i) The language signalThis refers to all forms of language expression, such as writing and speech, which are generated and perceived by language users. The most striking characteristic of the language signal is its perceptual invariance, both in writing and in speech, as there is always a salient and stable form that stands out against its physical environment. In our perception of such forms, gaps are closed, and irregularities are overlooked.[18](ii) Operations of our neuropsychological systemThe operations of our neuropsychological systems determine how language signals are perceived and generated. For both speech and writing, there are two very different sorts of biological system involved. Speech involves auditory pathways from sensory organs to the brain then the vocal tract whilst writing involves motor pathways from sensory organs to the brain followed by the hand-arm system. However, they do have a similarity in that both involve short pathways to the central processing areas in the brain, regarded as the central language area.[18](iii) Language SystemThis is more abstract than the first two since it may be implemented even when we are not using palpable language signals at all, as in silent verbal reasoning, contemplation of our language and general language knowledge .[18][edit] Communicative competenceMain article: Communicative competenceAnother functionalist theory advances the notion of communicative competence, which focuses on socially-situated performance, was developed by Dell Hymes in response to the abstract nature of linguistic competence.[22][23] Communicative competence is also sometimes referred to as pragmatic or sociolinguistic competence, especially when the emphasis is on how to interpret the speaker's intended meaning in a particular utterance, apart from the literal meaning.[24]The major criticism towards Chomsky's notion of linguistic competence by Hymes is the inadequate distinction of competence and performance. Furthermore, he commented that it is unreal and that no significant progress in linguistics is possible without studying forms along with the ways in which they are used. As such, linguistic competence should fall under the domain of communicative competence since it comprises four competence areas, namely, linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic.Communicative Language Teaching approachThe Definition Of CLTCommunicative Language Teaching (CLT) originated from the changes in the British Situational Language Teaching approach dating from the late 1960s (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). Stemming from the socio-cognitive perspective of the socio-linguistic theory, with an emphasis on meaning and communication, and a goal to develop learners’ “communicative competence”, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach evolves as a prominent language teaching method and gradually replaced the previous grammar-translation method and audio-lingual method (Warschauer & Kern, 2000). Since the concept of “communicative competence” was first int roduced by Hymes in themid-1960s, many researchers have helped develop theories and practices of Communicative Language Teaching approach (Brown, 1987; Canale, 1983; Hymes, 1971; Littlewood, 1981; Nattinger, 1984; Nunan, 1987 &1989; Richards & Rodgers, 1986; Widdowson, 1990). Hymes coined this term in contrast to Chomsky’s “Linguistic Competence”. As Stern (1992) explicated, “Competence represents proficiency at its most abstract and psychologically deepest level” (p.73). Chomsky indicated that underlying the concrete language performance, there is an abstract rule system or knowledge and this underlying knowledge of the grammar of the language by the native speaker is his “linguistic competence”. In contrast, Hymes argue that in addition to linguistic comp etence, the native speaker has another rule system. In Hymes’ view, language was considered as a social and cognitive phenomenon; syntax and language forms were understood not as autonomous, acontextual structures, but rather as meaning resources used in particular conventional ways and develop through social interaction and assimilation of others’ speech (Warschauer & Kern, 2000). Therefore, speakers of a language have to have more than grammatical competence in order to be able to communicate effectively in a language; they also need to know how language is used by members of a speech community to accomplish their purposes (Hymes, 1968). Based on this theory, Canale and Swain (1980) later extend the “Communicative competence” into four dimensions. In Canal e and Swain, “‘Communicative competence’ was understood as the underlying systems of knowledge and skill required for communication. Knowledge refers here to what one knows (consciously or unconsciously) about the language and about other aspects of communicative language use; skill refers to how well one can perform this knowledge in actual communication (Canale, 1983, p.5)”. From this perspective, what language teachers need to teach is no longer just linguistic competence but also socio-linguistic compe tence (“which utterances are produced and understood appropriately in different socio-linguistic contexts”), discourse competence (“mastery of how to combine grammaticalforms and meanings to achieve a unified spoken or written text in different genres”), and strategic competence (“mastery of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies that may be called into action for compensating or enhancing communication”) (Canale, 1983, pp.7-11).Distinguishing Features Of CLTRichards and Rodgers (2001) have revi ewed a number of people’s works on CLT and described several distinguishing features of it. As “communicative competence” is the desired goal, in CLT, meaning is paramount (Finocchiaro & Brumfit, 1983, cited by Richards and Rodgers, 2001). In socio-cognitive perspectives, language is viewed as a vehicle of conveying meaning, and knowledge is transmitted through communication involving two parts, for example, speakers and listeners, and writers and readers, but is constructed through negotiation. As a consequence, “communication is not only a matter of following conventions but also of negotiating through and about the conventions themselves. It is a convention-creating as well as convention-following activity (Breen & Candlin, 2001, p.10)”. Therefore, there are three elements involved in the underlying learning theory: communication principle, task-based principle, and meaningfulness principle (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.161). Based on this perception, when applied to language learning, “functional activities” and “social interaction activities” (Littlewood, 1981) are consequently selected according to how well they engage the learner in meaning and authentic language use; learning is interpersonal to learn to communicate; attempt to communicate may be encouraged from the very beginning; dialogues, if used, centre around communicative functions and not normally memorized; and contextualization is basic premise; drilling may occur, but peripherally; any device that helps to communicate and understand is acceptable (Finocchiaro & Brumfit, 1983, cited by Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.156). To some extent, that is to say, students do not simply learn the linguistic structures andgrammar rules. Rather, they should be actively making meaning through activities such as collaborative problem solving, writing for a purpose, discussion of topics of genuine interest, and reading, viewing and responding to authentic materials (Murphy, 2000).Since knowledge and learning are viewed as socially constructed through negotiation according to socio-cognitive perspectives (Breen & Candlin, 2001), another dimension of CLT is learner-centred andexperience-based. “With interactive communicative language use as the call of the day, communicative processes became as important as linguistic product, and instruction became more learner-centered and less structurally driven” (Kern & Warschauer, 2000, p.5). In another word, in CLT context, learners are seen as active participants in the construction of knowledge, rather than passive recipients of information provided by the teacher or the textbook. In contrast, language teachers are no longer viewed as the authority of the knowledge, playing a dominant role. Rather, they share different roles such as communication facilitater, independent participant, needs analyst, counselor, and group process manager (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.167) to create more fascinating experiences for the learners.Besides the above features, Richards and Rodgers (2001) describe other significant characteristics of this approach including its efforts to make tasks and language relevant to a target group of learners through an analysis of genuine, realistic situations, its emphasis on the use of authentic, from-life materials, and its attempt to create a secure, nonthreatening atmosphere. All these attempts also follow the major principles of communicative view of language and language learning: helping learners learn a language through authentic and meaningful communication, which involves a process of creative construction, to achieve fluency. In this vein, in terms of classroom activity, it includes group work, task-work, information-gap activities, and projects.The Weaknesses Of CLTYet, inevitably, despite these outstanding characteristics, CLT also have weaknesses. Schmitt (2000) argued that CLT needs supportive vocabulary for functional language use but it gives little guidance about how to handle vocabulary. However, it has been now realized that mere exposure to language and practice with functional communication will not ensure the proficiency in language learning, so current best practice includes “both a principled selection of vocabulary, often according to frequency lists, and an instruction methodology that encourages meaningful engagement with words o ver a number of recyclings” (p.14). Stern (1992) also pointed out that CLT approach puts an excessive emphasis on the single concept “communication” so that “in order to account for all varieties and aspects of language teaching we either stretch the concept of communication so much that it loses any distinctive meaning, or we accept its limitations and then find ourselves in the predicament of the “method” solution” (p. 14). Some people criticized that as CLT focus on learner-centered approach, while in some accounts of CLT, learners bring preconception of what teaching and learning should be like, which when unrealized can lead to learner confusion and resentment (Henner-Stanchina & Riley, 1978, cited by Richards & Rodgers, 2001).In addition, some people contended that CLT has not given an adequate account of EFL teaching despite its initial growth in foreign language teaching in Europe (Li, 2001). Stern (1992) argued that one of the most difficult problems is making classroom learning communicative is the absence of native speakers. Apparently, CLT are more successful in English as a Second Language (ESL) context because students usually have a very supportive learning environment outside school. They have more chances to be exposed to the authentic contact with native speakers and the target language, which reinforces what they learn in class. Besides, they have the motivation to work on oral English because they need it in their lives. In contrast, in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context, due to some physical limitations, such as the purpose of learning English, learning environments, teachers’ Englishproficiency, and the availability of authentic English materials, CLT meets much more difficulties during its application.confronted by language teachers but it has a great potential that gain the apparent popularity in language teaching and learning domain. It also needs to realize that there In summary, CLT cannot be seen as a panacea for the problems that have been isn’t a fix framework of CLT. As learners and the learning context are dynamic, when CLT is applied to a certain context, the adaptation and innovation of it is necessary.。

政治经济学名词英文解释导论：1.Production of Material Goods：The production of material goods is the basis of the existence and development of human society.2.Productive Forces and Productive Relations：Productive relations are determined by productive forces. The development of productive relations is determined by the development of productive forces.第二章商品与货币modities:商品The products of labor used for exchanging.商品是用来交换的劳动产品。

e-Value: 使用价值A commodity is a thing that by its properties satisfies human wants of some sort or another.物品的这种能够满足人们某种需要的属性，（即物的有用性，就是物品的使用价值。

）The natural property of commodities.使用价值是商品的自然属性。

3.Exchange Value:交换价值Presents itself as a quantitative relation, as the proportion inwhich values in use（use-value）of one sort are exchanged for those of another sort.（交换价值首先）表现为一种量的关系，也表现为使用价值同另一种使用价值相交换的量的比例。

Topological Coding and Visualization Grammar of the Development of C.elegansA.Kr¨a merDept.of BiochemistryUniversity of KielOlshausenstr.40N11,D-24098Kiel,Germanyakraemer@biochem.uni-kiel.de,AbstractThis paper reports on the development of a method to build a mathematical model for a growing biological organism.A tiny worm called Caenorhabditis elegans is chosen as paradigm.The problem of describing biological develop-ment by mathematical means is addressed.After an ab-straction process,the organism is embedded into a suitable vector space.For this purpose,a vector spaces chain is build in which topological modules of the object are de-scribed.The vector space topology may be characterized by simplex sets.The structure of the simplex sets is normalized and its connectivity is used as a compact description of the development.Development of biological organisms takes place in4D(3D space and time).The3D scenes code may be a characteristic pattern and to reconstruct the object.It can be subject to operations and the result may be used to construct a new scene or the next state of development.A bio-application named“Topologizer”is being developed (using VTK)to support the mathematical description and analysis of the organisms growth in a massive parallel and distributed project approach.1IntroductionThe growth of biological organisms towards their complex morphology is governed by rules.The development of a worm,the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans from the egg to the adult stage serves as a model.Caenorhabditis ele-gans is a good model organism for this project since this or-ganism takes an extreme position in terms of development characteristics in its species.The adult nematode consists of a constant number of cells(hermaphrodites have959so-matic nuclei and male have1031)with invariant cell lin-eage[SSWT83].The development for the group of male follows the one pattern,as the development for the groupof female(hermaphrodites,i.e male and female in one)fol-lows another pattern.Besides,the chromosomal DNA of this organism has been completely sequenced,–(with a size of nucleotide pairs which is eight times larger than yeast Saccharomyces and about one half of the fruitfly Drosophila)–which is as well the case for some bacteria and viruses.The human chromosomal DNA is said to be sequences completely,however the methods applied pro-duce an average error of in the results,which is not the case with the DNA sequence of Caenorhabditis elegans.The nematode(C.elegans)is a small worm of 1.3 mm length and a diameter of1/20of its length.It is a hermaphrodite and produces300eggs during its life.It is easy to cultivate in the laboratory on agar dishes inocu-lated with bacteria(Escherichia coli)as food.An egg hasa length of60m and a diameter of30m.For moredetails,see .1.1Previous workThe development in three space dimensions and time has been well studied by[Se97]and[RJJB99].The genetic ap-proach is implemented by[Se97],where cells are tracked in space and time after genetic manipulations are applied.A very promising approach is chosen by[Hea01],where asynthetic development model is constructed by visualizing the fused set of all available data(e.g.geometric as well as chromosomal data are considered).With the developed tool impacts of DNA manipulations can be visualized,sadly the tool is not freely avaiorgasisms lable.However,it is still not known how growth rules and morphological structure is coded on the chromosomal DNA.1.2This workAs stated above this paper addresses the problem of describ-ing or coding biological development.It begins with the1data acquisition and ends up at a description of3D and4D scene with a normalized incidence matrix.The analysis has therefore been structured into sections:A:Geometry.Segmentation of the egg into a growing mosaic of cells is using the easily recognized nucleus of each cell.The position of the center of each cell nucleus is representative of the cell.B:Topology.A eigen-vector space with coordinate system is introduced such that the development as a set of algebraic operations on segments is describable.The adjacency of the cell is approximated by a Delau-nay triangulation and V oronoi tessellation of the nuclei of the eggs in3D and4D.C:Pattern.In the above vector space the relation be-tween4D segments of development are characterized and the attempt is made to understand these as being assembled of lower dimensional topological objects(i.e.simplex sets).On the other hand matrix methodsare applied to discover regularities in the development of the structure.1.3Computational geometryThroughout this work a set of computational geometry method is applied which is common to the ares of pat-tern recognition and visualization.The Delaunay and V oronoi algorithm is well known and a huge amount of work has been done on e.g.dynamic delaunay algorithms since[ME96]and[ELZ00].The description of3D scenes and their development in4D can be well performed with e.g.the tensor voting method[MTL00].Tensors and groups of tensors may characterize the objects properties, synthesizing these to evolving segments.Distinct ele-ment modeling combined with dynamic delaunay triangula-tion[FML00]implements a discrete element algorithm with reduced computational cost.1These are methods to visu-alize the property of a scene or to run the simulation of a given model and may be employed as well in the coming work.Since visualization is not the primary topic of this work but the construction of a model is,we have to overcome some shortcomings of pure descriptive and phenomenolog-ical algorithms while we try to reduce the observation of bi-ological developments to the set of related primatives meet-ing the above models requirements.2i.e.the development of the animal embryo and young traces the evolu-tionary development of the species.The theory was influential and much-popularized earlier but has been of little significance in elucidating either evolution or embryonic growth.Haeckel’s Law(1866):Ontogeny recapit-ulates phylogeny,i.e.,an embryo repeats in its development the evolution-ary history of its species as it passes through stages in which it resembles its remote ancestors.(Embryos,however,do not pass through the adult stages of their ancestors;ontogeny does not recapitulate phylogeny(i.e.the history of the evolution of a species or group,especially in reference to lines of descent and relationships among broad groups of organisms.).Rather,ontogeny repeats some ontogeny-some embryonic features of an-cestors are present in embryonic development[Wol91])2(1)0.100.10.10.20.20.30.20.10.100.10.10.10.20.20.10.20.100.11110010111111100111110011101(3) Connectivity matrix forfigure1may be simplified in this case to give the adjacency or incidence matrix.(see table3).The entry of this matrixare given by the rule:“if two nuclei(points)are connected in the triangulation net,a else a is entered as a matrix element”.Also this matrix is symmetric with ones the diag-onal.This adjacency matrix may not reflect the real neighbors of the cell harboring the corresponding nuclei since the nu-cleus may not be the center of cell nature.The triangulation only approximates the generation of cells in nature.Never-theless,if there is no more information available,then the position of the cell nuclei it is a good approximation to re-ality.For the establishment of the real neighborhood,the hulls(membranes)of the cells should be known to touch.1.7Representation of structures in a vectorspaceTo meet the models requirements for the description of pat-terns in the development,a“vector space chain”with co-ordinate system is introduced.The abstracted organism is embedded and described in this space.And its development can be described with the boundary operator.Construction of a vector space chain with a bound-ary operator:The Delaunay triangulation forms a vector space set where all tetrahedron form the base of one vector space,all triangle(i.e.the surface of tetrahedron)form a basis of another vector space and all lines connecting the nuclei form the basis of a third vector space.These vector spaces are transformed into each other by boundary oper-ations.The boundary(or surface)of the tetrahedron con-sists of triangles(i.e.the facets are basis of the next vec-tor space).The edges(lines)of the circumference trian-gles are the basis of their next vector space.The endpoints (surface)of the linefinally lead to an end of this sequence by contracting to points an basis of a vector space chain.For details of their mathematical construction see[OD71].Mathematically,each vector space has an existing co-vector space.For the Delaunay triangulation the V oronoi tessella-tion is the dual or co-vector space.The dimension of the vector space and its co-space sum in the geometrical repre-sentation of the d-dimensional space to.In the example of the egg the co-space to the nuclei(points)is the biological cell as a3D volume.Each line of connection between nuclei in the Delaunay space corresponds to the area of a cell sur-face(membrane)which both cells(or nuclei)share in the co-space of V oronoi.Each triangle in the Delaunay space corresponds to a line in the space of V oronoi,that is part of the border of shared cell surfaces(facets of connected cells).Each tetrahedron of the Delaunay space produces in the co-space of V oronoi an endpoint of the lines just mentioned.In this picture,the visible cell with its wall(membrane)is part3of the co-space of V oronoi tessellation where the inner con-struction of the nuclei and skeleton of cell may be assigned to the space of Delaunay triangulation.The coefficients in the vector space:Now the cellstructure in the egg can be represented as a vector in each of these spaces.The vector space of lines(Delaunay)hasas components(coefficients)of the vector the length of the lines(distances at Delaunay triangulation).The triangleshave their areas and the tetrahedron their volumes as com-ponents.For the V oronoi tessellation the co-space of cells has the volume of each cell,the co-space of contact sur-faces has the area of the surface and the co-space of lineshas the length of each line of the polygons surrounding the contact face of the cell as components.All these vectorcomponents are dependent(i.e.interrelated),which may be verified since the Delaunay as well as the V oronoi structuresmay be reconstructed from the distances(see tab.2).Thisopens the possibility to set conditions not only for line com-ponents(as distances)but for the whole set of coefficientsused to describe the structure or phenomenom in the devel-oping egg.1.8The development in4DThe representation in Delaunay triangulation and V oronoitessellation may be straight forward extended into four di-mensions(space and time)or even higher.There are severalkinds of characterization of the development of the egg in4D by coordinates of points(i.e.the point of nuclei center). One way is to assign each cell(nuclei),“as time”,the divi-sion time and as space the coordinates.The space coordi-nates of center of nuclei just prior to division are causal de-velopment states.That is a rough approximation,but allowsto get and check the properties derived for the cell lineage and the cell structure in3D space.The development maysubsequently be refined to display intermediate states.The4D representation is hard to visualize but advantageous in a systematic treatment as e.g.an abstraction,a reconstruc-tion or tofind regularities as e.g.growth rules.These4D regularities may be understood as development structuresassembled of lower dimensional simplex sets.Another possibility to describe the development is to abandon the time concept and use a parameterized functionof boundary operations.To implement one step in devel-opment from state(i.e.a topological operation is applied to the object)we do simply observe the boundariesof the two states paring these facet sets results in a function for facet operation.More exact the facet set ofassigned to the n-dimensional simplices may be used as in-dices to a matrix.If a simplex (e.g.a line)is connected to another simplex (i.e.a neighboring line),an entry is made in the connectivity matrix.As in the former case the con-nectivity structure of n-dimensional simplices can be visu-alized as dot plot.Analogously three 1-simplices build one 3-simplex (a triangle).The triangle can be represented in a matrix with 3indices of the lines and so for the connectivity of the higher dimensional simplices.This allows to visual-ize connectivity structures of higher dimensional spaces of simplices in a lower dimensional graph.1.12Dotplot visualization of 4D pentahedronconnectivityThe matrix representation allows the visualization of the connectivity by tools developed in matrix computer pro-gram packages.The dot diagram in which each non zero entry in the 2D matrix is printed by a dot at the position given by the matrix indeces.By this plot the matrix struc-tures become clearly visible.Figure 1shows such a matrix structure of the pentahedron connectivity of C.elegans.Figure 1:4D pentahedron connectivity simplex matrix for thedevelopment of C.elegans.The matrix has 45pentahedron as indices and one dot is assigned when two pentahedron are con-nected.This representation of development is not jet unique.1.13Incidence matrix normalized by TDOThe algorithm “Tactical Decomposition by Ordering”(TDO)permutes rows and columns of the incidence ma-trix so that a normalized matrix results (see for details D.Betten [BBT01]and [BB99]).By this method the va-riety of homeomorphic matrices (and their geometric rep-resentations is groups)are projected to a unique form.Fora systematic representation or classification of connectiv-ity in a network such normalized forms are needed.Since the incidence matrix becomes large for increasing numbers of nodes (or cells)we do only consider the 4-cell-,6-cell-,8-cell-,12-cell-stages here (see fig.).A part of the devel-opment of the organism is expressed in the transformation from the 4-cell-stage to the 15-cell-stage my mapping the consecutive matrices to the next stage of development (i.e.the geometry it represents).Since the matrices (matroid i.e.matrices only with or entries)may be converted in a geometry,the maps describe a development of a geometric shape in space.In particular in 4D space (time and 3D)a tdo normalize matroid describes the complete development of shape.Also in 3D the sequence of maps may give infor-mation about the rules that govern the developing shape of an organism.This as well opens up an application to search in the above 4D incidence matrix for a certain pattern or edit the pattern for re-or for construction of the organism.The experimentally applied biochemical modification to the or-ganism,that results in a modified development would have here a unique “pattern food print”and thus as well in the associated equation of development.The matrices are now vertically (row)indexed with simplex names,in this case 1D points numbered 123and so on.Horizontally the ma-trices are (column)indexed by their connectivity elements,i.e those facets which implement the connectivity.Figure 2:TDO normalized incidence matrices represent the connectivity between cells and the development of the 6–cell stage.—Aut—gives the possible automor-phism.The sequence TDO normalized incidence ma-trices,where each state is characterized by one matrix describes the development.Row indices are cells,col-umn indices are cell contacts.The number of rows gives the cell stage in the egg.The digits and letters at the top of the matroid are a symbolic ascii sequence for the connectivity elements starting with .Given is the row and column permutation of the original matroid order.A square in a mesh of grid means the cell is the row is involved in the contact of the column.52.Summary and ConclusionsWe like to show how to described the development of a growing biological organism in a consecutive sequence of vector spaces.The method employs matrix operations to formulate(or code)the topological characteristics of exam-ined developing structures in the vector spaces sequence.Operations on normalized incidence matrices lead to a visualization of building blocks(or modules),where one building block may capture geometric objects of common function.A software is being developed to analyze the C.elegans embryos growth process in real-time.It is possible to de-scribe embryos biological development and to compare de-velopment with that of other embryos.Therefore a control criteria for biological development is provided.This con-trol criteria may be used to manage an experiment,to esti-mate its development or to abort an experiment in case of an C.elegans embryo running out of control. References[BB99]Anton Betten and Dieter Betten.The proper linear spaces on17points.Discrete AppliedMathematics,1999.[BBT01]Anton Betten,Dieter Betten,and Vladimir D.Tonchev.Unitals and codes.Preprint submittedto Elsevier Science,2001.[ELZ00]Herber Edelsbrunner,David Letscher,and Afra Zomorodian.Topological persistence and sim-plification.Technical report,Department ofComputer Science at Duke University,2000. [FML00]J.-A.Ferrez,D.Mller,and Th.M.Liebling.Dy-namic triangulations for granular media...Lec-ture Notes in Physics,Springer,2000.[GR97]Handbook of Discrete and Computational Ge-ometry.CRC Press New York,1997.[Hea01]Paul J.Heid and et.al.A computer-assisted system for reconstructing...2001InternationalWorm Meeting abstract841,2001.[ME96]Facello M.and H.Edelsbrunner.Geometric techniques for molecular shape analysis.PhDthesis,University of Illinois,1996.[MTL00]G.Medioni,C.-K.Tang,and M.-S.Lee.Ten-sor voting:Theory and applications.12emeCongres Francophone AFRIF-AFIA...(RFIA),February2000.[OD71]G.F.Oster and C.A.Desors.Tellegen’s theo-rem and thermodynamic inequalities.Journalof theoretical Biology,1971.[RJJB99]Hill RJ,Priess JR,Pitt JN,and Leung BH.A java based4d lineage analysis application.In-ternational C.elegans Meeting1999676,1999. [Se97]R.Schnabel and et.al.Accessing normal em-bryogenesis in caenorhabditis...Developmen-tal Biology,1997.[SSWT83]J E Sulston,E Schierenberg,J G White,and J.N.Thomson.The embryonic cell lineage inthe nematode caenorhabditis elegans.Develop-mental Biology,1983.[Wol91]L.Wolpert.The triumph of embryo.Oxford University Press,1991.。

新概念二——第22~25课测试满分：100姓名：得分：第一部分：基础知识考核（25分）一、课文原文翻译句子（每题3分，共15分）1.然而，他们还是决定利用邮局。

2. 去年，当我们横渡英吉利海峡时，简（Jane）把写有她姓名和住址的一张纸条装进了一只瓶子，又将瓶子扔进了大海。

3. 这栋房子在我姐姐离开之前就已动工了，是在5个月以前完工的。

4. 它肯定是这个地区（或辖区）唯一的一栋现代化住宅。

5. 他开始抱怨起来这个邪恶的世道来，但却被一阵敲门声打断了。

二、语法点考核（每题1分，共10分）（）1. --Have you had ________ breakfast yet? -- No, not yet.A./B. aC. theD. an（）2. Let’s look at the bag. Can you see _____“s”on the corner of_____ bag?A. a, aB. a, theC. an, aD. an, the（）3. There is egg on the table, egg is for you.A. a, AB. an, AnC. an, TheD. the, An（）4. Our teacher told us that _______ moon moves around ______ earth, and ________ earth circles________ sun.A. a, a, a, aB. an, an, an, anC. the, the, the, theD. /, /, /, /（）5. At that time, he was studying in_______ university. And it was a famous one.A./B. theC. a ,D. an（）6. We are doing much better ______ English _______ our teacher’s help.A. in, atB. at, inC. in, withD. with, with（）7. The food _______ my hometown is quite different ______that there.A. in, likeB. to, fromC. from, toD. in, from（）8. Before 1992, there was no airline _________ the two cities.A. alongB. inC. betweenD. among（）9. ________the new computer, travellers at the offices of CAAC can now buy their air tickets much faster.A. BecauseB. Thanks forC. Thanks toD. Since（）10. He had _________ much work to do that he couldn’t go out.A. soB. suchC. asD. or第二部分：综合运用（75分）一、从A、B、C、D四个选项中选出最佳答案：（每题1分，共30分）（）1. Tom has been in the factory _________he left school.A. whenB. sinceC. as soon asD. whether（）2. The nurse doesn’t feel well today, _________ she still works very hard.A. butB. andC. orD. when（）3. _______ my mother ________ my sister watches TV plays these days.A. Either, norB. Both, andC. Neither, orD. Neither, nor（）4. He walked ________ fast for us ________catch up with.A. so, thatB. such, thatC. enough, toD. too, to（）5. Lucy knew nothing about it ________ her sister told her.A. becauseB. untilC. ifD. since（）6. ---I’m sorry to have kept you waiting long.---Never mind. I ____ here for only a few minutes.A. have beenB. have comeC. have arrivedD. waited（）7. ---You seem to like sweets.---_______ .That’s probably why I’m becoming fatter and fatter.A. So I doB. So do IC. So am ID. So I am（）8. With the help of the computer, information can ____every corner of the world swiftly. A. get B. reach C. arrive D. return（）9. The children ______ not to play with the fire.A. are often toldB. tellC. are tellingD. told（）10. ---May I go out with you tomorrow?---If your job ______by then.A. has been finishedB. finishC. will be finishedD. will finish（）11. ---Will you please show me how to operate the new machine?---Sure. It’s a piece of cake. Now let me tell you _____ to do first.A. whatB. howC. whetherD. which（）12. ---My trousers are______ .---I’ll buy you a new pair.A. wore outB. worn outC. wearing outD. sold out（）13. ---What do you think of these two books?---_____ of them are interesting. And I’ve read them several times.A. BothB. NeitherC. NoneD. Either（）14. ---The artist has got _____ much work to do that he hardly has time to help his wife with the housework.---That’s true. Even on Sundays he is busy with his work.A. tooB. soC. veryD. such（）15. ---How long ____ you ____a fever?---Ever since last night.A. have, gotB. have, hadC. have, caughtD. did, have（）16. ---I think he lives _____ No.386 West St.---Are you sure _____ that? You’d better make sure.A. at, /B. in, ofC. in, aboutD. at, of（）17. ---The rain came to a stop the night before. The fields are still full of water.---It _____ for nearly a week.A. has rainedB. had rainedC. would rainD. was raining（）18. ---He seems _____ ill. Shall we take him to the hospital right now?---I don’t think it matters.Maybe he’s caught a bit of a cold.A. terribleB. terriblyC. evenD. to be terrible（）19. ---Would you like ___ some fruit?---No thanks. I don’t feel like _____ anything now.A. to have, to eatB. having, to eatC. having, eatingD. to have, eating （）20. ---This is really a wonderful party with interesting people and great food.---I’m glad you are _____.A. liking itB. enjoying yourselfC. at the partyD. are loving（）21. ---You’ve dropped _____ “s’’ in the word “acros s’---Oh, ____ letter “s’’ should be doubled like this “across’’.A. a, aB. an, aC. a, theD. an, the（）22. ---The pen writes well though it doesn’t cost much.--- Let me have a try. So _____.A. it isB. it doesC. does itD. is it（）23. ---The smell in the room is really terrible.---You said it. Let’s keep all the windows _____ .A. closedB. openC. openingD. to open（）24. ---____ the Internet _____ in your school?---Yes, but the computer in our office has often broken down.A. Is, usedB. Is, usingC. Does, useD. Has, used（）25. ---Do you often get on-line?---Yes. I ______ most of my time on it .It’s a good way to kill time.A. costB. spendC. payD. take（）26. ---Did Tom’s parents go to the meeting yesterday?---Yes, ____ of them did, but ____ spoke.A. each, noneB. both, noneC. neither, bothD. both, neither（）27. ---I eat _____ vegetables and ______ meat than I did last year.---That’s why you’re getting fatter.A. fewer, moreB. more, lessC. least, moreD. many, much（）28. ---_____ is the population of the town?---Over 20,000 .And a third of the population ____ workers of the car factory.A. What, areB. How many, areC. What, isD. How many, is（）29. ---I tried to make Kate ______ her mind, but I found it hard.---Well, I saw you_______ that when I went past.A. change, doB. changes, doingC. to change, doD. change , doing（）30. ---Sorry. I am late.---It doesn’t matter. The meeting ______ for just several minutesA. has begunB. has startedC. has been onD. had been on二、完形填空（每题1分，共10分）Homesick is a compound (复合的) word made up of HOME and SICK. You know what each 1___ means on its own, of course. But do you know the meaning 2 ___ they are used together? The definition (定义) of homesick is SICK FOR HOME. It means you miss your home.Now think for a minute _ 3 _ SEASICK. If you change the word HOME in the definition to the word SEA, would the definition _4 _ SEASICK? Does seasick mean SICK FOR SEA? It means something quite 5 . Seasick means SICK BY THE MOVEMENT ON THE SEA. When you are _6 , the only place you want to be is at home. When you are seasick, _ 7 you want to be is at sea.Have you ever _8 a person being heartsick? Heartsick doesn’t mean that something is wrong with a person’s heart. People are heartsick when they are 9 _ deep inside as if (好像) their hearts are broken.And we also have other compound words, such as handshake and 10__ . Perhaps you may write definitions for them. It must be helpful to know something like this in your English study.（提示：homesick意为“想家的”，seasick意为“晕船的”，heartsick意为“伤心地”。

浙江地区2024年中考英语最后一模试卷含答案注意事项1．考生要认真填写考场号和座位序号。

2．试题所有答案必须填涂或书写在答题卡上，在试卷上作答无效。

第一部分必须用2B 铅笔作答；第二部分必须用黑色字迹的签字笔作答。

3．考试结束后，考生须将试卷和答题卡放在桌面上，待监考员收回。

Ⅰ. 单项选择1、Our basketball team won’t win the match _______ we work together.A．if B．since C．while D．unless2、一Do you like movie Dangal?一Yes. It's educational movie. I like it very much.A．the; an B．a; an C．a; the D．the; a3、—Could you please tell me ?—Yes. He came to study here just last month.A．that he is a new student B．when did he come hereC．if she likes English best D．whether he is a new student4、Everyone is born __________ the ability to learn.A．at B．on C．with D．in5、They will lose the game _______ they try their best.A．unless B．once C．since D．after6、I didn't realize he was a famous scientist you told me.A．until B．because C．since7、The schoolbag looks so nice. Is it _______?A．your B．yours C．you8、I left a message to my parents yesterday, but ______ of them called me back.A．both B．none C．neither9、We must make full use of our valuable time to review lessons in the following days. It is important to study in the right ways. We should avoid______.① listening to teachers carelessly② having a rest as often as possible③ sleeping in class④ writing down the important points and review them after class⑤ practicing more with our teachers or classmatesA．①③⑤B．②④⑤C．①②③10、There’s no ticker left for Lang Lang’s piano concert .you your sister can go to it .A．Both ; and B．Not only ; but alsoC．Either ; or D．Neither ; norⅡ. 完形填空11、There is a fox(狐狸). His favorite 1 is chicken. But usually, he can't get any chicken. One 2 , the fox sees a rooster (公鸡). He thinks, “The rooster is really 3 What a big breakfast! But 4 can I get theroo ster?”The fox comes up to the rooster and says, “I 5 you can sing very well. Can you sing 6 me?”The rooster is 7 . He closes his eyes and begins to 8 . The fox sees that and catches(抓)him in his mouth and carries him away.Some boys see the fox and 9 cry, “Look! Look! The fox is carrying our rooster away.”The rooster says to the fox, “Mr. Fox, the boys say you are carrying their rooster away. Tell them it is 10 , not theirs. The fox opens his mouth and says, “The rooster is mine not yours. ”Just then the rooster runs away from the fox and flies into the tree.1．A．fruit B．food C．friend D．photo2．A．morning B．afternoon C．evening D．night3．A．fun B．cool C．fat D．tidy4．A．what B．when C．where D．how5．A．ask B．know C．love D．want6．A．for B．of C．on D．in7．A．Sad B．happy C．healthy D．nice8．A．play B．say C．sing D．dance9．A．we B．they C．You D．he10．A．mine B．ours C．yours D．hisⅢ. 语法填空12、Srikanth Bolla, 24 years old, is the first blind CEO in the world, who built a company valued at over $75 million. Today, he considers himself the 1．(lucky) man in the word, not only his 2．(succeed), but also for having great parents and friends who always stand by him.When Srikanth was born, some of his 3．(parent) friends and relatives them not to keep him, because it was difficult for a poor family 4．(raise) a blind baby. But his parents did n’t follow them. They decided to give Srikanth a positive, loving environment.Life was not easy for Srikanth. He had to face many challenges all his life. He 5．(refuse) by his village school. So he had to go to school for special children. He did very well in studies and also developed many hobbies such as chess andcricket. Later Srikanth found a teacher who was kind enough to turn all his lessons into audio clips, and helped him 6．his exams.7．high school was difficult for a blind student, Srikanth di dn’t give up. Instead, he worked very hard and tried his best to go to MT(麻省理工), and graduated from 8．university in 2012. After his graduation, he returned to India, and decided to start to a company 9．employed disabled people like him.Srikanth said, “Compassion(怜悯) is showing somebody the way to love and giving them the opportunity to grow up. If you do something good, it 10．(come) back to you.”Ⅳ. 阅读理解A13、A recent report from Dazhou Daily says about 18% of Dazhou teenagers can have problems with their minds(内心，精神)．Some students become worried because they have to study very hard.Others have trouble getting on well with people like their parents and classmates.Zhang Qiang，a Junior 2 student from Dazhou，could not understand his teachers in class and was doing badly in his lessons.He was afraid of exams.When he looked at the exam paper，he couldn’t think of anything to write.Another student，a 15­year­old girl called Wu Yan from Guang’an often argued with her classmates even her parents because of some different ideas.She became so annoyed about them that she started to cut her finger with a knife. However，many students who have problems won’t go for advice or help.Some think they will look stupid(愚蠢的) if they go to see a doctor.Others don’t want to talk about their secrets.In order to solve the teenagers’ problems，here is some advice：●Talk to your parents or teachers often.●Take part in group activities and play sports.●Go to see a doctor if you feel unhappy or unwell.1．It is reported that________students in Dazhou can have problems with their minds.A．most B．many C．some2．From the passage we know teenagers have problems with their minds because of________.A．their studyB．getting on with other peopleC．A and B3．Wu Yan started to cut her finger with a knife because________.A．she couldn’t get on well with her classmates and even her parentsB．she could not understand her teachers in classC．she was afraid of exams4．Why don’t the students who have problems want to go for help?A．Because they think no one will help them.B．Because they don’t want to talk about their secrets and they think it’s stupid to see a doctor.C．Because they think the doctors could do nothing with their problems.5．How many pieces of advice are given to the teenagers who have problems in this passage?A．Two. B．Three. C．Four.B14、Teenagers who turn off the TV and sit down to family meals are less likely to suffer eating disorders(失调).A study has connected eating together with lower rates of bulimia(暴食症) and anorexia(厌食症). Teens used to eating around the table are less likely to take up smoking to lose weight.Researcher Barbara said, “The common belief is that teens don’t want to be around their parents very much, and that teens are just too busy to have regular meals with the family.”The study shows happy families have teenagers who eat with their parents often. These teens have less bad diet or dangerous eating habits.“Parents may not be able to get their family together around the table seven days a week, but if th ey can prepare three family meals a week, this will have a big i mpact on the health of teens,” Professor Fiese spoke out after reviewing 17 studies on eating ways and nutrition(营养) of almost 200,000 children and teenagers.She found that teens who eat at least five meals a week with their families are 35% less likely t o be “disordered eaters”. The definition(定义) of disordered eating is eating too much, or eating at wrong times too often or eating very little and smoking to lose weight.Even three family meals a week helped, with youngsters 12% less likely to be overweight than those who ate with their family less often.Teens can also use family meals as a time to_____________They were also 24% more likely to eat healthy foods and have healthy eating habits than those who didn’t share three meals with their family.Profe ssor Fiese said, “Family meals give them a place where they can go regularly to check in with their parents and express themselves freely.”In the past American research found children who miss out on family meals are much more likely to fight at school, drink and take drugs(毒品).根据材料内容选择最佳答案，将其标号填入题前括号内。

知识论（Epistemology）A catalogue of the theory of knowledge [hidden]Theory of knowledge (source: knowledge theory, Nanfeng public welfare College)The theory of knowledge (English: epistemology) derives from Greek episteme (knowledge) and logos (word / speech), which is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature, origin and range of knowledge. At present, the relationship between epistemology and epistemology is controversial. Some people think that they are the same concept, while others believe that they are actually two different concepts that have some close ties.[edit this paragraph] definition of knowledgeKnowledge is the true faith that is proved (justified, also testified).The most influential work on knowledge is Platon's the Tai Atai de Chapter, in which he developed the definition of knowledge. We know that to be defined as knowledge, it must be true and must be believed to be true. Socrates thought it was not enough, and people had to find reasons or proof for it.Platon defined knowledge as a confirmed and true belief (believed thing).This definition implies that we cannot because we believe in something and that it is true, and say we know about it. A nomedical knowledge of the patient that he would recover soon, even after the fact, we can not say that the patient knows he will be good, because of his lack of trust confirmed at the time.Knowledge is therefore different from what is believed and true because of corroboration. The problem solved by epistemology is how to properly prove the true belief. This is sometimes called confirmation theory.The definition in Tai Atai De's article suggests that we can believe in something without knowing it. It implies that we can believe everything we know. In this way, what we know is a subset of what we believe.[edit this paragraph] define the trouble of knowledgeFor most of the history of philosophy, knowledge means the belief that absolute truth has been proved. Any lack of absolute truth is called a possible view. This view at least Bertrand Russell in the early twentieth Century the works of philosophical problems (The Problems of Philosophy) is also very popular. In the ensuing decades, this view began to lose its attention.In 1960s, Edmund Gettier (Edmund Gettier) criticized the knowledge definition of Tai Atai De. He points out that in some cases something that one believes is partly verified, but does not reach an absolute level, in which case one can assume that the man has no knowledge.[edit this paragraph] a priori and a posteriori knowledgeWestern philosophers divide knowledge into two kinds: a priori and a posteriori.A priori means knowledge derived from reasoning (prior to empirical observation) without immediate or indirect experience (where experience usually refers to the observation of the world through the senses).The latter refers to other kinds of knowledge, that is, the acquisition and validation of knowledge, which requires experience (empirical observation), also known as empirical knowledge.One of the key questions of knowledge theory is whether there is a priori comprehensive knowledge. Generally speaking, the rationalist thinks of existence, and therefore has to face the question of how "a priori synthetic knowledge is possible". On the contrary, the empiricist holds that all knowledge is, to some extent, a reflection of external experience, and there is no prior synthesis.The domain of knowledge that is often thought to have primacy (priori, status) is logic and mathematics, and they explore mainly abstract, formal objects (objects).The empiricist denies that these fields are pre knowledge. The two most famous refutation is that these knowledge are derived from experience (e.g. John Stuart Muller John Mill Stuart) and that these areas do not constitute real knowledge (e.g. Hume).[editor this paragraph] knowledge and faithKnowledge is true, and is believed to be true, is the intersection. Before considering the definition of knowledge in detail, it is necessary to distinguish between two meanings which are believed to have slight differences. The first meaning is to believe its authenticity when there is not enough evidence. In this sense, a person may believe in ghosts or similar phenomena in the absence of sufficient evidence. One might say, "I know that the highway is not safe by air, but I just don't believe it." it's an irrational fear.In the second sense, believing something means that it is right. To believe in one thing is to simply think. It is this belief that philosophers use in the study of knowledge. The logic here is that when a person wants to know something, he must believe it is true.If someone says, "I know A, but I don't believe it is true."." In deep sense, this man is self contradictory.Knowledge is different from belief and view.It is true that someone claims that he believes something, but of course he may make a mistake. That is not the case with knowledge. For example, Xiao Ming thought that a bridge was safe and tried to pass through it. Unfortunately, the weight of Xiao Ming made the bridge collapse. We can say Xiao Ming believes that the bridge is safe, but he is wrong. But we can not say that he knows the bridge is safe, because the bridge is not safe. If something wants to become knowledge, it must be true.Similarly, two people can believe in two conflicting things, but they cannot know the two things that contradict each other. For example, you can believe that the bridge was safe, and at the same time, Xiaogang believe that it is not safe. But they don't know two things that contradict each other at the same time.[edit this paragraph] distinguish between knowing and able to do"Freestyle is the fastest swimming stroke," Ruo Xiaoli said. The swimming method is to swing the legs and the arms to the front in a nearly circle shape."According to Xiao Li's speech, Xiao Li may have the knowledge of free style and can really swim freestyle. If Xiao Li's knowledge sheet comes from an encyclopedia, she does not have the skills to swim freestyle. In other words, she has propositional knowledge, but has no procedural knowledge; that is, knowing the theory, but not doing it.The theory confirmed [edited]1, anti rationalismSome attempts to prove knowledge are irrational; they refuse to admit that validation must follow logic or reasoning. Nihilism started as a political philosophy of materialism, but sometimes is defined as knowledge can not prove this apparently absurd theory and absurdity of this argument is that it claimedthat knowledge is not contradictory, but perhaps for the nihilist, self contradictory may not be important.2, mysticismThe use of irrational means to arrive at what is believed and what is believed is knowledge. For instance, according to one's emotions, the authenticity of something is considered epistemological mysticism, and it is not by inference, logic, or scientific experimentation that the conclusion is not. An individual believes that something exists, just one's own wish is an example. Tear the petals of chrysanthemum and read, "he loves me / he doesn't love me" is also an example. In this case, mysticism embodied in the girl on the assumption that tearing petals have prophetic ability without rational evidence. In these two instances, people's belief is not confirmed by rational means. Mysticism is not necessarily a conscious process; people unknowingly fall into mysticism.[editor this paragraph] reasonIf a man does not reject reason, but still believes that knowledge cannot be proved, he is called a skeptic. Skeptics accept reasoning, so they can logically demonstrate their point of view, so they have a more firm philosophical foundation.For example, according to the push theory, we can ask any statement confirmed. If it is proved to exist in the form of a statement, we may then demand that the statement be confirmed and thus go on. This seems to lead to endless.It is impossible to prove that every step of the argument is satisfactory, such a series of arguments leads to scepticism.In addition, we can claim that some statements need not be verified. Most of the history of epistemology is interpreted with diametrically opposed philosophical views, arguing that a particular knowledge has a special status story. This view is called fundamentalism.We can also say that a statement must be a statement of support this hypothesis is misleading, so you can avoid falling into the vicious circle of backstepping. Coherence that holds that a statement cannot be verified by a small subset of other knowledge, but should be confirmed by the whole set. That is to say, if a proposition is unified with all the knowledge in the system, it can be said that it is proved. This is to avoid the back of the cycle, is not particularly pointed out that the special status of a certain statement.[edit this paragraph] analysis and synthesis statementSome statements seem to require no confirmation as long as people understand what they mean. For example, "my father's younger brother is my uncle."". Philosophers call such statements analytic, or rather, the concept of predicates, contained in the subject. As the example above, the concept of uncle (predicate) is contained in my father's younger brother. Mathematical statements are usually analytic. (source: Nanfeng Academy of public welfare)In order to extend analytic concepts to relational propositionsto meet the requirements of mathematical logic, it is stated that, if the analysis of a proposition comes only from its form (i.e., the meaning of logical term terms), the proposition is a syntactic analysis proposition. All bachelors are bachelors. If the analysis of a proposition comes not only from its form, but also from the meaning of non logical lexical terms, the proposition is a semantic analysis proposition. All single men are unmarried. Semantic analysis propositions can be transformed into syntactic analysis propositions by defining substitution.If the bachelor is defined as an unmarried adult man, the syntactic analysis is substituted for the proposition that all unmarried adult men are unmarried."Synthesis statement: subject and predicate are independent of each other. My father's brother is overweight".Because of the vagueness of natural language, some scholars deny that there is a clear division between the semantic analysis proposition and the synthetic proposition, or simply deny the existential statement and analyze the proposition. Other scholars believe that successive sequences of propositions should be used instead of the traditional dichotomy of analysis and synthesis.Hume was aware of this distinction, but this distinction was explicitly put forward by Kant, and later by Frege (Frege) a more explicit form was given. In his philosophy of philosophy, Wittgenstein pointed out that analytic statements do not express any point of view, that is, they do not tell people newthings. Although they do not need to be confirmed, they are not knowledgeable.[editor this paragraph] the theory of Epistemology1, empiricismThe empiricist asserts that knowledge is the product of human experience. Naive empiricist our thoughts and theory needs to be proved in reality, and then based on the matching degree and the fact that it should be held to decide whether this theory, since then, the core problem of philosophy into the experience test match degree.Empiricism is closely related to science. Although the validity of science is beyond doubt, the question of how and why science works in philosophy has aroused controversy. The scientific method was once beloved by its success in ensuring the success of scientific experiments, but now the problems encountered in philosophy of science have made people more prone to coherence.Empiricism is often confused with positivism, but the latter emphasizes the view of man over reality, not the experience of man in reality.2, idealismIdealism that our perception of the world is our mind's conjecture. George Bekele, Kant and Hagel hold different views of idealism.3, naive realismNaive realism, that is, realism in the usual sense, that there is a real external world, and that our feelings are caused directly by that world. It is based on a causal basis that the existence of a thing leads us to see it. In this way, the world remains the same as it is known - not as it is perceived. The opposite theory is the theory of self. Naive realism does not take psychological perception into account.4. PhenomenologyPhenomenology develops from George Bekele's point of view "perception is existence". From his point of view, we can not think that what we see is an individual independent of our senses. He believes that the only thing that exists is the sense organ itself.5, rationalismA rationalist believes in prior knowledge or innate thought that does not come from sensory experience. This point can be seen from a lot of experience. These ideas may come from the structure of the human brain, or that they are independent of the brain. If they exist independently, they can be understood by humans as they reach a necessary complexity.The rationalist view can be concentrated in Descartes, I think, therefore I am, where skeptics can see that they suspect that this simple act implies a doubt. Spinoza established a rational system in which only God had one thing. Leibniz has built asystem with unlimited numbers of his.6, figurativeThe embodiment of realism or realism, unlike simple realism, can only perceive its manifestations. In other words, the world and things we see are not themselves, but a copy of the inner virtual reality. The so-called sense yarn makes it impossible for us to perceive the world directly.7, objectivismObjectivism is Ayn Rand's cognitive theory, which is similar to simple realism. He also believes that we acquire knowledge through the senses from the outside world. Objectivism, unprocessed sensory information, is automatically integrated into the brain by perceiving objects, then conscious of perceiving information rather than creating or inventing it in any way. Once we realize that two entities like each other, and the other is different, we can regard them as a species, this species can be all the same kind of entities include, so our consciousness can be a word of the infinite entity. Objectivism rejected pure empiricism, and thought that we could transcend the senses by means of objective concepts. Nor does it recognize purely figurative and idealistic ideas that we perceive as reality, and that it is meaningless to talk about what we do not know.8. Current theoriesThe present theory of knowledge is based on fundamentalism andcoherence.苏珊·哈克（Susan Haack）试着将这两种学说融入她的基础连贯主义（基础融贯论），她通过调和这两种理论而使她自己的理论更为可信。