语言学definition

语言学第二章《Summary》特刊语言学第二章总结编辑：孙波任冲校对：汪燕华老师康亮亮一、Phonetics 语音学1、definition：Studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.研究语音是如何产生，传递和感知。

2、Articulatory Phonetics、Acoustic Phonetics、Perceptual Phonetics发音语言学、声学语言学、感知语言学3、二、Phonology 音系学the study of the sound patterns and sound systems languages 研究语音模式和语音系统三、Voiceless & Voiced Sounds 清音和浊音1、Voiceless sounds：The sounds produced without causing vibration of the vocal cords. 在发音过程中，发音时声带不振动。

2、Voiced sounds：The sounds produced with causing vibration of the vocal cords. 在发音过程中，发音时声带振动。

四、Consonants & vowels 辅音和元音1、Consonants：sounds produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. 发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞所发出的音。

2、Vowels：sounds produced without obstruction, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived. 发音时，声道不受到任何压缩或阻碍，因此不会有气流的紊乱或停滞所发出的音。

Acoustic phonetics：It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.Allophone：The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Antonymy : Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and soundsArgument : An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence.Auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear­er.Bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.Complete homonyms: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a -word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features.Compounding:Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.Constatives: were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable. Context: Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speak­er and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types, the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.Cooperative Principle: It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principle that guides our conversational behaviours. The content is: Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.Coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes areadded to an existing form to create a word.Derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communicationDiachronic: (study)the description of a language as it changes through time. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.D-structure:D-structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place.Free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.Grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations.Homographs :When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. Homonymy:Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.Homophones :When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones Hyponymy :Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.Illocutionary act: is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.Inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections International phonetic alphabet：It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.Language: is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. It is relatively stable, it does not change frequently.Linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.Linguistics : it is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Locutionary act: is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.Minimal pair：When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings，the two words are said to form a minimal pair.Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.Morphology: it is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication.Performatives: were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act.Perlocutionary act: is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance, it is the act performed by saying something.Phone：Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme:The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme, it is a unit of distinctive value.Phonetics：Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.Polysemy :Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.Pragmatics: be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Predicate : A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.Predication :The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.Received Pronunciation:is the accent of Standart English in England, with a relationship to reginal dialects similar to that of other European language. Reference:Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experienceRoot: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de -contextualised.Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.Sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is of­ten considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. Sociolinguistics:The study of language with reference to society is calledsociolinguistics,.Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.Synchronic: (study)the description of a language at some point of time in history. Synonymy:Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function. Syntax: It is a subfield of linguistics and the study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. .The grammatical meaning :The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. its grammatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.Tone：Tones are pitch variations，which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.Two-place predication: It is one which contains two arguments.Utterance meaning: The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.。

1 什么是语言学what is linguistics?定义definitionLinguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.语言学的研究范畴the scope of linguisticsa. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguist ics. 把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。

b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the e stablishment of a branch of linguistics called phonetics. 语音学phoneticsHow speech sounds are produced and classified.c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communi cation.how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonolo gy 音位学/ 音系学phonology交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branch of study calledmorphology. 形态学morphologyhow morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支，如对形态学的研究。

语言学基本知识语言学的基本概念1.What is linguistics?(1)The definition: Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language, or,alternatively, the scientific study of language.The main branches of Linguistics: 语音学Phonology 音位学Morphology 形态学Syntax 句法学Semantics 语义学Pragmatics 语用学2.General Linguistics & Applied Linguistics(1)The main differenceGeneral Linguistics: 理论研究，研究对象为人类所有语言Applied Linguistics: 应用研究，语言在各个领域的实际应用(2)The main branches of eachGeneral Linguistics: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax,semantics, PragmaticsApplied Linguistics: Sociolinguistics, Psycholinguistics,Physiological Phonelics, etc. (Page 64, Para1) Note: 上述应用语言学分分支，指的是广义的应用语言学的分支，狭义的应用语言学只指语言教学3.Important distinctions in Linguistics(1)Descriptive Linguistics V.S. Prescriptive LinguisticsDon’t say X. a prescriptive commandPeople don’t say X. a descriptive statementThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Prescriptive Linguistics: 规定正确的用法，按照此规定使用语言Descriptive Linguistics: 语言的实际用法(2)Synchronic Linguistics V.S. Diachronic Linguistics ----SaussureDiachronic Linguistics: the study of language through the course of its history.Synchronic Linguistics: the study of language, which takes a fixedinstant as its point of observation.(3)Speech V.S. WritingSpeech: communication by word of mouthWriting: symbol of language(4)Langue V.S. ParoleLangue: the common possession of a speech community 言语活动中社会成员共同使用的部分，是社会共有的交际工具。

Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1. What is linguistics? 什么是语言学?1.1 definition 定义Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.语言学是对语言进行科学研究的学科。

Languages in general 针对所有语言而言A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.语言进行科学地研究最根本的是要对语言材料进行系统的调查研究,并在语言结构的一般理论指导下进行。

The linguist has to do first is to study language facts, i.e. to see how language is actually used; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure.语言学家首先必须研究语言材料,即要观察一般情况下语言的使用方法,继而对语言的结构具体地提出一些假设。

A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.一套语言学理论是说明语言的本质内容以及这些语言是如何发挥作用的。

1.2 The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.把语言学作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。

Chapter 1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1 Definition: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.language: language in general, not any particular language, e.g. English,Chinese, Arabic, and Latin.1.1.2The Scope of linguisticsA）general linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.basic concepts: language; sentence; wordstheories:descriptions:models:methods applicable in any linguistic study:B) main branches of linguisticsLanguage study focuses on Meaning and Form.i) Form:soundwritten1) PhoneticsThe study of sounds used in linguistic communication.2) PhonologyThe study of the way in which the sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.3) MorphologyThe study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words .4) SyntaxThe study of rules which govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.5) Semantics: meaning in languageThe study of meaning is known as semantics.6) Pragmatics: meaning in contextWhen the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.C) MacrolinguisticsLinguistics is not the only field concerned with language. Other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, artificial intelligence, medicine and education etc. are also preoccupied with language.1) SociolinguisticsThe study of the social aspects of language and its relation with society forms the core of the branch called sociolinguistics.2) PsycholinguisticsIt relates the study of language to psychology.e.g. to study language development in children, such as the theories of languageacquisition;3) Applied linguisticsa) the study of second and foreign language learning and teaching.b) the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems. It usesinformation from sociology, psychology, anthropology and information theory as well as linguistics in order to develop its own theoretical models of language and language use, and then uses this information and theory in practical areas.1.1.3 Linguistics as a ScienceThree adequaciesHow can we appraise the extent of success in scientific study? There are three levels to consider, namely observation, description, and explanation. What a linguist seeks for can be summarized as three adequacies correspondingly.a) observational adequacyA successful research is expected to be adequate in observation at first.It is characterized by correctly specifying what is observed to be phonologically, morphologically, syntactically, semantically, or pragmatically well-formed or ill-formed.b) descriptive adequacyProper description is based on adequate observation, and a piece of scientific work is descriptively adequate if it provides a principled account of the native speaker‟s intuiti ons about the structure of the linguistic phenomenon observed.c) explanatory adequacyExplanatory adequacy is the ultimate goal of any scientific exploration.In linguistics, a theory attains explanatory adequacy just in case it provides a descriptively adequate grammar for every natural language, and does so in terms of a maximally constrained set of universal principles which represent psychologically plausible natural principles of mental computation.1.2 What is language?1.2.1 Design featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.The framework of the design features was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett.1) ArbitrarinessArbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.Why?a) different languages may have different sounds to represent the same object thatexists in society.b) the same sound may express different meaningsexception: onomatopoeia: based on the natural voices.2)DualityDEFINITION: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.3) ProductivityDEFINITION: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.comparing with animal communication systemse.g. an experiment on bee dance:Bee communication regarding location has a fixed set signals, all of which relate to horizontal distance. The bee cannot manipulate its communicating system to create a “new” message indicating vertical distance.4) DisplacementDEFINITION：Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Animals are under “immediate stimulus control”.Human language is, unlike animal communication systems, stimulus free.5) Cultural transmissionLanguage cultural transmission means that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.1.2.2 Definitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.2.2.1Language is a systemelements of language are combined according to rules.a) rules of sound systemb) rules of written system1.2.2.2 Language is arbitrary and symbolic1.2.2.3 Language is vocala) the primary medium for all languages is sound.b) writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.c) some language only have sound systems and no writing systems1.2.2.4 Language is human-specific1.2.2.5 communication vs information1.2.3 Knowledge of language: endowed or conventional?TIME-HONORED PROBLEMS•WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE OF LANGUAGE?•WHERE DOES IT COME FROM?Aristotle (384-322 B.C.):Language is arrived at by convention and agreement of the speakers of a given language.BEHA VIORISMEMPIRICISMOur brain was blank when we were born. Language is a social, empirical entity.B.F. Skinner: the American psychologist and a famous Harvard behaviouristThe famous quotation “language is behaviour ”Verbal behaviour is the same as any other fundamental respect of non-verbal behaviour.The occurrence of behaviours is dependent upon three crucial elements:a stimulus, which serves to elicit behaviour;a response triggered by a stimulus;reinforcement, which serves to mark the response as being appropriate (or inappropriate) and encourages the repetition (or suppression) of the response in the future.Verbal behaviour:the stimulus as what is taught (language input),the response as the learner‟s reaction to the stimulus,the reinforcement as the approval or praise (or discouragement) of the teacher or fellow students.Argument for“poverty of the stimulus”●a) The child‟s linguistic experience (stimulus) is not sufficient to justify theadult grammar.●b) As far as a child is concerned, an utterance containing a mistake is justanother piece of linguistic experience to be treated on a par with error-free utterance. But they still know the correct grammar.●c) A child and a chimpanzee both live in the same language environment, onlythe child can learn the language.Plato (427?-347 B.C.)There is a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man to follow in expressing his ideas.NATIVISMMENTALISMThere is a biological, physiological entity inside our brain which decides that we speak.Language faculty/(LAD=Language Acquisition Device): Human beings do have an inborn knowledge of language which must be universally correct and acceptable, the location of such innate knowledge just in our genes.Experience of L—LF—Grammar of LChomsky’s epistemology of the knowledge of language●The initial state of human language faculty is called UG(Universal Grammar).●UG(universal grammar): Every speaker knows a set of principles which applyto all languages and also a set of (binary) parameters that can vary from one language to another.principles:all human languages have the subject, verb, and object.reflexible pronoun principle: the reflexible pronoun should take the noun in the same clause as antecedent.parameters:binary parameter:the position of the wh-element in the sentence●Due to the effect of later experience, our brain/mind develops from the initialstate into the steady state, which corresponds to the competence of speaking a human language.experienceUG----------------PG (Particular Grammar)PG=a.UG1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics1.3.1Prescriptive vs. descriptivePrescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. Descriptive study:If a linguistic study aims to describes and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.Prescriptive study:If a linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “co rrect and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic--by Ferdinand de Saussure.synchronic study: the description of a language at some point of time in history. diachronic study: the description of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.1.3.3 Speech and writingSpeech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.The spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language.1) speech is prior to writing: (from the point of view of linguistic evolution)2)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mothertongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.3) Spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while writtenlanguage is only the “revised” record of speech.4) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in termsof the amount of information conveyed.1.3.4 Langue and paroleThe distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure.1) definitionA) langue:a) the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community(a social code);b) the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by;c) abstract, it is not the language people actually use.d) relatively stable, it does not change frequently.B) parole:a) the realization of langue in actual use.b) the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.c) concrete, it refers to the naturally occurring language events.d) varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.2) The significances of the distinction:a) it is convenient in that it delimits an area of enquiry which is manageable: thatarea is langueb) the concept of langue can be said to capture the central and determining aspectof language itself.3) The relation between the langue and parolea) Langue comes from parole.b) Parole is guided by langue.1.3.5 competence and performanceProposed by the American linguist Noam Chomsky.1) definitionCompetence: the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2) The relation between the competence and performancea) competence is essential and primary; performance is the residual category of secondary phenomena, incidental, and peripheral.b) competence and performance are quite different phenomena and you cannotdirectly infer one from the other.3) The difference between the two pairs of concepts: langue vs parole and competence vs performancei)similarities:a) It represents a similar dichotomy of knowledge and behaviour.b) It represents a similar demarcation of the scope of linguistic enquiry.c) They are both be glossed in terms of abstract knowledgeii) differences:a) the nature of knowledge is conceived of in very different ways.--Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.--Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.b) the different study interest--Langue, the focus of attention will be in what makes each language different.--Competence, the focus of attention will be in what makes languages alike.1.3.6 Traditional grammar and modern linguistics1) definition:Modern linguistics: The beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussure‟s book Course in General Linguistics in the early 20th century.Traditional grammar: The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language over the ye ars, before the book “Course in General Linguistics” was published.2) differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics:a) modern linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.b)modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the writing.Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, the importance of the written word.c) traditional grammar forces languages into a Latin-based framework, but modernlinguistics does notReading recommendationBeginner-friendly:S. C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics. Macmillan Publishers Ltd, 1999; 外语教学与研究出版社2000 （刘润清导读）。

一、Term Definition:Language: is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Phonetics语音学: the study of soundsSemantics语义学: the study of meaningPragmatics语用学: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Syntax句法: the study of the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences. Morphology词态学: the study of the way in which these symbols are arranged and combined to form wordsSynonym同义词: words that are close in meaningReference附注: what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.Sense: concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.Dialect: a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country (regional dialect), or by people belonging to a particular social class (social dialect), which is different in some words, grammar, and/or pronunciation from other forms of the same language.Accent: a particular way of speaking which tells the listener something about the speaker's background.Conversational maxim: an unwritten rule about conversation which people know and which influences the form of conversational exchanges.Context: it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation. Locutionary act: the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning. It is the act performed in saying something.Hyponymy: refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Speech community: the social group that is singled out for any special study.Transcription: the use of symbols to show sounds or sound sequences in written form.Bound morpheme: a morpheme that must be attached to another one is called bound morpheme. Minimal Pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same position in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.Stress: the pronunciation of a word or syllable with more force than the surrounding words or syllables.Compounding: a word formation process in which words are formed by putting two or more words together.Affixation: is the process of forming words by adding derivational affixes to stems.Allophone: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.Complementary Distribution: Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.Conversion: refers to the derivational process whereby an item comes to belong to a new word class without the addition of suffix.Deep Structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties Surface Structure: corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations.Saussure: the distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the 20 century.Vowel: The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction.Consonant: The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.Linguistics: the scientific study of language.General Linguistics: the study of language as a whole.Inflectional Affix: The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.Derivational Affix: The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.Open Class: in English, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs which are the content words of a language, which are sometimes called open class words.Closed Class: conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, which are in small number and stable since few new words are added, therefore such words have been referred to as closed class words.Sociolinguistics: the study of all the social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Speech Variety: refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.Pidgin: a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes.Creole: when a pidgin become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquitted by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole.二、单项选择题：1、语音学中元音和辅音的发音特征和分类。

第一章绪论principles and theories to language Modern linguistics regards the imagined matters in the past1/ What is linguistics teaching and learning especially the spoken form of language as primary present or future or in far-away什么是语言学？teaching of foreign and second but not the written form. Reasons places.Linguistics is generally defined as language. are: 1. Speech precedes writing 2. Cultural transmission语言的文化the scientific study of language. It Other related branches include There are still many languages that 传递性studies not any particular language anthropological linguistics （人类have only the spoken form 3. In While human capacity for languagebut languages in general. 语言学）neurological linguistics terms of function the spoken has a genetic basis i.e. we were2/ The scope of linguistics （神经语言学）mathematical language is used for a wider range born with the ability to acquire语言学的研究范畴linguistics （数字语言学）and of purposes than the written and language the details of anyThe study of language as a whole is computational linguistics. （计算机carries a larger load of language are not geneticallyoften called general linguistics. 普语言学）communication than the written. transmitted but instead have to be通语言学3/ Some important distinctions in Langue and parole 语言和言语taught and learned anew. ThisThe study of sounds which are linguistics The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure indicates that language is culturallyused in linguistic communication is 语言学研究中的几对基本概念made the distinction between langue transmitted. It is passed down fromcalled phonetics. （语音学）Prescriptive and descriptive 规定and parole early 20th century. one generation to the next throughThe study of how sounds are put与描写Langue refers to the abstract teaching and learning rather thantogether and used in communication If a linguistic study describes and linguistic system shared by all the by instinct.is called phonology. （音系学）analyzes the language people members of a speech community Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学The study of the way in which actually use it is said to be and parole refers to the realization Definition 定义morphemes are arranged to form descriptive if it aims to lay down of langue in actual use. Saussure Morphology is a branch of grammarwords are called morphology. （形rules to tell people what they should made the distinction in order to which studies the internal structure态学）say and what they should not say it single out one aspect of language of words and the rules by whichThe study of how morphemes and is said to be prescriptive. for serious study. He believes what words are formed.words are combined to form Modern linguistics differs from linguists should do is to abstract 形态学是语法的一个分支，研sentences is called syntax. （句法traditional grammar. Traditional langue from parole to discover the 究词的内部结构和构词规则。

1：Definitions of Language:Language is a means of verbal communication.It is instrumental; it is social and conventional.(P3)Generally Accepted DefinitionLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1)Why a system?Language is a system--rule-governed, since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly, they can not be arranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned.2）arbitrary?Whyno intrinsic (logic) connection between the word and the thing it denotes.e.g. "pen" by any other name is the thing we use to write with3）Why vocal?Language is primary vocal--the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form4) Why symbols?Words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.5)Why human?Language is human-specific.Human being have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.6)Why communication?In this process information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener.)2. Design Features of LanguageDesign features (本质特征) refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2.1 Arbitrariness(任意性)It means there is no logical connection between the sound of a word and its meaning.Onomatopoeia (拟声词) refers to a word that sounds like what it represents.Can onomatopoeia change the arbitrary nature of language?Why not?Every language has only a small amount of onomatopoeic words.Different languages use different words to describe the same soundDucks “嘎嘎”in Chinese, “quack [kwæk]”in English, “gack”in German.Arbitrariness and conventionHuman language is arbitrary and conventional.Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.Conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious.2.2 Duality (双重性)Duality means that language has two levels of structure, the primary level and the secondary level.At secondary level are elements which have no meaning but which combine to form units at primary level which do have meaning.Secondary level is made up of meaningless sounds, and primary level of meaningful words.2.3 Creativity（创造性）By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.Recursiveness （递归性）means that one sentence can expand into endless possible sentences in a way of recurring. e.g. He came into a room that had a big shelf which was full of books which were covered by magazine which were put there by the lady who used to …e.g. The man in a coat on a bus with his wife…2.4 Displacement （移位性）It means that we can communicate things, concepts which are not present at the right time or place of communicationwe can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole, even though the first has been dead for over 2500 years and the second is situated far away from us .Displacement enables us to talk about a wide range of things.3. The origin of languageThe creation theorythe divine origin theoryThe invention theorythe “bow-wow”theorythe “yo-he-ho”theorythe “pooh-pooh”theoryThe evolution theory4.Functions of languageFunctions of language（4.1 Informative 4.2 Interpersonal function 4.3 Performative 4.4Emotive function 4.5. Phatic communion 4.6 Recreational function 4.7 Metalingual function）4.1 Informative (信息功能)It is to offer information about facts and to tell what the speaker believes.e.g. “Tomorrow is Tuesday.”“Linguistics is a scientific study of language.”4.2 Interpersonal function(人际功能)It embodies the use of language to express, establish and maintain social relations.Give me that teapot. leaderCould you please give me that teapot? Equal4.3 Performative(施为功能)It means that language is also used to “do things”, to perform actions.It is primarily to change the social status of a person, or the state of a thing.“I declare the meeting open”“I sentence you to the ten years of hard labor”“I now pronounce you husband and wife”4.4 Emotive function(感情功能)It is the use of language to reveal some feelings and attitudes of the speaker.1.“Good heavens!”“My God”, or “Ouch”2.“Friday afternoons are dreary”3.“I’m extremely sorry about…”“We’re most grateful for this”It is raining. Informative It’s bloody pissing down again. emotive4.5 Phatic communion(寒暄功能)It refers to language used for maintaining social contact rather than exchanging information or ideas.e.g. I would ask you “how are you today?”I am not really interested in your health, but expressing good will.e.g. “A nice day, isn’t it?”4.6 Recreational function(娱乐功能)It refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.e.g. In the verbal dueling(对歌), people just take delight in playing on language.e.g. Some people write poems just in order to enjoy the beauty of language.4.7 Metalingual function(元语言功能)The metalingual function is used to clarify meanings or what the other person has said.Every kind of dictionaries serves this function, for words or phrases are defined and interpreted in the dictionaries.----- “The Sophomore was plucked.”----- “What does sophomore mean?”----- “A sophomore means a second-year student.”5.What is linguistics?What is Linguistics? Linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of language. 6.Important Distinctions6.1 Descriptive vs. Prescriptive 6.2 Synchronic vs. Diachronic6.3 Langue vs. Parole 6.4 Competence vs. performance6.1 Descriptive vs. Prescriptive (描写式和规定式)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for correct behavior.“What is in language?”“What people actually say?”Descriptive“What is in language?”“What people actually say?”PrescriptiveYou should never use a double negative. You should not split the infinitive. PrescriptiveDescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which are just described.6.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic（共时和历时)The description of a language at any one time is a synchronic study; the description ofa language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.If the linguist studies: modern English of the present day Shakespeare’s English ;Chinese from the Tang Dynasty to the Qing dynasty6.3 Langue vs. parole （语言与言语）Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.N Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.langue: abstract parole: specificlangue: stable and systematicparole: subject to personal and situational constraintsAs a social product, langue is a set of conventions that members of a speech community seem to abide by. Parole, on the other hand, is the concrete use of the conventions.6.4 Competence vs. performance(语言能力和语言运用)Competence is the language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.Performance is the actual realization of language in concrete situation.Does our performance math our competence?A speaker’s competence is s__table___, but his performance is often influenced by p____sychological_______ factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed compentence.Where does the knowledge of language come from?Chomsky’s solution is to invoke the innate properties of the mind.What is the Similarity between these two pairs of distinction?Similarity: langue and competence both refer to the abstract knowledge, parole and performance both refer to the actual use knowledge.What is the difference between these two pairs of distinction?Difference: Langue: a social productCompetence: a property of the mind of each individualSaussure looks at language from a __sociological_________ point of view;Chomsky looks at it more from a ____psychological_________ point of view.。

What is linguistics？1.1什么是语言学?1.1 What is linguistics? 1.1什么是语言学?1.1.1 Definition定义Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It tries to answer the basic questions “What is language?", “How does language work?"，and “What rules are there that govern the structure of language?”It probes into various problems related to language such as “What do all languages have in common?”, “What range of variation is found among languages?", “What makes language change?", “To what extent are social class differences reflected in language?", “How does a child acquire his mother tongue?"，and many others.Linguistics studies not any particular language English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but it studies languages in general: It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to observe and collect language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses thus formed have to be, checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by sometheory remain a muddled mass of things.语言学普遍被定义为对语言进行的科学研究。

Definition of language: 语言的定义nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.First of all, language is a system, element of a language are combined according torules3.second, language is arbitrary in the sense that the forms of linguistic signs bear nonatural relationship to their meaning. Eg, a rose by any other name would smell as sweet4.third, language is vocal because the primary medium for language is second5.finally, the term “human” in the definition is meant t o specify that language ishuman-specific, it is very different from the communication system that other forms of life posses, such as bird songs and bee dances.6.short as it is, this definition has capture the main features of language.Ways of classifying words 词的分类1.first, inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes: theyvery often add a minute or delicate grammatical function only to the stem.Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single lexical item. However, derivational affixes are very productive in making new words.2.second, inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to,whereas derivational affixes might or might not.3.third, whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on otherfactors within the phrase or sentence. However, derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions4.forth, in English, most inflectional affixes are suffixes, which are always word final.However, derivational affixes can be either prefixes at the same time.traditional grammar and modern linguistics 传统语言学与现代语言学1. firstly, modern linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguistic is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said.2. secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Tradition grammarians tended to emphasize, maybe overemphasize, the importance of the written language.现代语言学中，口语是基本3. Thirdly, modern linguistics does not force language into a Latin-based framework. For a long time on the European continent it was unquestionably assumed that Latin provides a universal framework into which all languages fit.现代语言学不再局限于拉丁语function of componential analysis: 语义成分分析法It is claimed that by showing the semantic components of a word by means of componential analysis, we may better account for sense relations: 1. two words, or two expressions, which have the same semantic components will be sysnonymous with each other. eg. bachelor; unmarried man(相同语义且同义) are both said to have the components of Human, Adult, Male, and Unmarried, so they are synonymous with each other. 2. words which have a contrasting component, on the other hand, are antonyms, such as, man and woman, boy and girl, give and take. 3. words which have all the semantic components of another are hyponyms of child since they have all the semantic components of the other, namely, Human and Adult. （p104上）eg: man:+human, +adult, +male; woman:+human, +adult, +female; boy: +human,+young, +male; girl:+human, +young, +female.sense and reference are two related but different aspects of meaning 意义与指称sense is concerned with inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the same features of the linguistic form; it is abstract andde-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. eg. the meaning of "dog" in a certain dictionary. reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.1.obviously, linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situatims.eg. A: "I was once bitten by a dog"B :"mind you, there is a dog over there "2. on the other hand, there are also occasions, when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense.eg. morning star/ evening star述谓分析法predication analysis (definition, types)定义：something said about on argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.类型：four types of predication:1. no-place predication(containing no argument) It is late. --(BE LATE)2. one-place predication (containing one argument) He is laughing --(HE LAUGH)3. two-place predication (containing two arguments) The kids like apples--KID APPLE (LIKE)4. three-place predication (containing three arguments) I sent him a letter.--I HIM LETTER (SEND)Saussure's distinction of langue and parole and Chomsky's distinction of competence and performance(1) Saussure' langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and people refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance as the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.(2) similarity: both Saussure and Chomsky distinguis the abstract language system from the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study.(3) difference: Saussure's distinction is made from the sociological point of view and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, while Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the minal of each individual.1.Design feature:区别性特征：refer to the defining properties特点of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication2.duality双重性:by duality is meat the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level主级are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization3.displacement移位性：displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events, and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication4.metalingual function:元语言功能：a language can be used to analyze or describe a language5.prescriptive study:规定性研究：if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.6.diachronic study:历时性：diachronic linguistics in the study of a language throughthe curse of its history7.received pronunciation:标准发音：the type of British standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation8.manner of articulation:发音方式：degrees of obstruction of air stream, complete, partial, or mere narrowing（声道的哪些部位会出现靠拢，变窄或发生气流阻碍）9.cardinal vowel基本元音：are a set of qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages10.broad transcription宽式音标：when we use a simple set of symbols in transcription, it is called a broad transcription11.phoneme音位：a phoneme is a phonological unit. It is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phone in a certain phonetic context（抽象的，区别意义）12.minimal pair最小对立体：when different forms are identical完全相同in every way except for one sound segment部分, which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair13.distinctive features区别性特征:features used to distinguish one phoneme from another14.variable words可变词：variable words may have inflective changes. That is, the same word may have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant15.grammatical words语法词：those that mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text are grammatical words.16.closed-class words封闭词：a word that belongs to the closed class is one whose membership is fixed or limited17.morpheme语素：morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms18.bound morpheme黏着语素：must appear with at least one different morpheme, and are called bound morpheme19.derivational morpheme派生语素：affixes added to another morpheme to derive new words20.root词根: it is the part of the word that remains when all the affixes are removed, the part retained is the root nation21.blending拼缀法：blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words22.positional relation位置关系：refer to the sequential arrangement of words in a language指的是一门语言中词语的排列顺序23.constituent成分：are what a construction is made up of, and a construction is considered to have a hierarchical organization of constituent24.ultimate constituent最终成分: are the smallest grammatical unit obtained through segmentation25.contextualism语境论contextualism is based on the presumption推测that one can derive起源于meaning from or reduce meaning to observable看得见的contexts26.reference指称means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience27.argument论元a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements 名词元素in a sentence28.psycholinguistics心理语言学is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language。

DefinitionLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是一个用于人类交际的、具有任意性的语音符号系统。

Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.语言学通常被定义为对语言进行科学性研究的学科。

Arbitrariness(任意性) There is no intrinsic(本质的) connection between the word and the thing it denotes(表示).Duality(双层性) Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels, and it enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.Creativity(创造性) It makes possible the construction(结构) and interpretation(翻译) of new signals by its users.Displacement(移位性) Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places.Phonetics(语音学) is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages.语音学被定义为对语言的语音媒介的研究；它涉及所有出现在世界语言中的声音。

Chapter 1 Language and Linguistics(这一章主要探讨什么是语言，语言的功能是什么，语言的起源和分类，以及，什么是语言学，语言学的研究范围是什么)1.1 The nature of language---什么是语言？一句话总结，Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (systematic, symbolic, arbitrary, primarily vocal, human specific, used for communication)nguage is systematic 系统性（重点：语言的双重性duality）解释：language is systematic since element in it are arranged to certain rules.(e.g.only certain combination of sounds are possible in English)双重性duality: Each language is organized into two basic systems: a system of sound and a system of meaning.nguage is symbolic 符号性（重点：Icon, Index, Symbol 的区分）解释：there is no or little connection between the sounds that people use and objects to which the sounds refer.（这句话丝毫没重点，不过没办法，PPT上这么说，我觉得对符号性的理解应该是people use signs to communicate, which means that language involves signs 才有逻辑）因为：伟大的现代语言学之父Saussure: linguistics is a subdivision（分支）of semiology(符号学), dealing with language as a special means of human communication. （语言学是符号学的分支，是研究语言作为以一种特殊交流方法的学科。

语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used by social group for communication.Arbitrariness: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.Productivity:language is resourceful because of its duality and its reclusiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.Duality:the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of element of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Displacement:human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present(in time and spare) at the movement of communication. Cultural transmission:language is not genetically inherited. Passed from generation to generation, it requires some learning. It is true human are born with language capacity, but a particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one, rather than a genetic one like the dogs’ barking system.Interchangeability:any human being can be both a producer and receiver of messages.Language function:informative: language is the instrument of thought, record the facts. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development. Interpersonal: by far the most important sociological use of language, and by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.Performative: the performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of personsEmotive: to change the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.Phatic communion: we all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual contents.Recreational: the recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems so restrictive in purpose and supposedly so limited in usefulness. Metalingual: our language can be used to talk about itself.Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society. Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind. Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.Important distinctions in linguistics: 规定性Prescriptive .描述性Descriptive /8.共时语言学Synchronical linguistics 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics /5.语言能力Competence 6.语言运用performance /9.语言langue 10.言语parole /speech, writing/ traditional grammar and modern linguistics第二章音系学1 Phonologyis the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2 international phonetic alphabetA set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart, designed by the international phonetic association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice.3 consonants and vowelsConsonant are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing, which is so marked that air can not escape without producing audible friction.V owel is produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.4 cardinal vowelAre a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing language.5 anticipatory and perseverative co-articulationwhen such simultaneous or overlapping articulation are involved, we call the process co-articulation.If the sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as anticipatoryco-articulation. If the sound shows the influence of the proceeding sound,it is perseverative co-articulation.6PhonemeThe smallest of sound which can distinguish two words7AllophonesDifferent phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.8Minimal pairAre two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning.9free variationif two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast, that is the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, then the two words are in free variation. Chapter three 词汇学The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with meaning.Word :A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.Lexeme: the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts.Grammatical/Functional words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.Lexical/content words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.Open-class words: a word group whose membership is in principle in finite or unlimited. New members can be added.Closed-class words: a word group whose membership is fixed or limited, new members are not regularly added.Morphology; the study of word formation, the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Morphemes: the smallest unit language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves.Bound morphemes；those that can not occur aloneRoot: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. It is that part of a word-form that remains when all the inflectional affixes and derivational affixes have been removed.Affix: the types of formative/morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme.Base: any form to which affixes of any kind can be added; a form to which a rule of word formation is applied.Stem: the part of the word form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.Inflection: indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes. Derivation: combination of an existing word and an affix to form a new word. Compounding/composition is word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word-An Introduction to Modern Linguistics.Endocentric: one element serves as the head, of same syntactic class as the whole the relationship of ‘a kind of’.Exocentric: there is no head, no elements is of the same syntactic class as the whole, so not a relationship of ‘a kind of ‘something.Derivation: is also called ‘affixation’. It is the morphological process whereby grammatical of lexical information is added to the base.Conversion: is a word-formation process by which a word is altered from one part of speech to anther without the addition or deletion of any morpheme.Allomorph: some morphemes have a single form in all contexts. But a morpheme may have considerable variations, alternate shapes or phonetic forms called the allomorph.Blending: a process of word-information in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms.Back-formation: a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.Acronym: words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or scientific term, etc. it differs from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequence of letter.Initialism: a type of shortening, using the first letter of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or phrase; an initialism is pronounced letter by letter.Analogical creation: It can account for the coexistence of two forms, regular and irregular, I the conjugation of some English verbs.Loanwords: both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation. Loanblend: part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.Chapter 4 syntaxSyntax: the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply the study of the formation of sentences. Category: the term category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units.Phrase: is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause.Word group is an extension of word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged.Clause: a constituent with its own subjects and predicate when it is included in a lager sentence.Syntagmatic is a relation between one item and others in a sequence or between elements which are all present.Paradigmatic relation refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.grammatical construction; any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains. constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction.An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to one of its constituents, which serves as the center or head of the whole.Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including the basic sentence, the prepositional phrase, the predicate construction, and the connective construction. Subordinate construction those in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constituents dependent,Coordinate construction:there are more than one head, the head can stand for the original construction functionally.Deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a constructionSurface structure: the final stage in syntactic derivation of a construction.Chapter five SemanticsDenotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entities to which it refers. Thus it is equivalent to referential meaning. Connotation-opposite to denotation, means the properties of the entity a word denotes.Sense be defined as the semantics relations between one word and another, or more generally between the one linguistic unit and another.Reference: is concerned with the relation between a word and the thing it refers to , or more generally between a linguistic unit and non-linguistic entity it refers to. Synonymy-refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaningAntonymy-oppositeness of meaning.Complementary antonymy-the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.Converse/reversal antonyms/relational opposites-exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, one presupposes the other.Hyponymy上下义-inclusiveness, a relation of inclusion Compositionality-the idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constitute words and the way they are combined-the principle of compositionality.Polysemy一次多义-the same one word may have more than one meaning. Homonymy同音同形异义-the phenomenon that words having different meaning have the same form.Conceptual meaning-leech defined as the logical, cognitive, or denotative content. In other words, it overlaps to a large extent with the notion of reference.Linguistic semantics-the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particularPropositional logic-it is also know as propositional calculus or sentential calculus, is the study of the truth conditions for propositionsProposition-is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.。

Chapter 1 Invitation to LinguisticsLanguage The Definition(语言的定义)The Design Features Arbitrariness（本质特征）DualityCreativityDisplacement语言先天反射理论The Origin Of Language The bow-bow theory(语言的起源) The pooh-pooh theoryThe “yo-he-yo”theoryJacobos（与The Prague School一致）Referential Functions Of Language Ideational PoeticEmotiveHalliday Interpersonal ConativePhaticTextual MetalingualThe Basic Functions InformativeInterpersonalPerformativeEmotive functionPhatic communion(B.Malinowski 提出)Recreation functionMetalingual function Linguistics The DefinitionThe Main Branches of Linguistics Phonetics(微观语言学) PhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsPragmaticsMacrolinguistics Psycholinguistics(宏观语言学）SociolinguisticsAnthropological LinguisticsComputaioanl LinguisticsDescriptive &PrescriptiveSynchronic&DiachronicImportant Distinctions Langue&ParoleCompetence&PerformanceChapter 2 Speech SoundsPhonetics Acoustic Phonetics (声学语音学)语音学Auditory Phonetics(听觉语言学)Articulatory Phonetics(发声语音学)Speech Organs/Vocal organs(lungs ,trachea,throat,nose.mouth)IPA/Diacritics(变音符)Consonants The definitionThe manner of articulationArticulatory Phonetics The place of articulation(发声语音学)Vowels The definitionThe sound of English:RP/GACardinal vowelsThe requirements of descriptionCoarticulation Anticipatory CoarticulationPerseverative CoarticulationPhonetics transcription Narrow transcriptionBroad transcriptionPhonology 音位理论Minimal Pairs（c ut&p ut）Phone&Phonemes&Allophone(音素&音位&音位变体)音系学C omplementary DistributionFree variants(自由变体)/variation(自由变体现象)Phonological contrasts or opposition(音位对立)Distinctive Features(First developed by Jacobson as a meansof working out a set of phonological contrasts or opposition toCapture particular aspect of language sounds)progressive assimilationPhonological Process音系过程Assimilation Progressive assimilation音素是语音学研究的单位。

Definition: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is arbitrary, which means that there is no logical connection between the signal form and the thing being referred to.Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.Duality means that language is organized at two levels simultaneously.Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, future or in far-away places.Cultural transmission means that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.…………………………Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the primary medium.Speech precedes writing.Speech is used more widely than writing.Speech is always the way in which native speakers acquire their mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later.……………………………The study of the phonic medium of language The study of speech sounds: the way in which they are articulated, the way in which they are perceived, their physical characteristics.bilabial Labio-dental dental alveolar palatal velar glottal Plosives(stops) VL p t kVD b d gFricatives VL f θs ʃh VD v ð z ʒAffricates VL ʧVD ʤNasals VD m n ηLiquids VL l, rGlides VD w jPhoneme音素: an abstract unit of distinctive value in phonology; a collection of distinctive phonetic features placed in slashes.Allophones音位变体: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes, such as /p/ and /b/ in rope and robe, occur in the same phonetic environments and distinguish meaning, they are said to form a phonemic contrast. Complementary distribution: if two allophones of the same phoneme, such as clear [l] and dark [ɫ] in leap and build, occur in different phonetic environments and do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, they are said to be in complementary distribution.Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.A morpheme词素is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.Free morphemes: those which may constitute words by themselves.e.g. at in on foot rain treatBound morphemes: those which cannot normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form. All affixes in English are bound morphemes.e.g. –tion, -ism, -al, -er, -ed, -ing, -able, -lyDerivational morphemes: those that are added to a root to form a new word that differs usually in part-of-speech from the root. e.g.black---blacken, social---socialize adj.→v.affection---affectionate, alcohol---alcoholic n.→adj.Inflectional morphemes: those that indicate certain grammatical properties associated with nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.8Syntax：The study of how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Syntactic category refers to a word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object.Deep structure: the sentences generated by using phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon. (one that exists before movement takes place)Surface structure: the sentences derived from the application of syntactic movement rules(one that occurs after movement takes place) It is the final representation of a sentence. Semantics:the study of the inherent meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. (the meaning in isolation from the context)Five kinds of synonyms:Dialectal synonyms------synonyms used in different regional dialectse.g. autumn---fall, lift---elevator, windscreen---windshieldStylistic synonyms------synonyms differing in style e.g. kid, child, offspringc. Affective Synonyms-------These are words that bear the same meaning but express different emotions of the user, indicating the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about.like,love,admired. Collocational synonyms----------Some synonyms differ in their collocation, i.e. in the words they go together with.e. Semantically different synonyms Synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean. e.g.amaze (confusion and bewildment)了解Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.homophones: identical in soundhomographs: identical in spellingcomplete homonyms: identical in both sound and spelling记Gradable antonyms (mainly adj.)Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair.Complementary antonyms: A pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other and the assertion of one means the denial of the other.Relational opposites:The members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition.。

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phonetics (语音学) : it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;Phonology (音位学):it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;Morphology (形态学):it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;Syntax (句法): it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;Semantics (语义学): it studies meaning conveyed by language;Pragmatics (语用学): it studies the meaning in the context of language use.Sociolinguistics (社会语言学): The language a person uses often reveals his social background, and there exist social norms that determine the type of language to be used on a certain occasion; and language changes are often caused by social changes. The study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of branch called sociolinguistics. Psycholinguistics (语言心理学): relates the study of language to psychology.Applied linguistics (应用语言学):finding in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability.Langue (语言):refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole (言语): refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Competence (语言能力):Chomsky defines as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance (语言行为): the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Unit 2 Phonetics (音位学):is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world’s language.Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学): from the speaker’s view, how the speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学): from the hearer’s view, how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学): from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted for one to another.Suprasegmental features (超切分特征): the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. These are the phonological properties of such units as syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.Unit 3Morphology (形态学):refer to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.Morpheme (词素): the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.Unit 4 Syntactic categories (句法范畴): a fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes.Phrase: syntactic unit that are built around a certain word category. The category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.Phrase structure rule(短语结构规则): a certain word can only concur with certain other words. There must be certain grammatical mechanism that ensures the appropriate positions that specifiers, heads, and complements occupy in phrase structure. It is the special type ofgrammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase. Subcategorization(次范围化):the information about a word’s complement is included in the head.Complementizers(补语化成分): words which introduce the sentence complement. Transformation (转换): a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.Deep structure (深层结构):formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties.Surface structure (表层结构): corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations.Unit 5 major views concerning the study of meaning(1) The naming theory(命名论): proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view (概念论): has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view（语境论）: held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ––elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was J.R. Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists（行为论）: attempted to define the m eaning of a language form as the ―situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.‖ This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.Sense (意义): is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features. It is abstract and de-contextualized.Reference (语义): means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. Synonymy (近义词): refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Polysemy (多义性):the same word have more than one meaning. Historically speaking, polysemy can be understood as the growth and development of or change in the meaning of words.Homonymy (同音异义): refer to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound ( homophones 同音)or spelling ( homographs 同形), or in both (complete homonyms 同形同音异义).Hyponymy (下义关系): refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.Superordinate (上坐标词): the word which is more general in meaning.Hyponyms (下义词): the more specific words.Antonymy (反义现象): is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning. Gradable antonyms (可分级的反义词):there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. Eg. Old and young, cold and hotComplementary antonyms(互补反义词):a pair of CA is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. Male or female, alive or dead.Relational opposites (关系上相反):pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items. Husband and wife, teacher and student, buy and sell.Unit 6 Pragmatics (语用学):a general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Constatives (叙事话语): were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable. Performatives （行事话语）: were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.Locutionary act (言内行为):is the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology.Illocutionary act (言外行为):is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. It is the act performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act （言后行为）: is the act performed by or resulting from saying something. Pragmatic failure (语用失误): occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communication purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication. Pragmalinguistics (语用语言学): is applied to the more linguistic end of pragmatics, i.e. how the linguistic forms of a language are used to serve specific pragmatic purpose.Sociopragmatics (社交语用学): is the sociological interface of pragmatics, it is concerned with the customary ways in which people of a particular culture behave to achieve a particular purpose. Unit 7 Historical linguistics (历史语言学):is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.Fusion (融合): refers to this type of grammaticalization ( some lexical forms became grammaticalized over time) in which words develop into affixes, either prefixes or suffixes. Addition of new words: {Coinage (创新词): a new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, mostly for new things and objects. (Kodak 柯达)Clipped words (缩略词):A kind of abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases. (gym-gymnasium)Blending (紧缩词): A process of forming a new word by combining parts of two other words. (smog-smoke+fog)Acronyms (词首字母缩略词): A word created by combining the initials of a number of words. (CEO-chief executive officer)Back-formation (逆构词法): A process by which new words are formed by taking away he suffix of an existing word. (to beg-derived from begger)Functional shift (功能性变化): words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes, which is also called conversion. (N-V, V-N….)Borrowing (借用): when different cultures come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another.}Unit 8 Speech community (言语社团): in sociolinguistic studies, speakers are regarded as members of social groups. The social group that is singled out for any special study is called…Speech variety (言语变体): or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.Regional dialect (地域方言): is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.Sociolect (社会方言): has to do with separation brought about by different social conditions.Register(语域):A functional speech or language variety that involves degrees of formality depending on the speech situation concerned.{ field of discourse (话语范围): refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose and subject-matter of communication. ―why‖ and ―about what‖Tenor of discourse (话语基调): refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other. ―to whom‖Mode of discourse (话语方式):refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with ―how‖ communication is carried out.Pidgin (皮钦语): is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.Creole (克里奥尔语，混合语):when a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language. Bilingualism (双语现象): in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and languages switching occurs when the situation changes. (Canada, Belgium, Australia, Singapore, Switzerland, Pakistan, Uganda, part of USA)Diglossia(双言现象) :A sociolinguistic situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each serving a particular social function and used for a particular situation. (Arabic, Modern Greek, Swiss German, Haitian Creole)Unit 9 Linguistic relativity (语言相对性):different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, and so they think and speak differently.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (萨丕尔沃尔夫假说): they believe that languages filters people’s perception and the way they categorize their experiences. The interdependence of language and thought is known as…Acculturation (同化过程): is the process of changing in material culture, traditional practices, and beliefs that occurs when one group’s cultural system interferes with that of another, directly or indirectly challenging the latter to adapt to the ways of the former.Assimilation: is the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnicity are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society- though not always completely.Amalgamation (文化融合): when a society becomes ethnically mixed in a way that represents a synthesis rather than the elimination or absorption of one group by another.Cultural overlap (文化重叠):between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings.Cultural diffusion (文化扩散): through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B.Linguistics imperialism (语言学中的帝国主义): is a kind of linguicism which can be defined as the promulgation of global ideologies through the worldwide expansion of one language. Intercultural communication: also known as cross-cultural communication, is acommunication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.Unit 10 Language acquisition (语言习得): Language acquisition refers to the development of the Child’s acquisition of his mother tongue or first language, i.e, how he comes to understand and to speak the language of his community.The behaviorist view: believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habitformation.Language Acquisition Device (语言习得机制): the LAD was described as an imaginary ―black box‖ existing somewhere in the human brain. The ―black brain‖ is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages. Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate the LAD, which enables them to discover his language's structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular language.Logical problem (逻辑问题): means the fact that children come to know more about the structure of their language than they could reasonably be expected to learn from the language samples available.The Interactionist view:holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows. Motherese or caretaker talk (保姆式语言): shares such characteristics as slow rate of speech, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures, frequent repetition, paraphrasing and limited vocabulary.Critical Period Hypothesis (临界期假说): Eric Lenneberg, a biologist, argued that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully when it is stimulated at the right time—a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.Telegraphic speech (电文式言语):contains content words(实词) which provide listeners with some information and lack the function elements(起功能作用成分), or function words which by themselves tell nothing.Atypical language development (abnormal language development): may occur due to trauma or injury. It includes hearing impairment (听力受损) (which can be slight or severe and may lead to minor loss or total lack of language), mental retardation (智障) (which may cause a delayed language acquisition), autism (自闭症)(language impairment from the very beginning), stuttering (口吃) (repetition of sounds, syllables, or phrases where the speaker can not ―release‖the words),aphasia (失语症)(partial or total loss of language due to the brain damage) and dyslexia (失读症) and dysgraphia (书写困难) (disorders in reading and writing which may be acquired or developmental).Unit 11 Second language acquisition (SLA):formally establshed itself as a discipline around 1970s, refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.Interlanguage (中介语): according to Selinker’s definition, is defined as an abstract system of learners’target language system and it has now been widely used to refer to the linguistic expressions learners produce, esp. the wrong or not idiomatic ones.The approximate language system that a second language learner constructs which represents his or her transitional competence in the target language.Fossilization(语言僵化): A process that sometimes occurs in second language learning in which incorrect linguistic features (such as the accent of a grammatical pattern) become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes in the target language.Universal Grammar (国际语法): The different languages have a similar level of complexity and detail, and reflect general abstract properties of the common linguistic system is called.. Contrastive Analysis (对比分析): It refers to a comparative procedure used to establish linguistic differences between two languages so as to predict learning difficulties caused by interference from the learner’s first language and prepare the type of teaching materials that will reduce theeffects of interference.补充establish linguistic differences between native and target language systems.Error Analysis (错误分析):An approach to the study and analysis of the errors made by the second language learners which suggests that many learner errors are not due to the learner’ s mother tongue interference but reflect universal learning strategies such as over-generalization and simplification of rules.Interlingual errors (语际错误，受母语影响的错误): mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical or discoursal, etc. Intralingual errors (语内错误):mainly result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language.Overgeneralization (概括过头): is defined as the use of previously available strategies in new situations.Cross-association (互相联想):words which are similar in meaning. Their spelling and pronunciation are also alike. The close association of the two often leads to confusion. Language transfer (转移):It refers to the learners will subconsciously use their knowledge in learning a second language. Transfer can be either positive or negative.Acquisition (习得): is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules.Learning (学习): refers to conscious effort to learn the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.Comprehensible input (可理解的语言输入): Krashen defined it as ―i+1‖: i represents learners’current state of knowledge, the next stage is the i+1. By providing comprehensible input which is slightly above the learners’current level, the learners’LAD will be activated and contribute to acquisition.Intake (纳入): the actual share of input that has been internalized by the learner.Language aptitude (语言能力倾向): refers to the natural ability for learning a second language. It is believed to be related to a learner’s general intelligence.Motivation (动机): defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive, has a strong impact on his efforts in learning a second language.{ instrumental motivation (工具型动机): which occurs when people learn a foreign language for external goals such as passing exams, financial rewards or furthering a career etc.Integrative motivation (融合型动机): the drive that people learn a foreign language because of the wish to identify with the target culture.Resultative motivation (结果型动机): learners learn a second language for external purposes. Intrinsic motivation (内在动机): learners learn a second language for enjoyment or pleasure from learning.}Learning strategies (学习策略):are learners’conscious, goal-oriented and problem solving based efforts to achieve desirable learning efficiency.{cognitive strategies (认知策略): strategies involved in analyzing, synthesizing, and internalizing what has been learned.Metacognitive strategies (元认知策略): the techniques in planning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning.Affect /social strategies (情感、社交策略): dealing with the ways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native.}。