Chapter00 Introduction

章节的介绍英文作文英文：Chapter introduction is an important part of any book or academic text. It provides readers with a brief overview of what they can expect to find in the chapter and helps them decide whether or not to continue reading. In this essay, I will discuss the importance of chapter introductions and provide some examples of effective ones.Firstly, chapter introductions serve as a roadmap for readers. They provide a clear outline of what will be covered in the chapter, which helps readers to understand the structure of the text and how the different sections relate to each other. This is especially important in academic texts, where readers need to be able to navigate complex arguments and ideas.Secondly, chapter introductions can be used to hook readers and make them interested in reading further. A goodintroduction should grab the reader's attention and make them curious about what comes next. This can be achieved through the use of anecdotes, quotes, or provocative statements.Finally, chapter introductions can be used to set the tone for the chapter. Depending on the subject matter, the tone of the introduction can be serious, humorous, or somewhere in between. This helps to create a sense of continuity throughout the text and makes it more engaging for readers.In conclusion, chapter introductions are an important part of any book or academic text. They provide readers with a roadmap, hook them in, and set the tone for the chapter. Good introductions can make the difference between a reader continuing to read or putting the book down.中文：章节介绍是任何书籍或学术文本的重要部分。

Translation Theory and Practice刘辉I cannot make you into a good translator; I cannot cause you to write well. The best I can do is to suggest to you some general guidelines for translating. … By offering plenty of examples I hope to provide enough practice for you to improve your performance as a translator.(Peter Newmark: A Textbook of Translation. p4)Chapter One IntroductionDefinition of translationNature of translationTypes of translationThe makings of a good translatorI. Definition of translationTo turn from one language to another(从一种语言转换成另一种语言)（The Oxford English Dictionary）To turn into one’s own or another language(转换成本族语或另一种语言)(Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language)⏹把一种语言文字的意义用另一种语言文字表达出来（《辞海》《汉语大词典》）⏹翻译是两种语言之间“转换”活动，转换的内容是“意义”⏹Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of thesource-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.---Eugene A.Nida所谓翻译，是指在译语中用最切近而又自然的对等语再现原语的信息，首先在语义上，其次是文体上。

Chapter OneIntroductionI．What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general. It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.II．The scope of linguistics1. Phonetics：The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.2. Phonology: deals with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.3. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.4. Syntax:The combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax.5. Semantics: The study of meaning is known as semantics.6. Pragmatics: When the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.7. Sociolinguitics: The study of social aspects of languages and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolinguitics.8. Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology.9. Applied linguistics: Findings in linguistics studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.III. Some important distinctions in linguistics1. Prescriptive vs. descriptiveIf a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behaviour in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.2.Synchronic vs. diachronicThe description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.3. Speech and writingSpeech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.4. Langue and paroleThe distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure inthe early 20th century. Langue and parole are French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.petence and performanceThe distinction between competence and performance was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.6.Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsTraditional grammar refers to the studies of language before the publication of F. de Saussure’s book Course in General Linguistics in 1916. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.First, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary not the written.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.IV. What is language?L anguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.Design features1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.3) DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place. 5) Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis while the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.2.Functions of Language1)InformativeIt is the major role of language. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development.2)Interpersonal functionIt is the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.Attached to the interpersonal function of language is its function of the expression of identity.3)PerformativeThis concept originates from the philosophical study of language presented by Austin and Searle, whose theory now forms the backbone of pragmatics.The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons as in marriage ceremonies, the blessing of children and the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.4)Emotive functionThe emotive function of language is one the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. e.g. God, my, Damn it...5)Phatic communionThe term originates from Malinnowski’s study of the functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. It refers to the social interaction of language.We all use small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day to maintain a comfortable relationship between people.6)Recreational functionNo one will deny the use of language for the sheer joy of using it such as a baby’s babbling.7)Metalingual functionOur language can be used to talk about itself. For example, we can use the word “book”to talk about the book.Chapter TwoPhonologyI.Speech production and perceptionA speech sound goes through a three step process. Naturally, the study of sounds is dividedinto three areas, each dealing with one part of the progress.1. Articulatory phoneticsIt is the study of the production of speech sounds.2.Acoustic phoneticsIt is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.3.Auditory phoneticsIt is concerned with the perception of the sounds produced in speech.II.Speech organsSpeech organs are also known as vocal organs. They are those parts of the human bodyinvolved in the production of speech.Speech organs mainly consist of the vocal cords and three cavities which are the pharynx, the oral cavity and the nasal cavity.The vocal cords are in the larynx, the front part of which is called “the Adam ’s Apple.” III. ConsonantsClassification of English consonantsEnglish consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.IV.VowelsClassification of English vowelsV owels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. V owels can also be distinguished according to the openness of the mouth: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.• Nouns Adjectives • Lips Labial / Bilabial • Teeth Dental • Alveolar ridge Alveolar • Hard palate Palatal • Soft palate Velar • Uvula Uvular• Pharynx Pharyngeal • Tip Apical • Blade Laminal • Front Dorsal •Back Dorsal• Consonants Place • /p/ /b/ Bilabial • /t/ /d/ Tip-alveolar • /k/ /g/ Back-velar • /t ʃ/ /d ʒ/ Blade/front – palato-alveolar • /m/ Bilabial • /n/ Tip-alveolar • /ŋ / Back-velar • Consonants Place • /p/ /b/ Bilabial • /t/ /d/ Tip-alveolar • /k/ /g/ Back-velar• /t ʃ/ /d ʒ/ Blade/front –palato-alveolar• /m/ Bilabial• /n/ Tip-alveolar •/ŋ / Back-velarV. Phonology and phonetics1. Phonetics is concerned with the general nature of speech sound while phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.2. Phone, phoneme, and allophone– A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.– A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented orrealized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.–The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, thephoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark /l/, clear /l/, etc. which areallophones of the phoneme.3. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairIf the phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast, e.g. /p/ and /b/ in /pit/ and /bit/.If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution. For instance, the clear /l/ always occurs before a vowel while the dark /l/ always occurs between a vowel and a consonant, or at the end of a word. So the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. So in English, pill and bill are a minimal pair.4. Some rules in phonologySequential rules, Assimilation rule, Deletion rule5. Supra-segmental features—stress, tone, intonationStress:Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress.The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Sentence stress refers to the relative force given to the component of a sentence. The part of speech that are normally stressed in an English sentence are nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns; the other categories of words like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are usually not stressed.Tone:Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish meaning just like phonemes; therefore, the tone is a supra-segmental feature. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in what we call tone languages. E.g. Chinese.Intonation:When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English.Chapter ThreeMorphologyI. Open class and closed classIn English, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are the content words of a language, which are sometimes called open class words, since we can regularly add new words to these classes.The other syntactic categories include “grammatical” or “functional” words. Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronounces consist of relatively few words and have been referred to as being closed class words since new words are not usually added to them.II. Internal structure of words and rules for word formationMorphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.e.g. like—dislike order—disorder appear—disappear approve-–disapproveagree—disagree“dis-”is a prefix means “not”, and placed before a root-wordIII. Morphemes—the minimal units of meaningSome words are formed by combining a number of distinct units of meaning. The most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.The following list shows that in English a single word may consist of one or more morphemes.One morpheme: desireTwo morphemes: desire + ableThree morphemes: desire + able + ityFour morphemes: un + desire + able + ityIn fact every word in every language is composed of one or more morphemes.Prefixes occurs only before other morphemes while suffixes occur only after other morphemes.IV. Derivational and inflectional morphemesIn English there are morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words. A verb, for example, is formed by adding –en to the adjective black—blacken, or by adding -ize to the noun computer—computerize.More examples: noun—adjective affection + ateAlcohol + ic-en, -ate, and –ic are thus called derivational morphemes, because when they are conjoined to other morphemes (or words) a new word is derived, or formed.Similarly, there are bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case, aspect and so on.Such bound morphemes are referred to as inflectional morphemes.V. Morphological rules of word formationThe ways words are formed are called morphological rules. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.Some of the morphological rules can be used quite freely to form new words. We call them productive morphological rules.Un + accept + able = un + adjective = not adjectiveVI. CompoundsAnother way to form new words, or compound words, to be exact, is by stringing words together, as shown in the examples below:Chapter FourSyntaxI. What is syntax?Synta x is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.II. CategoriesCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.A fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.1. Word level categories are divided into two kinds: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories.2. Phrase categories and their structuresSyntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. In English syntactic analysis, the most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories are noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP) and prepositional phrase (PP).Whether formed of one or more than one word, they consist of two levels, Phrase level and word level as exemplified below.NP VP AP PP ←phrase level||||N V A P ←word levelPhrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: head, specifier and complement. The word around which a phrase is formed is termed head. The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. The words on the right side of the heads are complements.3 Phrase structure ruleThe special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) …VP →(Qual) V (NP) …AP →(Deg) A (PP) …PP →(Deg) P (NP) …The arrow can be read as “consist of ”or “branches into”. The parentheses mean that the element in them can be omitted and the three dots in each rule indicate that other complement options are available.4.XP ruleThe XP rule: XP →(specifier) X (complement)5. X¯ Theorya. XP → (Specifier) X¯b. X¯→ X (complement)The first rule stipulates that XP categories such as NP and VP consist of an optional specifier (a determiner, a qualifier, and so forth) and an X¯. The second rule states that an X¯consists of a head, X, and any complements.6. Phrase elementsSpecifierSpecifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners, qualifiers and degree words as well.ComplementsAs we have seen, complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implies by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English.The XP Rule (revised): XP → (Specifier) X (Complement*)This rule also captures the simple but important fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.ModifiersModifiers specify optionally expressible properties of heads.Table 4-2 Modifier position in EnglishModifier Position ExampleAP Precedes the head A very careful girlPP Follows the head Open with careAdvP Precedes or follows the head Read carefully; carefully readTo make modifiers fit into phrase structure, we can expand our original XP rule into the following so that it allows the various options.The Expanded XP rule: XP → (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement,a modifier that occurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement as well.7. Sentences (The S rule)The S rule: S →NP VPWhich combines an NP (often called the subject) with a VP to yield a sentence such as the one bellow.Many linguists nowadays believe that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. They take an abstract category inflection (dubbed “Infl”) as their heads, which indicates the sentence’s tense and agreement.8. Deep structure and surface structureThere are two levels of syntactic structure. Te first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategories, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).The organization of the syntactic component of the grammar can be depicted below.The XP Rule↓DEEP STRUCTURE ←（Sub-categorization restricts choice of complements）↓Transformations↓SURFACE STRUCTUREChapter FiveSemanticsI. What is semantics?Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning. In our discussion, we will limit ourselves to the study o meaning from linguistic point of view.II. Some views concerning the study of meaning1 The naming theoryThe naming theory was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, according to which the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.2 The conceptualist viewConceptualist view relates words and things through the mediation of concepts of the mind. This view holds that there is no link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. This is best illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested by Ogden and Richards:3. ContextualismThe contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context. The representative linguist of the view is Firth who is influenced by Molinonwsky and Wittgenstein.4. BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” (Bloomfield, 1933) Behaviorism in linguistics holds that children learn language through a chain of “Stimulus-Response reinforcement”and the adult’s use of language is also a process of Stimulus-Response. For the theory, Bloomfield put forward the well-known formula:S →r …………………s →RHere S stands fro practical stimulus, r stands for the substitute reaction of speech, s stands for the substitute stimulus, and R stands for external practical reaction.III. Lexical meaning1. Sense and referenceSense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2. Major sense relationsSynonymySynonymy refers to the sameness or closed similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.PolysemyWhile different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy.HononymyHononymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.HyponymyHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.AntonymyThe term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.i. Gradable antonyms; ii. Complementary antonyms; iii. Relational opposites3. Sense relations between sentencesi. X is synonymous with Yii. X is inconsistent with Yiii. X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X)iv. X presupposes Y. (Y is a prerequisite of X)v. X is a contradictionvi. X is semantically anomalous.4. Analysis of meaningComponential analysis—a way to analyze lexical meaningComponential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. By componential analysis, linguist looks at each word as a bundle of different features or components.Prediction analysis—a way to analyze sentence meaningWhether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectionalrestrictions, i.e., constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.Chapter SixPragmaticsI. DefinitionPragmatics can be defined in various ways. A general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying and understanding meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.II. ContextThe notion of context is essential to the pragmatics study of language. Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.III. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningWhile the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.IV. Speech act theory1 Austin’s model of speech actsSpeech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated wit the British philosophy John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. This is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?”According to speech act theory, we are performing action when we are speaking. A speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.2. Searl e’s classification of speech actAccording to Searle, an American philosophy, speech acts fall into five general categories, i.e., there are five general types of things we do with language, Specific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point, but differ in their strength.1) representatives: stating or describing, saying that the speaker believes to be true.2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something3. Principle of conversationPaul Grice’s idea is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. This general principle is called the Cooperative Principle.。

Chapter One IntroductionWith the development of the global cross-cultural communication, the introduction of film and television works which serve as a type of culture carrier promotes the exchange and collision between two different cultures. In recent years, increasing number of foreign films and television works were introduced into China and people can get access to them through many different ways like theaters, television or just internet which is more convenient. However, because of the language barrier and cultural differences, only with the help of Chinese captions can a great majority of the audience could understand the meaning，even the spirit in it better, and experience an audio-visual feast while getting their inner heart deeply touched. Subtitle is not only recreation of the original language, but also it is a kind of aesthetic activity. With the growing call for the return of aesthetics in the realm of translation recently, there is increasing need to study subtitle translation from the perspective of aesthetics.In China, aesthetics is of special significance to Chinese translation, in which the combination of aesthetics and translation is one of its greatest characteristics. Some scholars believe that aesthetics is the base of Chinese traditional translation. Although western translation theory builds on philosophy, it also has a long history in terms of aesthetics. So it is reasonable to integrate aesthetics and translation together. Beauty is everywhere even in the language itself and it is one of the basic properties of language as well. Preference for beauty is a common nature of human, which is a universal phenomenon. Take the following as examples, in China when people refer to the old, they use probably “双鬓斑白” instead of “满脸皱纹”. Again, “oval” is adopted to describe a girl’s face rather than using the image of the duck egg. Also because of the beautiful rhythm of language, “mathematics, physics, chemistry” is preferred than any other group of combination o f the three subjects. This potential principle applies to English as well. In English, it is not the“work at another job at night” but the “moonlight” suggests that someone takes a second job during night. In addition, there is no exception for translation. Collecting the most classical part of novel, drama, music, arts, dance and photography in it, movie is a kind of comprehensive art. Therefore, how to reappear the beauty of subtitle to audience becomes the focus of filmtranslation.Chapter Two Translation Aesthetics2. 1 Definition of Translation AestheticsAccording to the “A Dictionary of Translation Studies” edited by Fang Mengzhi, translation Aesthetics reveals the aesthetical origin of translation, studies the special significance of aesthetics on translation, discovers the scientific and artistic feature of translation from the aesthetic perspective and put forwards aesthetic standards towards different type of translation texts, in order to analysis, interpret and solve the aesthetic problems in intercultural conversion by using basic aesthetic principles.With full understanding of the basic properties of translation aesthetic subject (the original work) and the aesthetic object (translator), we can analysis the made up of aesthetic object and the dynamic effect of the aesthetic subject, clarify the relationship between aesthetic subject and aesthetic object and provide the reproduction of aesthetic with means and different forms; therefore, it all can be used to instruct translation practice.2.2 The Development of Translation AestheticsIn China, translation has a rather long history dating back to about 1800 years ago in terms of the translation of Buddhist texts. Taking a look at this, it is not difficult to find that almost all the translation theories is inseparable with aesthetics, and this is also the general trend of history and cultural pattern in future. From the theory “Exquisite Diction” by Zhi Qian, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” by Yan Fu, “Spiritual Conformity” by Fu Lei, the “Theory Sublimation” promoted by Qian Zhongshu to the “Three Beauties” by Xu Yuanchong and so on, each provides strong support to the natural birth of translation aesthetics in history. Having absorbed the essence of beauty, all of these theories suggest obvious aesthetic features —emphasis on faithfulness, parataxis and beauty of connotation, which glitters just like gold.In modern period, translation theories mainly focus on the translation standards, translation processes and translation methods before 1970s. While after that, increasing researchers use descriptive methods to study translation theory and therefore has developed a deep understanding towards it. Translation aesthetics enter the systematical researching period in this background. “Practical Translation Aesthetics” by Fu Zhong in 1993 is the first translation aesthetic monograph in our country. It talks about the main categories of translation aesthetic, namely aesthetic subject, aesthetic object, aesthetic activity, standards of translation aesthetics and the method of reappearance of beauty. “Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation”published in 2000 by Xi Yongji is one of representative works studying comparative literary translation. While “Aesthetics Process during Liter ary Translation: the Reconstruction of Gestalt Image”authorized by Jiang Qiuxia in 2002 primarily focuses on the aesthetic process. In 2005 Mao Ronggui published “Translation Aesthetics”which is made up of four parts and expands the research scope of translation theory and practice. However, the most important work in the field may be “An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics” by Liu Miqing. It has fully reflected the author’s thought about Chinese translation aesthetics and posed a rather important position in the connection between western aesthetics and basic Chinese translation theory.Globally, the developing trend of translating field and the “Cultural Turn” have created suitable environment for the birth of translation aesthetics. It is widely acknowledged that aesthetics belong to culture and translation is a kind of communication, so translation is a way to transfer beauty in essence. Therefore, we got to know that the outcome of translation aesthetics can not be resisted.2.3 Achievements of Translation AestheticsThe book Aesthetic Progression inLiterary Translation: Image- G Actualization, written by Jiang Qiuxia in herdoctorial paper in 2002, holds that there is no way to unveil the “black box” existing in human psychology. So it uses descriptive method to explore the psychological mechanism of the reconstruction of gestalt image in literary translation. Besides, it emphasizes how the reader (the translator) can make use of gestalt psychology to recreate the whole image of the original works and present the target readers with the equivalence between original works and target works. This is, from the Angle of aesthetics, development of Nida's functional equivalence theory (2000). Since there is no complete equivalence translation, “functional equivalence” may be the best choice, generally speaking. In general it is best to speak of “functional equivalence” in terms of a range of adequacy, since no translation is ever completely equivalent. A number of different translations can in fact represent varying degrees of equivalence. This means that “equivalence” cannot be understood in its mathematical meaning of identity, but only in terms of proximity, i.e. on the basis of degrees of closeness to functional identity. (Nida , 2000 :117)This type of aesthetic has taken advantage of Gestalt psychology. (Lakoff, 1982:20)defined Gestalt in such a way —take the thing as an independent gestalt from the perspective of wholeness on that level. While at a lower level in order to give confirmation, specific details needs to be picked out. Gestalt recreation is the basic principle of translation aesthetics —interdisciplinary subject, which benefits from translation studies, literary studies, aesthetic and cognitive psychology. Gestalt image is a new conception out of the old idea of “image” as literary metaphor or symbol mainly concerned in poetry. When explored in this context as a holistic whole, it is taken as a relatively independent contextual entity rather than a single word or words constitution.) ( 姜秋霞,2002 : 241) Broadly speaking, translation studies，a discipline in the development period, is in constant growth and expansion. “An Introduction of Translation Aesthetics (revision, Peter, 2005)”reprinted by China Translation and Publishing Corporation greatly enriched and developed the theory of translation aesthetics.2.4 Prospect of Translation AestheticsFrom the perspective of prose translation, Wang Hongtao (2006:2006-4) categorizes Western and Chinese Comparative Aesthetic into three levels: Western and Chinese Comparative Translation Aesthetics; prose translation under the Chinese and western Comparative Aesthetics; the meaning of application of Chinese and Western Comparative Aesthetics in prose translation. As can be seen, translation aesthetic has marched no matter in terms of aesthetic subject, aesthetic reception or gestalt aesthetics. This is of great benefit to future translation aesthetic development. However, we should not only strongly opposite the overuse of aesthetics in translating field but also fight against the pseudo translation aesthetics. What we pursuit are the unity of formal beauty, implicational beauty and receiving beauty, and the unity of universal law and special performance of translation aesthetics. Meanwhile, we can not promise translation is filled with aesthetics, but translation can also not be totally separated from aesthetics. There are not only inheritance, experience from others but also merit and recreation in itself. So it is necessary to find out whether “Tr anslation Aesthetics”, created by Chinese scholars, has fully absorbed the widely acknowledged theories — Aesthetics of Reception and Gestalt. This is a blessing as well as a new issue for China’s translation studies.Chapter Three Subtitle Translation3.1 Definition of Subtitle TranslationUp to now, there is not an authorized definition about translating subtitles. Following are some definitions:(1)Subtitling can be defined as the process of providing synchronizedcaptions for film and television dialogue (and more recently for live opera)(2)Subtitling, sometimes referred to as captions, are transcriptions of film orTV dialogue, presented simultaneously on the screen.(3) A subtitle is a printed statement or fragment of dialogue appearing on thescreen between the scenes of a silent motion picture or appearing as a translation at the bottom of the screen during the scenes of a motion picture or television show in a foreign language.(4)··· the words printed or super imposed on a film in a foreign language totranslate what is being said on the sound track ···Although all these definitions explained subtitle in some degree, it is far from enough. The first definition points out that subtitle translation is used as a process to provide synchronization instruction for film and television dialogue. The second definition is similar to the first one, but the category where the subtitle suits is too narrow in those two definitions for the following two reasons: first of all, it is limited to film and television. In fact, if possible, subtitle is applied to any kind of multimedia. Secondly, apart from film and television, subtitle can also be used to give illustration to even the non-dialogue texts. The third definition refers to the caption that is displayed in the silent film or at the bottom of television screen. It serves as interpretation to another language or just illustrative fragments and this definition has fully explained the concept of subtitles. Definition four indicates translating the language being played in the sound track into another and printing it on the film. However, translating subtitle does not refer to the language that is being said at themoment.From the above, we also get to know that subtitle is a kind of text but with a different presenting mode like the common one. And it is this special presenting form that makes subtitle limited in many aspects.3.2 Characteristics of Subtitle TranslationSubtitle provides the audience with a large mount of information about the multimedia works. Following are four of its characteristics:3.2.1 ComprehensivenessComprehensiveness refers that subtitles must appear together with other factors of the film and television programs like sound and picture image at the same time instead of showing alone. The audience are willing to hear the actors as well as the music, background sounds and seeing the picture changes. The audience enjoy the film and television by watching the motion picture, listening to the dialogue and reading the subtitles and so on. So without pictures and sounds, the film and television can not convey the information fully; without captions, the effect of sounds and pictures can not achieve the best level. Generally speaking, in all of the factors mentioned above, pictures and sounds are the most important, while subtitles serve only as an auxiliary factor. Therefore, comprehensiveness offer subtitle some convenience namely subtitles can be omitted where the information can fully express through sounds and pictures. Thus translator should take full advantage of this characteristic and omit as much subtitles as possible.3.2.2 InstantaneityInstantaneity indicates that the subtitle, which is unrepeatable, appear and disappear simultaneously with the corresponding pictures and sounds. Although subtitle exists in the form of language, it is still different from the desk literature, such as poetry, prose and fiction for desk literature all appear in independent text form. Readers can appreciate desk literature over and over again at any time and any place as long as he wants. By contrast, subtitle can not be appreciated repeatedly withoutlimitation because of its instantaneous characteristic. While watching the plots the audience has to give up if he did not catch up with the subtitles because there is only one chance. Instantaneity decides that the audience cannot spend more time to understand the content of the captions; otherwise, it will affect the understanding of follow-up plots.3.2.3 PopularityPopularity means that the film and television subtitle translation must use a popular language or has the characteristic of popular language. Following are three main reasons: In the first place, film and television works aiming at the masses belong to the public. Majority of the audience are common people despite that some are well-educated and have higher artistic accomplishment. Therefore, we should use the most popular language to translate the original language to convey information, considering about the acceptance ability and appreciative level of majority part of the audience. The reason lies in that most audiences will be impeded while understanding too much elegant and abstract language. Secondly, with the characteristic of instantaneity, translation subtitle appears only once at the bottom of the screen. So only by using the popular and colloquial translation texts can the audience grasp the general meaning. Thirdly, the principle of “acceptance first” aims at helping the audience to understand the plot better. If too much euphemistic and expressive language is adopted as subtitle, the audience can not follow the plots closely while spending a long time trying to understanding the language.3.2.4 ConcisenessConciseness means that the language of film and television subtitle is concise and refined. There are two causes contributing to this characteristic.Firstly, the translation of film and television subtitle is limited by time and space, so the translator has to finish tasks in the limitation while keeping the picture and subtitle appear simultaneously. This determines subtitles can not use over-complicated language. The second reason is about the instantaneous acceptance of the audience, which indicates the simpler and easier the language the better while providing themore rich contents to the audience.Chapter Four Application of Translation Aesthetics in SubtitleTranslation4.1 Aesthetic Principles and Aesthetic strategy4.1.1 Aesthetic PrinciplesFirstly, the translation version shall accord the characters’ emotion and personality. So it is rather important for the translator to devote his own aesthetic emotion to the four stages of the whole work —“watching, understanding, analyzing and translating”. Only by understanding and appreciating the original work, integrating the emotions and characteristics of different roles into the translation, thinking from the perspective of different roles, speaking for them can the translator produce vivid, individualized characters, corresponding translational texts with the original dialogues as well as creating an immersive feeling for the audience.Secondly, the translation shall measure up the original work’s style. Film and television work is mainly made up of four different types, namely national style (a stable artistic character which reflects the national life in a particular area), period style (reflecting the life style of different time period), directing style (owing subjective or objective factors, different director prefer different theme, language and acting ways) and aesthetic style (such as drama, documentary, romantic style). So in the translating process (more accurately, that is adding, omitting and changing the original dialogue), the translator should abandon their preferring style, overcoming as many limiting factors as possible to get close to the original style.The third one is alienation, an important method to get to know about an exotic culture. How to help the audience to understand more about foreign history and costumes is a vital task. In order to incarnate the cultural diversity, translators can adopt alienation. For example, in American TV play, Rose said proudly: “I got 1450 on my SAT (Scholastic Assessment Test, which is a kind of academic test in America when students graduating from high school)”. When SATs is translated into “毕业会考”, it will be much easier for people to understand. Also some words, like NBA and FBI have already been popular between Chinese, so there is no need to translate.Next is about domestication. In the practice of translation, the existence of cultural differences between the two languages led to the production of translation variation and sometimes the semantic meaning changed or even lost. Adoption of domestication decreased the exoticism. More importantly, it can avoid ambiguity in order to present the audience with a more natural and easier way to understand the translation version. Liberal translation, substitution and even rewriting all these methods can help to translators to comprehend the original language better. For instance, in the movie “A Beautiful Mind”, the sentence “Shall we say swords, gentlemen? Pistols at dawn?” can be translated into “我们该谈谈剑了，绅士们。