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普通法中的国家亲权制度及其罗马法根源徐国栋(厦门大学 法学院,福建 厦门 361005)提要: 国家亲权制度作为一项普通法制度为人所知,它在英国表现为对自然亲权的补充,在美国表现为国家对经济上弱者的保护。
事实上,这一制度有其罗马法根源,无论是在家庭法方面还是在保护弱者方面,都是如此,表现为官选监护制度、贫困儿童国家扶养制、价格管制制度等。
当代中国国家亲权不强,在目前的高物价、高通货膨胀条件下,更有确定和加强国家亲权的必要。
关键词: 国家亲权;贫困儿童国家扶养制;反垄断法;通货膨胀中图分类号: D913 文献标识码: A 文章编号: 1003-3637(2011)01-0186-05人民、领土和法制是国家的三要素[1]。
国家可以通过发现、购买或征服的方式为自己获得领土,以立法活动建立自己的法律体系,但国家没有生殖能力,它不能自己生产人民。
它获得人民的最主要方式是其国民的生殖活动。
人民在国家构成要素中的这种地位以及它只能通过国民的性欲满足活动获得的事实决定了人口的两重性:某个个人既属于特定的家庭,也属于国家。
对于家庭的负责人,他除了是情感的对象外,也是劳力。
对于国家,他也是劳力资源和战力资源。
所以,对特定的个人而言,从来有两个属主:一个是自然的父亲,一个是国家父亲。
两个属主都是双重身份的承担者:首先是其管辖的人力资源的利用者;其次,为了达到这种利用或基于其他理由,他们又是其管辖的人力资源的保护者,为此承担自然父亲和国家父亲的角色。
必须说,这两个父亲的关系有时是互补的,有时是互相冲突或排斥的。
本文拟探讨国家亲权(P arens pa tr i ae)制度的普通法表现及其罗马法根源,比较这两种国家亲权制度的异同,并对我国的国家亲权问题提出自己的看法。
一、普通法中的国家亲权制度(一)英国法中的国家亲权普通法中的国家亲权制度起源于英格兰。
14世纪(爱德华二世时期),颁布了 关于国王特权的法律 (D e praeroga ti va reg is),其中规定,国王承担保护其臣民的监护义务[2]。
第四讲滕尼斯的社会学体系滕尼斯（Emile Durkheim）是一位法国社会学家，被誉为现代社会学的奠基人之一。
他在19世纪末和20世纪初的学术探索中，构建了自己独特的社会学体系。
本文将对滕尼斯的社会学体系进行论述，以了解他的贡献和思想。
首先，滕尼斯的社会学体系始于他对社会事实的研究。
他认为社会事实是独立于个体意识和行为的客观存在，具有规律性和约束力。
他主张通过对社会事实的研究，可以揭示出社会秩序的本质和维系机制。
其次，滕尼斯提出了“社会规范”的概念。
他将社会规范定义为一种由社会共同创造和共同遵守的道德规则和行为准则。
滕尼斯认为，社会规范对于个体的行为起到了引导和规范的作用，从而维持了社会的秩序和稳定。
滕尼斯进一步将社会规范分为“法律规范”和“道德规范”。
他认为，法律规范是一种由国家制定、强制执行的规则，而道德规范则是一种内化于个人内心的道德信仰和价值观。
滕尼斯认为，法律规范和道德规范共同构成了社会规范的基础，对于社会秩序的稳定和个体行为的规范起到了重要作用。
另外，滕尼斯的社会学体系也着重关注了社会整合的问题。
他认为，社会整合是社会的一种基本需求，是尽可能减少社会冲突和达到社会和谐的一种机制。
滕尼斯将社会整合分为机械固着和有机固着两种形式。
机械固着是指社会成员之间的联系和依赖主要基于相似性和共享的价值观，具有较低的分工和个别性。
而有机固着则是指社会成员之间的联系和依赖主要基于分工和互相依赖，具有较高的分工和社会互动。
滕尼斯认为，社会整合的形式取决于社会发展的不同阶段和社会结构的特点。
此外，滕尼斯还强调了社会规范和个人自由之间的关系。
他认为，社会规范不应该限制个人的自由发展，而应该通过合理的规范和约束来保障社会秩序和个体利益的平衡。
滕尼斯主张要实现社会秩序和个人自由的统一，需要通过社会教育和道德教育等手段来促进个体的道德发展和社会责任感。
综上所述，滕尼斯的社会学体系通过对社会事实、社会规范、社会整合等问题的研究，揭示了社会秩序的本质和机制。
美国社会学名词解释1. 社会学（Sociology）社会学是探讨人类社会行为和社会关系的学科。
它研究社会结构、文化，以及行为、观念和相互作用对社会发展、变革和稳定的影响。
2. 结构功能主义（Structural Functionalism）结构功能主义是社会学的一种理论观点。
该理论认为社会是由各个组织和机构相互关联和相互依赖的。
它关注社会结构和社会功能之间的关系，强调社会各个组成部分的功能对整个社会的运作和维持的重要性。
3. 社会构造主义（Social Constructivism）社会构造主义是社会学中的一种理论观点。
该理论认为社会现实是由人们通过文化、语言和符号共同建构的。
它强调社会的意义、价值观和观念是社会行为与交互中的产物。
4. 社会不平等（Social Inequality）社会不平等指的是社会中在财富、权力、地位和机会分配上的不平等现象。
社会不平等可以基于种族、性别、阶级、教育水平等多个因素存在，并对人们的生活影响巨大。
5. 文化（Culture）文化是社会学中一个重要的概念，它包括人们的价值观、、行为规范和生活方式等方面。
文化是社会共同传承、共同创造和共同遵循的，它对个人和社会行为产生深远影响。
6. 社会控制（Social Control）社会控制指的是社会对个人行为的规范和约束。
社会通过各种手段（如法律、道德规范、惩罚制度等）来约束人们的行为，以维护社会秩序和稳定。
7. 社会化（Socialization）社会化是指个体在社会中接受和研究社会规范和价值观的过程。
个体通过社会化与社会相互作用，逐渐适应社会的行为准则和文化特点。
8. 社会群体（Social Group）社会群体是由共同目标、共同利益或共同特征而联系在一起的一群人。
社会群体可以是小到家庭、朋友圈，也可以是大到族群、阶级等。
9. 社会变迁（Social Change）社会变迁指的是社会结构、文化和行为模式的持续变化和演进。
浅析哈贝马斯的“合法化危机”理论及其意义引言：哈贝马斯是德国社会学和政治哲学的重要思想家，他的“合法化危机”理论是其学术贡献的重要组成部分。
本文旨在从理论背景、主要观点及其意义三个角度来深入探讨哈贝马斯的“合法化危机”理论。
一、理论背景：在理解哈贝马斯的“合法化危机”之前，有必要先了解其理论背景。
哈贝马斯主要从批判理论、法哲学、寿命哲学等多角度来考察现代社会的问题，总体来说，他认为现代社会的主要问题在于，社会制度与个人之间的关系失衡，从而导致了制度危机、信任危机以及认同危机等问题。
哈贝马斯认为，现代社会中的政治权力，不再是像绝对主义时代那样的权威，而是得到了公民社会的制约与控制。
这种转变为代表一种制度危机，即现代国家已经无法以单方面的命令来掌控社会，也不再是绝对的权威。
二、主要观点：1. 合法性空洞化哈贝马斯认为，现代社会的制度危机体现在合法性的空洞化，其中一个表现就是，政治权力不再像以前那样绝对无瑕疵，受到了公民社会的制约。
良好的政治秩序必须使享有公民权利的人们参与其中，否则这个秩序的合法性就无法得到认同。
2. 资本主义的错位哈贝马斯认为，资本主义是现代社会出现的主要制度，但资本主义制度所固有的经济规律和社会效应同现代民主政治制度产生的政治规律和社会效应之间的差异，使得资本主义存在“错位”问题。
3. 内在化的暴力哈贝马斯认为，现代社会的暴力已经不再局限于国家的暴力，它融入到了现代社会的各个方面，成为一种难以察觉的力量。
这种暴力不是外部加在个体身上的，而是经由某些制度、文化以及日常经验的内化而获得的。
三、意义：1. 指出制度与实践之间的断裂，强调实践的重要性哈贝马斯的“合法化危机”理论，指出了制度与实践之间的断裂，注意到个体的实践活动对于社会制度的改善及维护的重要性。
他关注到在制度危机中，个体的实践应作为解决问题的关键环节。
2. 为社会的改革提供了方向哈贝马斯认为，解决“合法化危机”的关键在于公民社会、市民社会的全面发展与参与，这种参与是追求政治合法性的一种途径。
2011年1月 陇东学院学报Jan.2011 第22卷 第1期 Journa l of L ongdong U n i ve rs i ty V o.l22 N o.1 哈贝马斯合法性理论探析李 涛(陇东学院经管学院,甘肃庆阳745000)摘 要:经验性政治合法性理论主要关注的是政治秩序是否获得社会公众的有效认同,而不在乎认同的价值所在;规范性政治合法性理论主要关注政治系统是否获得社会公众的支持和认可的价值判断问题,它以价值判断为导向,强调政治合法性的理性标准。
哈贝马斯在分析了经验性合法性理论和规范性合法性理论的基础上,提出了自己重建性的合法性理论,强调政治合法性是经验性和规范性的统一,既强调民众对政治秩序的认同,又强调政治秩序必须符合一定的价值规范。
本文主要从哈贝马斯对合法性的界定、对合法性的证明 合法化以及其合法性理论的特点来分析哈贝马斯重建性的合法性理论。
关键词:哈贝马斯;重建性;合法化;合法性中图分类号:D09 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1674 1730(2011)01 0009 04收稿日期:2009 11 30作者简介:李 涛(1976 ),男,甘肃庆阳人,讲师,法学硕士,主要从事政治学理论和中国政治制度研究。
尤尔根哈贝马斯是当代德国最著名的哲学家、社会学家。
作为!法兰克福学派第二代领袖∀,近半个世纪以来,哈贝马斯一直活跃在国际学术界,先后研究过全球化问题、交往理论以及合法性问题,都有自己独到的见解。
关于政治合法性理论划分问题,目前国内学术界有两种观点,一种观点认为哈贝马斯的合法性理论属于规范性合法性理论;另一种观点认为哈贝马斯对经验主义合法性概念和规范主义合法性概念在分别批评的基础上,提出了第三种合法性概念,即重建性的合法性概念。
在此笔者通过对哈贝马斯合法性理论的分析,认为其合法性理论应属于重建性的合法性理论。
一、哈贝马斯对合法性的界定(一)学术界关于合法性的界定与分类英文!合法性∀(Legitm i acy)一词含有!合法(法律)∀!正义∀和!正当∀之意。
合法化语码理论对伯恩斯坦知识结构理论的传承与创新资料合法化语码理论是法国文化学者罗兰·巴尔特（Roland Barthes）提出的一种理论，在对语言和符号系统研究的基础上，探讨了个体如何通过符号系统来建构并理解现实世界的问题。
与之相对应的，伯恩斯坦知识结构理论则是由美国社会学家彼得·伯恩斯坦（Peter Berger）在20世纪60年代提出的，是一种关于社会现象和知识构建的理论。
下面将对合法化语码理论对伯恩斯坦知识结构理论的传承和创新进行详细阐述。
首先，合法化语码理论强调个体在符号系统中的位置性。
巴尔特认为，个体通过符号系统来建构和理解现实世界，符号系统包括语言、文字、图片等。
他认为符号系统是社会意义的生产者，在其中个体被赋予了特定的角色和意义。
这与伯恩斯坦知识结构理论中的“外部性”概念相对应。
伯恩斯坦认为，个体的认知和行为是受到社会结构限制的，社会结构为个体提供了行动方向和环境。
合法化语码理论将这一概念延伸到符号系统的层面，强调了符号系统对个体的限制和塑造作用。
因此，合法化语码理论在这一方面对伯恩斯坦知识结构理论进行了传承和发展。
其次，合法化语码理论强调了社会语境和符号系统的互动关系。
巴尔特认为，符号系统不仅仅是个体的工具，还与社会结构相互作用，从而对个体进行建构和考察，而且符号系统在不同的社会语境中具有不同的意义。
这与伯恩斯坦知识结构理论中的“双重观念”相对应。
伯恩斯坦认为，社会现象既是被建构的，也是对个体建构的反馈。
合法化语码理论将这一观点延伸到符号系统的层面，将符号系统看作是社会现象的一种表现形式，并且认为符号系统在社会语境中具有特定的意义。
合法化语码理论通过强调符号系统和社会语境的互动关系，对伯恩斯坦知识结构理论进行了创新。
此外，合法化语码理论在方法论方面对伯恩斯坦知识结构理论进行了发展。
巴尔特认为，个体对现实的理解和建构是通过符号系统的参与和建立来实现的。
他强调了符号系统的多样性和灵活性，因此，他提出了对符号系统进行细致的分析和描述的方法。
备注序号代码门类、一级学科及专业名称英文翻译101哲学 PHILOSOPHY 20101哲学 PHILOSOPHY 4010102中国哲学 CHINESE PHILOSOPHY 5010103外国哲学FOREIGN PHILOSOPHIES 6010104逻辑学 LOGIC 7010105伦理学 ETHICS 8010106美学 AESTHETICS 9010107宗教学 RELIGIOUS STUDIES 10010108科学技术哲学 PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 1102经济学 ECONOMICS 120201理论经济学 THEORETICAL ECONOMICS 13020101政治经济学 POLITICAL ECONOMICS 14020102经济思想史 HISTORY OF ECONOMIC THOUGHTS 15020103经济史 ECONOMIC HISTORY 16020104西方经济学ECONOMICS 17020105世界经济WORLD ECONOMY 18020106人口、资源与环境经济学ECONOMICS OF POPULATION, RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT 190202应用经济学 APPLIED ECONOMICS 20020202区域经济学 REGIONAL ECONOMICS 21020203财政学 PUBLIC FINANCE 22020204金融学 FINANCE 23020205产业经济学 INDUSTRIAL ECONOMICS 24020206国际贸易学 INTERNATIONAL TRADE 25020207劳动经济学 LABOR ECONOMICS 26020208统计学 STATISTICS 27020209数量经济学 QUANTITATIVE ECONOMICS 280202Z1保险学INSURANCE 290202Z2金融工程FINANCE ENGINEERING 300202Z3精算学ACTUARIAL SCIENCES 310202Z4城市经济学URBAN ECONOMICS 320202Z6物流学LOGISTICS 33020224计算金融学COMPUTIONAL FINANCE 3403法学 LAW 350301法学 LAW 36030101法学理论 JURISPRUDENCE 37030102法律史LEGAL HISTORY 38030103宪法学与行政法学C ONSTITUTIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 学科专业名称中英文翻译对照表代码为2位的是学位授予门类，代码为4位的是一级学科名称，代码为6位的是二级学科即专业名称。
Lesson One: Legal System 法律制度英属殖民地时期(the Period of the English Colonies)和美利坚合众国时期(the Period of the United States)。
公诉制度(public prosecution)美国属于普通法系(Common Law Legal System)分散制(decentralization)为原则；以判例法(case law)为主体。
"零散的无系统"(fragmental no system)。
成文法(written law)或制定法(statutory law)，遵从前例"(stare decisisPart OneThe United States is at once a very new nation and a very old nation. It is a new nation compared with many other countries, and it is new, too, in the sense that it is constantly being renewed by the addition of new elements of population and of new States. But in other senses it is old. It is the oldest of the "new" nations--the first one to be made out of an Old World colony. It has the oldest written constitution, the oldest continuous federal system, and the oldest practice of self government of any nation.美国既是一个非常新的国家也是一个非常老的国家。
中外政治制度专业硕士研究生课程简介中外政治制度硕士专业课一览表课程编号 20104201课程名称（中文）政治学理论研究专题课程名称（英文） The study on political theory学分：3先修课程：政治学原理内容简介：把对现实政治实践问题的解答寓于政治学基础理论框架的构建之中。
既阐述政治学基础理论问题，又分析全面建设小康社会中面临的政治生活领域需要注重解决的重大问题。
在对政治学基础理论中最主要的问题进行了分析，但并没有停留在一般意义上的理论阐释，而是结合当今世界政治生活领域的时代特点及其发展趋势，切近中国政治建设和政治发展实际，表现出强烈的现实关怀，适用学科及层次：中外政治制度硕士研究生选用教材：《现代政治学分析基础》作者：杨弘、刘彤出版社：人民出版社出版日期：2004年5月课程编号20104202课程名称（中文）中国政治制度研究课程名称（英文） A Study on Chinese Political Systems学分：3先修课程：中国政治制度史当代中国政治制度内容简介：学习政治制度的基本理论和分析方法，梳理中国古代至近代政治制度发展的基本脉络，总结中国政治制度变迁的基本规律，分析各个时期政治制度的利弊得失及与当时社会发展的关系。
重点探究中国历史进程中一些有鲜明特点和重大影响的政治制度形态。
介绍国内外学术界研究中国政治制度的重要学术成果及学术观点，探讨中国政治制度研究中的难点和热点问题。
适用学科及层次：中外政治制度硕士研究生选用教材：自编讲义课程编号 20104203课程名称（中文）中外政党制度课程名称（英文）Political Party System of China and Foreign Countries学分：3先修课程：当代中国政治制度内容简介：政党制度是现代国家发展的重要条件和普遍的政治形式，政党和政党制度研究是现代政治学研究的重要内容。
本课程主要讲授中国近现代的政党制度和当代中国的政党制度；外国近现代的政党制度和当代西方资本主义的政党制度；比较中西政党制度的异同。
In recent decades,the influence of Western culture has become increasingly evident around the globe.This cultural diffusion has touched various aspects of society,from language and education to fashion and entertainment.Here are some key areas where Western culture has made a significant impact:nguage and Communication:English,as the most widely spoken second language, has become a global lingua franca.It is the primary mode of communication in international business,academia,and diplomacy.The spread of English has facilitated the exchange of ideas and information across borders.cation Systems:Western educational models,particularly the American and British systems,have been adopted or adapted by many countries.The emphasis on critical thinking,research,and problemsolving skills is now common in educational institutions worldwide.3.Fashion and Beauty Standards:Western fashion trends often set the global standard, influencing what is considered stylish and attractive.Brands from the West have become household names,and their seasonal collections are eagerly anticipated by fashion enthusiasts.4.Cuisine:Fast food chains originating from the West,such as McDonalds and Starbucks, have spread to almost every corner of the world.These chains have not only introduced Western fast food but also a fastpaced dining culture.5.Entertainment and Media:Hollywood films and American television series dominate global entertainment markets.Western music,particularly pop and rock genres,has a significant following,and Western artists often top global music charts.6.Technology and Innovation:Western countries,especially the United States,are at the forefront of technological advancements.Innovations in areas such as information technology,telecommunications,and artificial intelligence have transformed the way people live and work.7.Political and Legal Systems:The principles of democracy,human rights,and the rule of law,which are deeply rooted in Western societies,have inspired political reforms and legal systems in many countries.8.Sports:Sports such as football soccer,basketball,and tennis,which have Western origins or are heavily influenced by Western countries,have become popular worldwide. Major sporting events like the Olympics and the FIFA World Cup draw global audiences.9.Art and Literature:Western art movements and literary works have had a profound influence on global artistic expression.The themes,styles,and techniques of Western artists and writers have inspired and shaped creative works in other cultures.10.Philosophical and Religious Ideas:Western philosophical thought and religious beliefs have spread beyond their regions of origin,influencing worldviews and ethical systems in various societies.While the influence of Western culture has brought about many positive changes,it has also sparked debates about cultural imperialism and the loss of local cultural identities.It is essential to balance the benefits of cultural exchange with the preservation of cultural diversity and autonomy.。
SOCIAL STUDIES 11MRS. KAUSHAL CANADA’S LEGAL SYSTEM CH. 11The Rule of Law1. Basic principle is that “no one is above the law and everyone is subjectto it.” This means that we are governed by a fixed set of laws that apply to all people equally, regardless of their position in society.2. Great symbol is the Magna Carta, signed by King John of England in1215, under pressure from the British barons to limit his powers. TheMagna Carta guaranteed many rights for British citizens, including trialby jury and habeas corpus (the right to be brought before a court soonafter arrest and released if the judge finds there is no legal charge).3. The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of Canada. It preventsgovernments from abusing their authority.4. The Charter of Rights and Freedoms takes precedence over any lawspassed by any government in Canada. It protects the fundamentalfreedoms of Canadians and guarantees their democratic, mobility,legal, equality, and language rights.The Main Categories of Law1. Civil Lawa. Deals with relationships between individuals or groupsb. Usually involves disputes over contracts, property, or personalrelationships.c. Property can be physical (possessions), intellectual (ideas), orcreative (artwork).d. Examples of civil suits – neighbours disagreeing over propertydamage, accident victims seeking compensation for injuries, or childcustody in a divorce casee. The person who claims to have suffered harm, loss, or injury to selfor property is called the plaintiff. He or she sues the alleged wrong-doer, called the defendant.2. Criminal Lawa. Deals with matters that affect society as a wholeb. Criminal acts are considered to be committed against the state, notjust against individual victims.c. Contained in the Criminal Code of Canada, passed in 1892d. Criminal cases are carried out in the name of the Crown (R orRegina, the Latin word for queen).e. Lawyers representing the Crown are called the prosecution; thoserepresenting the accused person are called the defence.f. Anyone charged with a criminal offence is presumed innocent untilproven guilty. The prosecution must prove guilt; the defence doesnot need to establish innocence.g. The prosecution must show that the accused intended to commit acriminal act. This is called mens rea, or “the guilty mind.”3. Canada’s Legal Traditiona. The Common Lawi. Is used in all provinces and territories except for Quebecii. Was based on the decisions of judges in the British royalcourts.iii. A unique feature is that it is flexible and adaptable tochanging circumstances.iv. In Quebec, civil law is based on the French Code Napoleon.The origin of Quebec’s civil code is Roman Law (the JustinianCode).b. Statutory Lawi. Term used for all the legislation passed by the three levels of government – federal, provincial, and municipal.The Charter of Rights and Freedoms1. Legal Rights of the Individuala. Canadians have their legal rights guaranteed by sections 7 to 14.b. These rights cannot be taken away without a proper legal process.2. The Rights of Law Enforcersa. Prisoners have the right to know the reason for their arrest and tohave a judge decide if they are being held legally.b. They also have the right to contact a lawyer, and the right to aspeedy trial.The Court System1. Provincial Courtsa. Provincial supreme courts handle more serious cases, calledindictable offences, while less serious summary offences arehandled by lower courts.b. Trials in the lower courts are generally heard by a judge or by ajustice of the peace. Justices of the peace are civil servants who aregiven some limited powers to hear and judge specific cases such astraffic offences.c. In the Supreme Court of British Columbia, the accused is tried byeither a judge or a judge and jury.d. In British Columbia, the provincial cabinet, on the recommendationsof the attorney general, appoints judges of the Provincial Court.e. Judges of the Supreme Court of British Columbia and the Court ofAppeal are appointed by the federal Cabinet, on advice from theminister of justice.f. To ensure that they can give unbiased judgments, our laws ensurethat judges are free from government interference or influence.g. Judges can be removed from the bench only by votes in both theHouse of Commons and the Senate.The Supreme Court of Canadaa. Reviews cases which have already appeared before a lower court orcourts, and it makes final, binding decisions.b. Decides on constitutional issues and acts as the final court of appealfor some criminal cases.c. The governor general, on the advice of the prime minister, appoints thenine members of the Supreme Court.d. Three of the nine justices must be from Quebec. Traditionally, threeothers come from Ontario, one from the Maritimes, and the remaining two from the western provinces. The prime minister chooses one ofthese to act as chief justice. Beverly McLachlin, appointed to the post in 2000, is the first woman to hold that position.e. No one can alter the decisions of the Supreme Court, unlessParliament passes a constitutional amendment. Seven provinces,totaling at least 50% of the population of all provinces, must approvesuch an amendment.f. Has the ability to select its cases, and therefore concentrates primarilyon issues of national importance.g. Most noteworthy judgments since 1982:i. Decisions to strike down a government abortion lawii. Uphold cruise missile testingiii. Condemn unfair treatment on the basis of pregnancyiv. Affirm Aboriginal rightsv. Grant survivor benefits to same-sex couplesh. Has a number of options:i. Can indicate that the law no longer applies to anyone, or that itdoesn’t apply in the case in questionii. May provide for a way to right the wrong. E.g. in the case of a person denied access because of a disability, it will instruct thatthe access must be provided.i. Some of the decisions it has brought down have required that lawsactually be rewritten, without benefit of bills, debates, or the input of elected representatives.Canada’s Penal Systema. Options for Sentencing1. complete discharge2. pay a fine3. restitution to the victim4. community service5. probation (period of time in which the offender is subject toconditions imposed by the court, but remains free from imprisonment.6. time in prisoni. Maximum sentence is life in prison – 25 years without parole,the right to early release for good behavior.ii. Prisoners serving sentences of under 2 years go to provincial prisons; those with longer sentences serve them in federalinstitutions.iii. Prisons may be minimum-, medium-, or maximum-securityinstitutions, according to the level of threat the inmates pose tosociety and other inmates.iv. Our corrections system is based in part on the principle ofrehabilitation, the belief that offenders can be brought backinto society as useful citizens, by providing educational andvocational programs.b. Restorative Justice1. Canada has one of the highest rate of imprisonment, orincarceration, in the Western world. In 1998, the incarceration ratein Canada was 129 per 100,000 people. It costs about $65,000 ayear to keep an inmate in custody, and a little more than $10,000tosupervise him or her on release.2. Restorative Justice is being used as an alternative for first-timeoffenders or for people who commit less serious crimes.3. Rather than focusing on punishment, restorative justice tries torepair the damage that has been done. Victims, offenders, andother people in the community work together to find ways for theoffender to make amends directly to the victim.4. This alternative to incarceration is not for everyone. Both theaccused and the victim must be willing participants.Youth and the Lawa. Background1. The incarceration rate for young offenders in Canada is even higherthan in the U.S. – approximately one-third of juvenile offenders aresentenced to time in custody.2. A lack of community support networks does not allow for alternativesentences.3. Before the twentieth century in Canada, youths received no specialtreatment when they broke the law. Both boys and girls weresentenced to prison terms, and sentences were often harsh.b. The Young Offenders Act, 19841. Defines a young person as someone between the ages of 12 and 17.Anyone under 12 cannot be charged with an offence, and anyoneover 17 must be tried as an adult.2. The maximum period a young person can be kept in custody is fiveyears (as amended to the act in 1992).3. Only under special circumstances can a young offender be named inpublic. All records are destroyed when a youth is acquitted of acrime.4. In youth court, a judge alone hears the case and decides on asentence, which is called a disposition. A disposition can vary froma jail term, to a fine, to community service.c. Youth Criminal Justice Act, 20001. Introduced because many people felt that the Young Offenders Actwas too lenient towards young people and no longer served as adeterrent to crime.2. Adult sentencing for serious crimes was now extended to 14 and 15-year- olds.3. Allowed for harsher penalties, but also introduced new legislationwhich encouraged community-based sentences when appropriate(restorative justice), and new treatment programs for high-risk youth(those with psychological, mental, or emotional disturbances). Information Technologies and the Lawa. Copyright Laws and the Internet1. New music recording technologies have led to civil suits in the U.S.against companies that sell file-trading applications and provideservices that allow the downloading and trading of digital music files.2. On the other hand, some musicians believe that the legal uses of thenew technology offer musicians a way of making their musicavailable to a huge audience at virtually no cost, and without theneed for an agent or the backing of a record label.3. Many more established artists have used the same technology toincrease sales of their albums, by allowing fans to downloadpreviews and buy them on-line.b. Technology-Assisted Crime1. Web-sites offer gambling, pornography, fraudulent schemes, andinformation from hate groups.2. Despite precautions, large computer systems can be attacked bydeliberately planted computer viruses – self-replicating programsdesigned to destroy data or infect e-mail.3. Amateur programmers, called hackers, can break into computersystems illegally and steal information without ever leaving theirhomes.4. The Canadian Centre for Information Technology Security (CCITS)is a joint initiative of the University of British Columbia and the PoliceAcademy at the Justice Institute of British Columbia. Its goal is tohelp police deal effectively with technology-assisted crime andthreats to information security.。
