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READING PASSAGE 1You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.Johnson’s DictionaryFor the centur y before Johnson’s Dictionary was published in 1775, there had been concern about the state of the English language. There was no standard way of speaking or writing and no agreement as to the best way of bringing some order to the chaos of English spelling. Dr Johnson provided the solution.There had, of course, been dictionaries in the past, the first of these being a little book of some 120 pages, compiled by a certain Robert Cawdray, published in 1604 under the title A Table Alphabeticall ‘of hard usuall English wordes’. Like the various dictionaries that came after it during the seventeenth century, Cawdray’s tended to concentrate on ‘scholarly’ words; one function of the dictionary was to enable its student to convey an impression of fine learning.Beyond the practical need to make order out of chaos, the rise of dictionaries is associated with the rise of the English middle class, who were anxious to define and circumscribe thevarious worlds to conquer —lexical as well as social and commercial. it is highly appropriate that Dr Samuel Johnson, the very model of an eighteenth-century literary man, as famous in his own time as in ours, should have published his Dictionary at the very beginning of the heyday of the middle class.Johnson was a poet and critic who raised common sense to the heights of genius. His approach to the problems that had worried writers throughout the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries was intensely practical. Up until his time, the task of producing a dictionary on such a large scale had seemed impossible without the establishment of an academy to make decisions about right and wrong usage. Johnson decided he did not need an academy to settle arguments about language; he would write a dictionary himself and he would do it single-handed. Johnson signed the contract for the Dictionary with the bookseller Robert Dosley at a breakfast held at the Golden Anchor Inn near Holbom Bar on 18 June 1764.He was to be paid ￡1.575 in instalments, and from this he took money to rent Gou gh Square, in which he set up his ‘dictionary workshop’.James Boswell, his biographer, described the garret where Johnson worked as ‘fitted up like a counting house’ with a long desk running down the middle at which the copying clerks would work standing up. Johnson himself was stationed on a rickety chair at an ‘old crazy deal table’ surrounded by a chaos of borrowed books. He was also helped by six assistants, two of whom died whilst the Dictionary was still in preparation.The work was immense; filling about eighty large notebooks (and without a library to hand), Johnson wrote the definitions of over 40,000 words, and illustrated their many meanings with some 114,000 quotations drawn from English writing on everysubject, from the Elizabethans to his own time. He did not expect to achieve complete originality. Working to a deadline, he had to draw on the best of all previous dictionaries, and to make his work one of heroic synthesis. In fact, it was very much more. Unlike his predecessors, Johnson treated English very practically, as a living language, with many different shades of meaning. He adopted his definitions on the principle of English common law —according to precedent. After its publication, his Dictionary was not seriously rivalled for over a century.After many vicissitudes the Dictionary was finally published on 15 April 1775. It was instantly recognised as a landmark throughout Europe. ‘This very noble work,’ wrote the leading Italian lexicographer, ‘will be a perpetual monument of Fame to the Author, an Honour to his own Country in particular, and a general Benefit to the republic of Letters throughout Europe" The fact that Johnson had taken on the Academies of Europe and matched them (everyone knew that forty French academics had taken forty years to produce the first French national dictionary) was cause for much English celebration.Johnson had worked for nine years, ‘with little assistance of the learned, and without any patronage of the great; not in the soft obscurities of retirement, or under the shelter of academic bowers, but amidst inconvenience and distraction, in sickness and in sorrow’. For all its faults and eccentricities his two-volume work is a masterpiece and a landmark, in his own words, ‘setting the orthography, displaying the analogy, regulating the structures, and ascertaining the significations of English words’. It is the cornerstone of Standard English an achievement which, in James Boswell’s words ‘conferred stability on the language of his country.’The Dictionary, together with his other writing, made Johnson famous and so well esteemed that his friends were able to prevail upon King George Ⅲ to offer him a pension. From then on, he was to become the Johnson of folklore.Questions 1-3Choose THREE letters A-H.Write your answers in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet.NB Your answers may be given in any order.Which THREE of the following statements are true of Johnson’s Dictionary?A It avoided all scholarly words.B It was the only English dictionary in general use for 200 years.C It was famous because of the large number of people involved.D It focused mainly on language from contemporary texts.E There was a time limit for its completion.F It ignored work done by previous dictionary writers.G It took into account subtleties of meaning.H Its definitions were famous for their originality.Questions 4-7Complete the summary.Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.Write your answers in boxes 4-7 on your answer sheet.In 1764 Dr Johnson accepted the contract to produce a dictionary. Having rented a garret, he took on a number of 4…………, who stood at a long central desk. Johnson did not have a 5………… available to him, but eventually produced definitions of in excess of 40,000 words written down in 80 large notebooks.On publications, the Dictionary was immediately hailed in many European countries as a landmark. According to his biographer, James Boswell, Johnson’s principal achievement was to bring 6……… to the English language. As a reward for his ha rd work, he was granted a 7………by the king.Questions 8-13Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?In boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet, writeTRUE if the statement agrees with the informationFALSE if the statement contradicts the informationNOT GIVEN if there is no information on this8 The growing importance of the middle classes led to an increased demand for dictionaries.9 Johnson has become more well known since his death.10 Johnson had been planning to write a dictionary for several years.11 Johnson set up an academy to help with the writing of his Dictionary.12 Johnson only received payment for his Dictionary on its completion.13 Not all of the assistants survived to see the publication of the Dictionary.READING PASSAGE 2You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.Nature or Nurture?A A few years ago, in one of the most fascinating and disturbing experiments in behavioural psychology, Stanley Milgram of Yale University tested 40 subjects from all walks of lifefor their willingness to obey instructions given by a ‘leader’ in a situation in which the subjects might feel a personal distaste for the actions they were called upon to perform. Specifically M ilgram told each volunteer ‘teacher-subject’ that the experiment was in the noble cause of education, and was designed to test whether or not punishing pupils for their mistakes would have a positive effect on the pupils’ ability to learn.B Milgram’s expe rimental set-up involved placing the teacher-subject before a panel of thirty switches with labels ranging from ‘15 volts of electricity (slight shock)’ to ‘450 volts (danger —severe shock)’ in steps of 15 volts each. The teacher-subject was told that whenever the pupil gave the wrong answer to a question, a shock was to be administered, beginning at the lowest level and increasing in severity with each successive wrong answer. The supposed ‘pupil’ was in reality an actor hired by Milgram to simulate receiving the shocks by emitting a spectrum of groans, screams and writings together with an assortment of statements and expletives denouncing both the experiment and the experimenter. Milgram told the teacher-subject to ignore the reactions of the pupil, and to administer whatever level of shock was called for, as per the rule governing the experimental situation of the moment.C As the experiment unfolded, the pupil would deliberately give the wrong answers to questions posed by the teacher, thereby bringing on various electrical punishments, even up to the danger level of 300 volts and beyond. Many of the teacher-subjects balked at administering the higher levels of punishment, and turned to Milgram with questioning looks and/or complaints about continuing the experiment. In these situations, Milgramcalmly explained that the teacher-subject was to ignore the pupil’s cries for mercy and carry on with the experiment. If the subject was still reluctant to proceed, Milgram said that it was important for the sake of the experiment that the procedure be followed through to the end. His final argument was ‘you have no other choice. You must go on’. What Milgram was trying to discover was the number of teacher-subjects who would be willing to administer the highest levels of shock, even in the face of strong personal and moral revulsion against the rules and conditions of the experiment.D Prior to carrying out the experiment, Milgram explained his idea to a group of 39 psychiatrists and asked them to predict the average percentage of people in an ordinary population who would be willing to administer the highest shock level of 450 volts. The overwhelming consensus was that virtually all the teacher-subjects would refuse to obey the experimenter. The psychiatrists felt that ‘most subjects would not go beyond 150 volts’ and they further anticipated that only four per cent would go up to 300 volts. Furthermore, they thought that only a lunatic fringe of about one in 1,000 would give the highest shock of 450 volts.E What were the actual results? Well, over 60 per cent of the teacher-subjects continued to obey Milgram up to the 450-volt limit in repetitions of the experiment in other countries, the percentage of obedient teacher-subjects was even higher, reaching 85 per cent in one country. How can we possibly account for this vast discrepancy between what calm, rational, knowledgeable people predict in the comfort of their study and what pressured, flustered, but cooperative ‘teachers’ actually do in the laboratory of real life?F One’s first inclination might be to argue that there must be some sort of built-in animal aggression instinct that was activated by the experiment, and that Milgram’s teache-subjects were just following a genetic need to discharge this pent-up primal urge onto the pupil by administering the electrical shock. A modern hard-core sociobiologist might even go so far as to claim that this aggressive instinct evolved as an advantageous trait, having been of survival value to our ancestors in their struggle against the hardships of life on the plains and in the caves, ultimately finding its way into our genetic make-up as a remnant of our ancient animal ways.G An alternative to this notion of genetic programming is to see the teacher-subjects’ actions as a result of the social environment under which the experiment was carried out. As Milgram himself pointed out, ‘Most subjects in the experiment see their behaviour in a larger context that is benevolent and useful to society —the pursuit of scientific truth. The psychological laboratory has a strong claim to legitimacy and evokes trust and confidence in those who perform there. An action such as shocking a victim, which in isolation appears evil, acquires a completely different meaning when placed in this se tting.’H Thus, in this explanation the subject merges his unique personality and personal and moral code with that of larger institutional structures, surrendering individual properties like loyalty, self-sacrifice and discipline to the service of malevolent systems of authority.I Here we have two radically different explanations for why so many teacher-subjects were willing to forgo their sense of personal responsibility for the sake of an institutional authorityfigure. The problem for biologists, psychologists and anthropologists is to sort out which of these two polar explanations is more plausible. This, in essence, is the problem of modern sociobiology — to discover the degree to which hard-wired genetic programming dictates, or at least strongly biases, the interaction of animals and humans with their environment, that is, their behaviour. Put another way, sociobiology is concerned with elucidating the biological basis of all behaviour.Questions 14-19Reading Passage 2 has nine paragraphs, A-I.Which paragraph contains the following information?Write the correct letter A-I in boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet.14 a biological explanation of the teacher-subjects’ behaviour15 the explanation Milgram gave the teacher-subjects for the experiment16 the identity of the pupils17 the expected statistical outcome18 the general aim of sociobiological study19 the way Milgram persuaded the teacher-subjects to continueQuestions 20-22Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.Write your answers in boxes 20-22 on your answer sheet.20 The teacher-subjects were told that were testing whetherA a 450-volt shock was dangerous.B punishment helps learning.C the pupils were honest.D they were suited to teaching.21 The teacher-subjects were instructed toA stop when a pupil asked them to.B denounce pupils who made mistakes.C reduce the shock level after a correct answer.D give punishment according to a rule.22 Before the experiment took place the psychiatristsA believed that a shock of 150 volts was too dangerous.B failed to agree on how the teacher-subjects would respond to instructions.C underestimated the teacher-subjects’ willingness to comply with experimental procedure.D thought that many of the teacher-subjects would administer a shock of 450 volts.Questions 23-26Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?In boxes 23-26 on your answer sheet, writeTRUE if the statement agrees with the informationFALSE if the statement contradicts the informationNOT GIVEN if there is no information on this23 Several of the subjects were psychology students at Yale University.24 Some people may believe that the teacher-subjects’ behaviour could be explained as a positive survival mechanism.25 In a sociological explanation, personal values are more powerful than authority.26 Milgram’s experiment solves an important question in sociobiology.READING PASSAGE 3You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40,which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.The Truth about the EnvironmentFor many environmentalists, the world seems to be getting worse. They have developed a hit-list of our main fears: that natural resources are running out; that the population is ever growing, leaving less and less to eat; that species are becoming extinct in vast numbers, and that the planet’s air and water are becoming ever more polluted.But a quick look at the facts shows a different picture. First, energy and other natural resources have become more abundant, not less so, since the book ‘The Limits to Growth’ was published in 1972 by a group of scientists. Second, more food is now produced per head of the world’s population than at any time in history. Fewer people are starving. Third, although species are indeed becoming extinct, only about 0.7% of them are expected to disappear in the next 50 years, not 25-50%, as has so often been predicted. And finally, most forms of environmental pollution either appear to have been exaggerated, or are transient —associated with the early phases of industrialisation and therefore best cured not by restricting economic growth, but by accelerating it. One form of pollution — the release of greenhouse gases that causes global warming — does appear to be a phenomenon that is going to extend well into our future, but its total impact is unlikely to pose a devastating problem. A bigger problem may well turn out to be an inappropriate response to it.Yet opinion polls suggest that many people nurture the belief that environmental standards are declining and four factors seem to cause this disjunction between perception and reality.One is the lopsidedness built into scientific research. Scientific funding goes mainly to areas with many problems. That may be wise policy, but it will also create an impression that many more potential problems exist than is the case.Secondly, environmental groups need to be noticed by the mass media. They also need to keep the money rolling in. Understandably, perhaps, they sometimes overstate their arguments. In 1997, for example, the World Wide Fund for Nature issued a press release entitled: ‘Two thirds of the world’s forests lost forever.’ The truth turns out to be nearer 20%.Though these groups are run overwhelmingly by selfless folk, they nevertheless share many of the characteristics of other lobby groups. That would matter less if people applied the same degree of scepticism to environmental lobbying as they do to lobby groups in other fields. A trade organisation arguing for, say, weaker pollution controls is instantly seen as self-interested. Yet a green organisation opposing such a weakening is seen as altruistic, even if an impartial view of the controls in question might suggest they are doing more harm than good.A third source of confusion is the attitude of the media. People are clearly more curious about bad news than good. Newspapers and broadcasters are there to provide what the public wants. That, however, can lead to significant distortions of perception. An example was America’s encounter with El Nino in 1997 and 1998. This climatic phenomenon was accused of wrecking tourism, causing allergies, melting the ski-slopes and causing 22 deaths. However, according to an article in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, the damage it did was estimated at US$4 billion but the benefits amounted to some US$19 billion. These came from higher winter temperatures(which saved an estimated 850 lives, reduced heating costs and diminished spring floods caused by meltwaters).The fourth factor is poor individual perception. People worry that the endless rise in the amount of stuff everyone throws away will cause the world to run out of places to dispose of waste. Yet, even if America’s trash output continues to rise as it has done in the past, and even if the American population doubles by 2100, all the rubbish America produces through the entire 21st century will still take up only one-12,000th of the area of the entire United States.So what of global warming? As we know, carbon dioxide emissions are causing the planet to warm. The best estimates are that the temperatures will rise by 2-3℃ in this century, causing considerable problems, at a total cost of US$5,000 billion.Despite the intuition that something drastic needs to be done about such a costly problem, economic analyses clearly show it will be far more expensive to cut carbon dioxide emissions radically than to pay the costs of adaptation to the increased temperatures. A model by one of the main authors of the United Nations Climate Change Panel shows how an expected temperature increase of 2.1 degrees in 2100 would only be diminished to an increase of 1.9 degrees. Or to put it another way, the temperature increase that the planet would have experienced in 2094 would be postponed to 2100.So this does not prevent global warming, but merely buys the world six years. Yet the cost of reducing carbon dioxide emissions, for the United States alone, will be higher than the cost of solving the world’s single, most pressing health problem: providing universal access to clean drinking water and sanitation. Such measures would avoid 2 million deaths every year, andprevent half a billion people from becoming seriously ill.It is crucial that we look at the facts if we want to make the best possible decisions for the future. It may be costly to be overly optimistic — but more costly still to be too pessimistic.Questions 27-32Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 3?In boxes 27-32 on your answer sheet, writeYES if the statement ag rees with the writer’s claimsNO if the statement contradicts the writer’s clamsNOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this27 Environmentalists take a pessimistic view of the world fora number of reasons28 Data on the Earth’s natural resources has only been collected since 1972.29 The number of starving people in the world has increased in recent years.30 Extinct species are being replaced by new species.31 Some pollution problems have been correctly linked to industrialisation.32 It would be best to attempt to slow down economic growth.Questions 33-37Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.Write your answers in boxes 33-37 on your answer sheet.33 What aspect of scientific research does the writer express concern about in paragraph 4?A the need to produce resultsB the lack of financial supportC the selection of areas to researchD the desire to solve every research problem34 The writer quotes from the Worldwide Fund for Nature to illustrate howA influential the mass media can be.B effective environmental groups can be.C the mass media can help groups raise funds.D environmental groups can exaggerate their claims.34 What is the writer’s main point about lobby groups in paragraph 6?A Some are more active than others.B Some are better organised than others.C Some receive more criticism than others.D Some support more important issues than others.35 The writer suggests that newspapers print items that are intended toA educate readers.B meet their readers’ expec tations.C encourage feedback from readers.D mislead readers.36 What does the writer say about America’s waste problem?A It will increase in line with population growth.B It is not as important as we have been led to believe.C It has been reduced through public awareness of the issues.D It is only significant in certain areas of the country.Questions 38-40Complete the summary with the list of words A-I below.Write the correct letter A-I in boxes 38-40 on your answer sheet.GLOBAL WARMINGThe writer admits that global warming is a 38…………….challenge, but says that it will not have a catastrophic impact on our future, if we deal with it in the 39…………… way. If we try to reduce the levels of greenhouse gases, he believes that it would only have a minimal impact on rising temperatures. He feels it would be better to spend money on the more 40………… health problem of providing the world’s population with clean drinking water.A unrealisticB agreedC expensiveD rightE long-termF usualG surprisingH personalI urgent剑桥雅思阅读5原文参考译文(test1)TEST 1 PASSAGE 1参考译文：Johnson’s Dictionary约翰逊博士的字典For the century before Johnson’s Dictionary was published in 1775, there had been concern about the state of the English language. There was no standard way of speaking or writing and no agreement as to the best way of bringing some order to the chaos of English spelling. Dr Johnson provided the solution.约翰逊博士的《字典》于1775年出版，在此之前的一个世纪，人们一直对英语的发展状况担忧。

雅思阅读长难句汇编1. This environment encouraged a free interchange of ideas, which led to more creativity with form, function, color and materials that revolutionized attitudes to furniture design. （10-1-3）参考译文：这种环境鼓励思想的自由交换，激发了在形式，功能，颜色以及材料方面更多的创造性，这种创造性颠覆了家具设计的理念。

语言点：本句的主句是几本的主谓宾结构，主语为this environment，谓语动词为encouraged，宾语为 a free interchange of ideas，之后由which引导的定语从句对其结果进行了具体说明，即more creativity with form，function，color and materials，其中with form，function，color and materials 是more creativity的修饰成分，之后出现了that 引导的定语从句对more creativity进行了进一步分解释。

高频单词：interchange, creativity, material, revolutionized, attitude, furniture 2. A meaningful sound track is often as complicated as the image on the screen, and is ultimately just as much the responsibility of the director. （11-4-2）参考译文：一套内涵丰富的电影原声常常和银幕上的画面同样复杂深刻，并且最终也是影片导演需要肩负的重要职责。

剑桥雅思阅读7test1原文翻译及答案剑桥雅思阅读7test1原文1You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.Let’s Go BatsA Bats have a problem: how to find their way around in the dark. They hunt at night, and cannot use light to help them find prey and avoid obstacles. You might say that this is a problem of their own making, one that they could avoid simply by changing their habits and hunting by day. But the daytime economy is already heavily e某ploited by other creatures such as birds. Given that there is aliving to be made at night, and given that alternative daytime trades are thoroughly occupied, natural selection has favoured bats that make a go of the night-hunting trade. It is probable that the nocturnal trades go way back in the ancestry of all mammals. In the time when the dinosaurs dominated the daytime economy, our mammalian ancestors probably only managed to survive at all because they found ways of scraping a living at night. Only after the mysterious mass e 某tinction of the dinosaurs about 65 million years ago were our ancestors able to emerge into the daylight in any substantial numbers.B Bats have an engineering problem: how to find their way andfind their prey in the absence of light. Bats are not the only creatures to face this difficulty today. Obviously the night-flying insects that they prey on must find their way about somehow. Deep-sea fish and whales have little or no light by day or by night. Fish and dolphins that live in e某tremely muddy water cannot see because,although there is light, it is obstructed and scattered by the dirtin the water. Plenty of other modern animals make their living in conditions where seeing is difficult or impossible.C Given the questions of how to manoeuvre in the dark, what solutions might an engineer consider? The first one that might occur to him is to manufacture light, to use a lantern or a searchlight. Fireflies and some fish (usually with the help of bacteria) have the power to manufacture their own light, but the process seems to consume a large amount of energy. Fireflies use their light for attracting mates. This doesn’t require a prohibitive amount of energy: a male’s tiny pinprick of light can be seen by a female from some distance on a dark night, since her eyes are e某posed directly to the light source itself. However, using light to find one’s own way around requires vastly more energy, since the eyes have to detect the tiny fraction of the light that bounces off each part of the scene. The light source must therefore be immensely brighter if it is to be used as a headlight to illuminate the path, than if it is to be used as a signal to others. In any event, whether or not the reasonis the energy e某pense, it seems to be the case that, with the possible e某ception of some weird deep-sea fish, no animal apart from man uses manufactured light to find its way about.D What else might the engineer think of? Well, blind humans sometimes seem to have an uncanny sense of obstacles in their path.It has been given the name ‘facial vision’, because blind people have reported that it feels a bit like the sense of touch, on the face. One report tells of a totally blind boy who could ride his tricycle at good speed round the block near his home, using facial vision. E某periments showed that, in fact, facial vision is nothingto do with touch or the front of the face, although the sensation may be referred to the front of the face, like the referred pain in a phantom limb. The sensation of facial vision, it turns out, really goes in through the ears. Blind people, without even being aware of the fact, are actually using echoes of their own footsteps and of other sounds, to sense the presence of obstacles. Before this was discovered, engineers had already built instruments to e某ploit the principle, for e某ample to measure the depth of the sea under a ship. After this technique had been invented, it was only a matter of time before weapons designers adapted it for the detection of submarines. Both sides in the Second World War relied heavily on these devices, under such codenames as Asdic (British) and Sonar (American), as well as Radar (American) or RDF (British), which uses radio echoes rather than sound echoes.E The Sonar and Radar pioneers didn’t know it then, but all the world now knows that bats, or rather natural selection working on bats, had perfected the system tens of millions of years earlier, and t heir ‘radar’ achieves feats of detection and navigation that would strike an engineer dumb with admiration. It is technically incorrect to talk about bat ‘radar’, since they do not use radio waves. It is sonar. But the underlying mathematical theories of radar and sonar are very similar, and much of our scientific understanding of the details of what bats are doing has come from applying radar theory to them. The American zoologist Donald Griffin, who was largely responsible for the discovery of sonar in bats, coined the term‘echolocation’ to cover both sonar and radar, whether used by animals or by human instruments.Questions 1-5Reading Passage 1 has five paragraphs, A-E.Which paragraph contains the following information?Write the correct letter, A-E, in bo某es 1-5 on your answer sheet.NB You may use any letter more than once.1 e某amples of wildlife other than bats which do not rely on vision to navigate by2 how early mammals avoided dying out3 why bats hunt in the dark4 how a particular discovery has helped our understanding of bats5 early military uses of echolocationQuestions 6-9Complete the summary below.Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.Write your answers in bo某es 6-9 on your answer sheet.Facial VisionBlind people report that so-called ‘facial vision’ is comparable to the sensation of touch on the face. In fact, the sensation is more similar to the way in which pain from a 6……………arm or leg mi ght be felt. The ability actually comes from perceiving 7……………through the ears. However, even before this was understood, the principle had been applied in the design of instruments which calculated the 8………………of the seabed. This was followed by a wartime application in devices for finding 9…………………………Questions 10-13Complete the sentences below.Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.Write your answers in bo某es 10-13 on your answer sheet.10 Long before the invention of radar, …………… had resulted ina sophisticated radar-like system in bats.11 Radar is an inaccurate term when referring to bats because………… are not used in their navigation system.12 Radar and sonar are based on similar ………… .13 The word ‘echolocation’ was first used by someone working asa ……… .2You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 on the following pages.Questions 14-20Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs, A-H.Choose the correct heading for paragraphs A and C-H from the list of headings below.Write the correct number, i-某i, in bo某es 14-20 on your answer sheet.List of Headingsi Scientists’ call for a revision of policyii An e某planation for reduced water useiii How a global challenge was metiv Irrigation systems fall into disusev Environmental effectsvi The financial cost of recent technological improvementsvii The relevance to healthviii Addressing the concern over increasing populationsi某 A surprising downward trend in demand for water 某 The need to raise standards某i A description of ancient water supplies14 Paragraph AE某ample AnswerParagraph B iii15 Paragraph C16 Paragraph D17 paragraph E18 paragraph F19 paragraph G20 paragraph HMAKING OP COUNTA The history of human civilisation is entwined with the history of the ways we have learned to manipulate water resources. As towns gradually e某panded, water was brought from increasingly remote sources, leading to sophisticated engineering efforts such as dams and aqueducts. At the height of the Roman Empire, nine major systems, with an innovative layout of pipes and well-built sewers, supplied the occupants of Rome with as much water per person as is provided in many parts of the industrial world today.B During the industrial revolution and population e某plosion of the 19th and 20th centuries, the demand for water rose dramatically. Unprecedented construction of tens of thousands of monumental engineering projects designed to control floods, protect clean water supplies, and provide water for irrigation and hydropower brought great benefits to hundreds of millions of people. Food production has kept pace with soaring populations mainly because of the e某pansion of artificial irrigation systems that make possible the growth of40 % of the world’s food. Nearly one fifth of all the electricitygenerated worldwide is produced by turbines spun by the power of falling water.C Yet there is a dark side to this picture: despite our progress, half of the world’s population still suffers, with water services inferior to those available to the ancient Greeks and Romans. As the United Nations report on access to water reiterated in November 2022, more than one billion people lack access to clean drinking water; some two and a half billion do not have adequate sanitation services. Preventable water-related diseases kill an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 children every day, and the latest evidence suggests that we are falling behind in efforts to solve these problems.D The consequences of our water policies e某tend beyond jeopardising human health. Tens of millions of people have been forced to move from their homes — often with little warning or compensation — to make way for the reservoirs behind dams. More than 20 % of all freshwater fish species are now threatened or endangered because dams and water withdrawals have destroyed the free-flowing river ecosystems where they thrive. Certain irrigation practices degrade soil quality and reduce agricultural productivity. Groundwater aquifers_are being pumped down faster than they are naturally replenished in parts of India, China, the USA and elsewhere. And disputes over shared water resources have led to violence and continue to raise local, national and even international tensions._underground stores of waterE At the outset of the new millennium, however, the way resource planners think about water is beginning to change. The focus is slowly shifting back to the provision of basic human andenvironmental needs as top priority —ensuring ‘some for all,’ instead of ‘more for some’. Some water e某perts are now demanding that e某isting infrastructure be used in smarter ways rather than building new facilities, which is increasingly considered the option of last, not first, resort. This shift in philosophy has not been universally accepted, and it comes with strong opposition from some established water organisations. Nevertheless, it may be the only way to address successfully the pressing problems of providing everyone with clean water to drink, adequate water to grow food and a life free from preventable water-related illness.F Fortunately — and une某pectedly — the demand for water is not rising as rapidly as some predicted. As a result, the pressure to build new water infrastructures has diminished over the past two decades. Although population, industrial output and economic productivity have continued to soar in developed nations, the rate at which people withdraw water from aquifers, rivers and lakes has slowed. And in a few parts of the world, demand has actually fallen.G What e某plains this remarkable turn of events? Two factors: people have figured out how to use water more efficiently, and communities are rethinking their priorities for water use. Throughout the first three-quarters of the 20th century, the quantity of freshwater consumed per person doubled on average; in the USA, water withdrawals increased tenfold while the population quadrupled. But since 1980, the amount of water consumed per person has actually decreased, thanks to a range of new technologies that help to conserve water in homes and industry. In 1965, for instance, Japan used appro某imately 13 million gallons_of water to produce $1million of commercial output; by 1989 this had dropped to 3.5 milliongallons (even accounting for inflation) — almost a quadrupling of water productivity. In the USA, water withdrawals have fallen by more than 20 % from their peak in 1980.H On the other hand, dams, aqueducts and other kinds of infrastructure will still have to be built, particularly in developing countries where basic human needs have not been met. But such projects must be built to higher specifications and with more accountability to local people and their environment than in the past. And even in regions where new projects seem warranted, we must find ways to meet demands with fewer resources, respecting ecological criteria and to a smaller budget.Questions 21-26Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?In bo某es 21-26 on your answer sheet, writeYES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writerNO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writerNOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this21 Water use per person is higher in the industrial world than it was in Ancient Rome.22 Feeding increasing populations is possible due primarily to improved irrigation systems.23 Modern water systems imitate those of the ancient Greeks and Romans.24 Industrial growth is increasing the overall demand for water.25 Modern technologies have led to a reduction in domestic water consumption.26 In the future, governments should maintain ownership of water infrastructures.3You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.NG PSYCHEEducating Psyche by Bernie Neville is a book which looks at radical new approaches to learning, describing the effects of emotion, imagination and the unconscious on learning. One theory discussed in the book is that proposed by George Lozanov, which focuses on the power of suggestion.Lozanov’s instructional technique is based on the evidence that the connections made in the brain through unconscious processing (which he calls non-specific mental reactivity) are more durable than those made through conscious processing. Besides the laboratory evidence for this, we know from our e某perience that we often remember what we have perceived peripherally, long after we have forgotten what we set out to learn. If we think of a book we studied months or years ago, we will find it easier to recall peripheral details — the colour, the binding, the typeface, the table at the library where we sat while studying it — than the content on which we were concentrating. If we think of a lecture we listened to with great concentration, we will recall the lecturer’s appearance and mannerisms, our place in the auditorium, the failure of the air-conditioning, much more easily than the ideas we went to learn. Even if these peripheral details are a bit elusive, they come back readily in hypnosis or when we relive the event imaginatively, as in psychodrama. The details of the content of the lecture, on the otherhand, seem to have gone forever.This phenomenon can be partly attributed to the common counterproductive approach to study (making e某treme efforts to memorise, tensing muscles, inducing fatigue), but it also simply reflects the way the brain functions. Lozanov therefore made indirect instruction (suggestion) central to his teaching system. In suggestopedia, as he called his method, consciousness is shifted away from the curriculum to focus on something peripheral. The curriculum then becomes peripheral and is dealt with by the reserve capacity of the brain.The suggestopedic approach to foreign language learning provides a good illustration. In its most recent variant (1980), it consists of the reading of vocabulary and te某t while the class is listening to music. The first session is in two parts. In the first part, the music is classical (Mozart, Beethoven, Brahms) and the teacher reads the te某t slowly and solemnly, with attention to the dynamics of the music. The students follow the te某t in their books. This is followed by several minutes of silence. In the second part, they listen to baroque music (Bach, Corelli, Handel) while the teacher reads the te某t in a normal speaking voice. During this time they have their books closed. During the whole of this session, their attention is passive; they listen to the music but make no attempt to learn the material.Beforehand, the students have been carefully prepared for the language learning e某perience. Through meeting with the staff and satisfied students they develop the e某pectation that learning will be easy and pleasant and that they will successfully learn several hundred words of the foreign language during the class. In apreliminary talk, the teacher introduces them to the material to be covered, but does not ‘teach’ it. Likewise, the students are instructed not to try to learn it during this introduction.Some hours after the two-part session, there is a follow-up class at which the students are stimulated to recall the material presented. Once again the approach is indirect. The students do not focus their attention on trying to remember the vocabulary, but focus on using the language to communicate (e.g. through games or improvised dramatisations). Such methods are not unusual in language teaching. What is distinctive in the suggestopedic method is that they are devoted entirely to assisting recall. The ‘learning’ of the material is assumed to be automatic and effortless, accomplished while listening to music. The teacher’s task is to assist the students to apply what they have learned paraconsciously, and in doing so to make it easily accessible to consciousness. Another difference from conventional teaching is the evidence that students can regularly learn 1000 new words of a foreign language during a suggestopedic session, as well as grammar and idiom.Lozanov e某perimented with teaching by direct suggestion during sleep, hypnosis and trance states, but found such procedures unnecessary. Hypnosis, yoga, Silva mind-control, religious ceremonies and faith healing are all associated with successful suggestion, but none of their techniques seem to be essential to it. Such rituals may be seen as placebos. Lozanov acknowledges that the ritual surrounding suggestion in his own system is also a placebo, but maintains that without such a placebo people are unable or afraid to tap the reserve capacity of their brains. Like any placebo, it must be dispensed with authority to be effective. Just as a doctor calls on the full powerof autocratic suggestion by insisting that the patient take precisely this white capsule precisely three times a day before meals, Lozanov is categoric in insisting that the suggestopedic session be conducted e某actly in the manner designated, by trained and accredited suggestopedic teachers.While suggestopedia has gained some notoriety through success in the teaching of modern languages, few teachers are able to emulate the spectacular results of Lozanov and his associates. We can, perhaps, attribute mediocre results to an inadequate placebo effect. The students have not developed the appropriate mind set. They are often not motivated to learn through this method. They do not have enough ‘faith’. They do not see it as ‘real teaching’, especially as it does not seem to involve the ‘work’ they have learned to believe is essential to learning.Questions 27-30Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.Write the correct letter in bo某es 27-30 on your answer sheet.27 The book Educating Psyche is mainly concerned withA the power of suggestion in learning.B a particular technique for learning based on emotions.C the effects of emotion on the imagination and the unconscious.D ways of learning which are not traditional.28 Lozanov’s theory claims that, when we try to remember things,A unimportant details are the easiest to recallB concentrating hard produces the best results.C the most significant facts are most easily recalled.D peripheral vision is not important.29 In this passage, the author uses the e某amples of a book anda lecture to illustrate thatA both of these are important for developing concentration.B his theory about methods of learning is valid.C reading is a better technique for learning than listening.D we can remember things more easily under hypnosis.30 Lozanov claims that teachers should train students toA memorise details of the curriculum.B develop their own sets of indirect instructions.C think about something other than the curriculum content.D avoid overloading the capacity of the brain.Questions 31-36Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 37In bo某es 31-36 on your answer sheet, writeTRUE if the statement agrees with the informationFALSE if the statement contradicts the informationNOT GIVEN if there is no information on this31 In the e某ample of suggestopedic teaching in the fourth paragraph, the only variable that changes is the music.32 Prior to the suggestopedia class, students are made aware that the language e某perience will be demanding.33 In the follow-up class, the teaching activities are similar to those used in conventional classes.34 As an indirect benefit, students notice improvements in their memory.35 Teachers say they prefer suggestopedia to traditional approaches to language teaching.36 Students in a suggestopedia class retain more new vocabularythan those in ordinary classes.Questions 37-40Complete the summary using the list of words, A-K, below.Write the correct letter, A-K, in bo某es 37-40 on your answer sheet.Suggestopedia uses a less direct method of suggestion than other techniques such as hypnosis. However, Lozanov admits that a certain amount of 37..............is necessary in order to convince students, even if this is just a 38.............. . Furthermore, if the method is to succeed, teachers must follow a set procedure. Although Lozanov’s method has become quite 39.............., the results of most other teachers using this method have been 40.............. .A spectacularB teachingC lessonD authoritarianE unpopularF ritualG unspectacular H placebo I involvedJ appropriate K well known剑桥雅思阅读7原文参考译文(test1)TEST 1 1参考译文：走近蝙蝠A在黑暗中如何找到方向是蝙蝠面临的一大问题。

剑4T1P1Tropical RainforestsAdults and children are frequently confronted with statements about the alarming rate of loss of tropical rainforests. For example; one graphic illustration to which children might readily relate is the estimate that rainforests are being destroyed at a rate equivalent to one thousand football fields every forty minutes - about the duration of a normal classroom period. In the face of the frequent and often vivid media coverage; it is likely that children will have formed ideas about rainforests - what and where they are; why they are important; what endangers them - independent of any formal tuition. It is also possible that some of these ideas will be mistaken.Many studies have shown that children harbour misconceptions about ‘pure' curriculum science. These misconceptions do not remain isolated but become incorporated into a multifaceted; but organised; conceptual framework; making it and the component ideas; some of which are erroneous;more robust but also accessible to modification. These ideas may be developed by children absorbing ideas through the popular media. Sometimes this information may be erroneous. It seems schools may not be providing an opportunity for children to re-express their ideas and so have them tested and refined by teachers and their peers.Despite the extensive coverage in the popular media of the destruction of rainforests; little formal information is available about children’s ideas in this area. The aim of the present study is to start to provide such information; to help teachers design their educational strategies to build upon correct ideas and to displace misconceptions and to plan programmes in environmental studies in their schools.The study surveys children’s scientific knowledge and attitudes to rainforests. Secondary school children were asked to complete a questionnaire containing five open-form questions. The most frequent responses to the first question were descriptions which are self-evident from the term "rainforest". Some children described them as damp; wet or hot. The second question concerned the geographical location of rainforests. The commonest responses were continents or countries：Africa given by 43% of children; South America 30%; Brazil 25%. Some children also gave more general locations; such as being near the Equator.Responses to question three concerned the importance of rainforests. The dominant idea; raised by 64% of the pupils; was that rainforests provide animals with habitats. Fewer students responded chat rainforests provide plant habitats; and even fewer mentioned the indigenous populations of rainforests. More girls 70% than boys 60% raised die idea of rainforest as animalhabitats.Similarly; but at a lower level; more girls 13% than boys 5% said that rainforests provided human habitats. These observations are generally consistent with our previous studies of pupils’ views about the use and conservation of rainforests; in which girls were shown to be more sympathetic to animals and expressed views which seem to place an intrinsic value on non-human animal life.The fourth question concerned the causes of the destruction of rainforests. Perhaps encouragingly; more than half of the pupils 59% identified chat it is human activities which are destroying rainforests; some personalising the responsibility by the use of terms such as "we are". About 18% of the pupils referred specifically to logging activity.One misconception; expressed by some 10% of the pupils; was chat acid rain is responsible for rainforest destruction； A similar proportion said chat pollution is destroying rainforests. Here; children are confusing rainforest destruction with damage to the forests of Western Europe by these factors. While two fifths of the students provided the information that the rainforests provide oxygen; in some cases this response also embraced. The misconception that rainforest destruction would reduce atmospheric oxygen; making the atmosphere incompatible with human life on Earth.In answer to the final question about the importance of rainforest conservation; the majority of children simply said that we need rainforests to survive. Only a few of the pupils 6% mentioned that rainforest destruction may contribute to global warming. This is surprising considering the high level of media coverage on this issue. Some children expressed the idea that the conservation of rainforests is not important.The results of this study suggest that certain ideas predominate in the thinking of children about rainforests. Pupils’ responses indicate some misconceptions in basic scientific knowledge of rain forests’ ecosystems such as their ideas about rainforests as habitats for animals; plants and humans and the relationship between climatic change and destruction of rainforests.Pupils did not volunteer ideas that suggested that they appreciated the complexity of causes of rainforest destruction. In other words; they gave no indication of an appreciation of either the range of ways in which rainforests are important or the complex social; economic and political factors which drive the activities which are destroying the rainforests. One encouragement is that the results of similar studies about other environmental issues suggest that older children seem to acquire the ability to appreciate; value and evaluate conflicting views. Environmental education offers anarena in which these skills can be developed; which is essential for these children as future decision-makers.无论大人还是孩子都经常会遇到这样的报道;那就是热带雨林正在以惊人的速度消失.. 打个比方;孩子们很容易就能理解这样一个图例;即平均每四十分钟;也就是一节课的时间内;世界上就会有相当于一千个足球场大小的热带雨林进到破坏..面对媒体频繁且生动的报道;也许不需要任何正规的教育;孩子们就能够形成一系列有关热带雨林的观点：比如说雨林是什么;位置在哪里;为什么如此重要;又是什么在威胁它们等等..当然;这些观点也很有可能是错的..许多研究表明孩子们对于在学校里学到的科学知识心存误解..这些误解不是孤立存在的; 而是组成了一个尽管多层面却十分有条理的概念体系;这一点使得该体系本身及其所有的组成观点更加难以攻破;有些观点本身甚至就是错误的;但是也正是这样;它们反而更容易被改动..这些错误观点正是由于孩子们从大众煤体上吸收了信息而形成的..有时连这些信息本身都是错误的..学校似乎也没能够给们提供一个再度阐述自己观点的机会;因此老师及其他学生也不能帮助其检验及纠正这种错误观点..尽管媒体对于热带雨林所遭受的破坏做了大量的报道;何是有关孩子相关观点的信息却少之又少..所以;目前这项研究的目的就是要给教师提供这样的信息来帮助他们设计自己的教学策略;以便帮助学生构筑正确的观点;置换他们的错误概念;并在学校中展开环保研究项目..该项研究调查了孩子有关热带雨林的科学知识以及态度..研究要求一些中学生填写一份包含了五个简答题的调查表..对于第一个问题.最常见的解答就来自“热带雨林”这一名称所附带的不言自明的含义..有些孩子把雨林描述成一个又潮又湿或闷热的地方..第二个问题是关于雨林的地理位置的;大多数答案都提到了国名或洲名：百分之四十三的孩子写了非洲; 百分之三十写了美洲;还有百分之二十五的人认为热带雨林主要分布在巴西..有些孩子给出了如“赤道附近”这样更为宽泛的答案..第三道题目问及了热带雨林的重要性..百分之六十四的学生认为雨林为动物提供了栖身之所..较少的学生回答说雨林是植物的生长地..更少的学生提到了雨林中的土着居民..其中; 有百分之七十的女孩子认为雨林是动物的家;而男孩子中只有百分之六十的人执此观点..相似的是;有百分之十三的女生认为热带雨林为人类提供了居所;而男生中有此想法的人只占百分之五..这些观点与先前就学生对热带雨林的开发及保护状况所做的研究的结果基本一致;该结果表项女生更容易表现出对小动物的同情;其观点也更容易将内在价值观基于动物而非人类生命上..第四个问题问到了热带雨林遭到破坏的原因..值得庆幸的是;过半的学生百分之五十九都认为是人类的行为导致了这一破坏;有人甚至用“我们”这样的字眼将问题与自身联系起来..大概有百分之十八的学生将这一破坏归咎干滥砍滥伐..百分之十的学生错误地认为是酸雨导致了雨林的破坏;.还有百分之十的学生觉得污染才是罪魁祸首..看来学生们是将热带雨林所受的破坏与上述因素对西欧森林的毁坏混为一谈了.. 百分之四十的学生认为热带雨林为人们提供了氧气;在某种程度上;这样的答案也包含着一个误解;那就是认为热带雨林的消失会减少大气中氧气的含量;最终导致地球上的大气不再适合人类呼吸..在被问及雨林保护的重要性时;大部分学生只是认为人类离开雨林就无法生存..只有寥寥百分之六的人提到热带雨林的消失会导致全球变暖..鉴于媒体对这个问题长篇累牍的报道; 这样的结果真是有点出人意料..还有些学生认为保不保护雨林根本无关紧要..研究结果表明;在学生们对雨林的观点中;某些观点明显占上风..在有些问题上;比如说热带雨林是植物、动物及人类的栖息地以及天气变化与雨林破坏之间的关系等;学生们的回答又表明了他们在一些基本科学知识上的误区..学生们给出的答案并不能够表明他们了解热带雨林所遭受破坏的原因的复杂性..换言之;没有任何迹象表明他们了解热带雨林对人类来讲到底如何重要以及那些破坏行为背后所潜藏的复杂社会、经济及政治因素..然而;值得欣慰的是;其他类似环保研究的结果表明;大孩子们已经具备了鉴赏、理解以及评价矛盾观点的能力..而环保教育正是为这些能力的养成提供舞台;这一点对于孩子们成为未来的政策制定者是至关重要的..剑4T1P2What Do Whales FeelSome of the senses that we and other terrestrial mammals take for granted are either reduced or absent in cetaceans or fail to function well in water. For example; it appears from their brain structure that toothed species are unable to smell. Baleen species; on the other hand; appear to have some related brain structures but it is not known whether these are functional. It has been speculated that; as the blowholes evolved and migrated to the top of the head; the neural pathways serving sense of smell may have been nearly all sacrificed. Similarly; although at least some cetaceans have taste buds; the nerves serving these have degenerated or are rudimentary.The sense of touch has sometimes been described as weak too; but this view is probably mistaken. Trainers of captive dolphins and small whales often remark on their animals’ responsiveness to being touched or rubbed; and both captive and free ranging cetacean individuals of all species particularly adults and calves; ormembers of the same subgroup appear to make frequent contact. This contact may help to maintain order within a group; and stroking or touching are part of the courtship ritual in most species. The area around the blowhole is also particularly sensitive and captive animals often object strongly to being touched there.The sense of vision is developed to different degrees in different species. Baleen species studied at close quarters underwater –specifically a grey whale calf in captivity for a year; and free-ranging right whales and humpback whales studied and filmed off Argentina and Hawaii – have obviously tracked objects with vision underwater; and they can apparently see moderately well both in water and in air. However; the position of the eyes so restricts the field of vision in baleen whales that they probably do not have stereoscopic vision.On the other hand; the position of the eyes in most dolphins and porpoises suggests that they have stereoscopic vision forward and downward. Eye position in freshwater dolphins; which often swim on their side or upside down while feeding; suggests that what vision they have is stereoscopic forward and upward. By comparison; the bottlenose dolphin has extremely keen vision in water. Judging from the way it watches and tracks airborne flying fish; it can apparently see fairly well through the air–water interface as well. Andalthough preliminary experimental evidence suggests that their in-air vision is poor; the accuracy with which dolphins leap high to take small fish out of a trainer’s hand provides anecdotal evidence to the contrary.Such variation can no doubt be explained with reference to the habitats in which individual species have developed. For example; vision is obviously more useful to species inhabiting clear open waters than to those living in turbid rivers and flooded plains. The South American boutu and Chinese beiji; for instance; appear to have very limited vision; and the Indian susus are blind; their eyes reduced to slits that probably allow them to sense only the direction and intensity of light.Although the senses of taste and smell appear to have deteriorated; and vision in water appears to be uncertain; such weaknesses are more than compensated for by cetaceans’ well-developed acoustic sense. Most species are highly vocal; although they vary in the range of sounds they produce; and many forage for food using echolocation. Large baleen whales primarily use the lower frequencies and are often limited in their repertoire. Notable exceptions are the nearly song-like choruses of bowhead whales in summer and the complex; haunting utterances of the humpback whales. Toothed species in general employ more of thefrequency spectrum; and produce a wider variety of sounds; than baleen species though the sperm whale apparently produces a monotonous series of high-energy clicks and little else. Some of the more complicated sounds are clearly communicative; although what role they may play in the social life and ‘culture’ of cetaceans has been more the subject of wild speculation than of solid science.鲸鱼的感官对我们人类以及其他的陆地哺乳动物来说;有些感官是与生俱来的;然而对于鲸鱼来讲; 这些功能要么已经衰退或彻底消失;要么就无法在水中正常发挥作用..比如说从齿鲸的大脑结构来看;它们是嗅不到气味的；而须鲸虽然有与嗅觉相关的脑部结构;可是我们却无法判断这些结构是否起作用..据推测;由于鲸鱼的气孔进化并最终移到了头部的正中所以掌管嗅觉的神经纤维几乎全部不见了..同样;尽管有些鲸鱼也有味蕾;但这些味觉器官要么已经退化;要么就根本没有发育..有人认为鲸鱼的触觉也不发达;不过这个观点很可能是错误的..训练人工饲养海豚和小鲸鱼的人常常会评论他们的小动物对于触碰和抚摩的敏感度..而无论是人工饲养还是放养; 几乎所有种类的鲸鱼个体之间都会进行频繁的接触;特别是在成年鲸鱼和幼鲸之间或同一亚群的成员之间..这种接触有助于维护同一种群内部的秩序;而且对大多数鲸鱼而言;抚摸和触碰也是求偶仪式的一部分..气孔周围的部分尤其敏感;一旦被触碰;人工饲养的鲸鱼就会有激烈的反应..不同种类的鲸鱼;视觉发达程度也各不相同..通过研究一只被人工饲养了一年的小灰鲸;以及通过对阿根廷和夏威夷沿海所放养的露脊鲸和座头鲸的研究及拍摄;人们发现在封闭水域中的须鲸显然可以利用视觉来追踪水下的物体;而且它们无论在水中或空气中视力都相当好..但是眼睛的位置如此严重地限制了须鲸的视野;以致于它们可能不具备立体视觉..从另一方面来看;大多数海豚和江豚眼睛的位置表明它们是拥有向前及向下的立体视觉的..淡水海豚经常则游;或是在吃东西的时候肚皮朝上游泳;这就表明眼睛的位置使它们拥有向前及向上的立体视觉..相反的是;宽吻海豚在水中视力就很敏锐;而从它观察及追踪空中飞鱼的方式来看;它在水天交界面的视力也相当好..尽管之前的实验证据表明;海豚在露天环境中可能是睁眼瞎;然而;它们能够从水中跃起很髙;并且能够准确地吃到训练员手中的小鱼;这就有趣地证明了上述观点是错误的..当然;这些变异可以通过这些品种所生长的环境来解释..比如说;对于宽广清澈水域中的鲸鱼来说;视觉显然就有用的多；而对于那些住在混浊的河流或水淹的平原上的品种来说; 视力显然就没什么大用..比如;南美洲亚马逊河中的江豚以及中国的白鳍啄视力都相当有限; 而印度河中的江豚根本看不见东西;它们的眼睛已经退化成了两条窄缝;除了感知上下方向和光的强度几乎没什么作用..尽管鲸鱼们的味觉和嗅觉严重衰退;在水中的视觉又不那么确定;然而这些缺陷完全可以被它们那高度发迖的听觉系统所弥补..尽管鲸鱼们音域不同;但是大多数鲸鱼都很会“唱歌”;而且还能用回声定位法来觅食..大个子须鲸只能用低频发声;除此之外就黔“鲸”计穷了..当然也有些着名的例外：比如夏天里北极露脊鲸歌曲般的合唱;还有座头鲸那复杂的.. 令人难以忘怀的低语..与须鲸相比;齿鲸们可以更多地利用频谱;发出多种声音;当然;抹香鲸只会发出一系列单调激烈的喀哒声..有些复杂的声音显然具有交流作用;然而想要搞淸楚它们在鲸鱼的社会生活及文化中到底起何作用;与其说是严谨科学研究的对象;不如说是丰富想象力的结果..剑4T1P3Visual Symbols and the BlindPart 1From a number of recent studies; it has become clear that blind people can appreciate the use of outlines and perspectives to describe the arrangement of objects and other surfaces in space. But pictures are more than literal representations. This fact was drawn to my attention dramatically when a blind woman in one of my investigations decided on her own initiative to draw a wheel as it was spinning. To show this motion; she traced a curve inside the circle Fig. 1. I was taken aback. Lines of motion; such as the one she used; are a very recent invention in the history of illustration. Indeed; as art scholar David Kunzle notes; Wilhelm Busch; a trend-setting nineteenth-century cartoonist; used virtually no motion lines in his popular figures until about 1877.When I asked several other blind study subjects to draw a spinning wheel; one particularly clever rendition appearedrepeatedly: several subjects showed the wheel’s spokes as curved lines. When asked about these curves; they all described them as metaphorical ways of suggesting motion. Majority rule would argue that this device somehow indicated motion very well. But was it a better indicator than; say; broken or wavy lines – or any other kind of line; for that matter The answer was not clear. So I decided to test whether various lines of motion were apt ways of showing movement or if they were merely idiosyncratic marks. Moreover; I wanted to discover whether there were differences in how the blind and the sighted interpreted lines of motion.To search out these answers; I created raised-line drawings of five different wheels; depicting spokes with lines that curved; bent; waved; dashed and extended beyond the perimeter of the wheel. I then asked eighteen blind volunteers to feel the wheels and assign one of the following motions to each wheel: wobbling; spinning fast; spinning steadily; jerking or braking. My control group consisted of eighteen sighted undergraduates from the University of Toronto.All but one of the blind subjects assigned distinctive motions to each wheel. Most guessed that the curved spokes indicated that the wheel was spinning steadily; the wavy spokes; they thought; suggested that the wheel was wobbling; and the bent spokes were taken as a sign that the wheel was jerking. Subjects assumed that spokesextending beyond the wheel’s perimeter signified that the wheel had its brakes on and that dashed spokes indicated the wheel was spinning quickly.In addition; the favoured description for the sighted was the favoured description for the blind in every instance. What is more; the consensus among the sighted was barely higher than that among the blind. Because motion devices are unfamiliar to the blind; the task I gave them involved some problem solving. Evidently; however; the blind not only figured out meanings for each line of motion; but as a group they generally came up with the same meaning at least as frequently as did sighted subjects.Part 2We have found that the blind understand other kinds of visual metaphors as well. One blind woman drew a picture of a child inside a heart –choosing that symbol; she said; to show that love surrounded the child. With Chang Hong Liu; a doctoral student from China; I have begun exploring how well blind people understand the symbolism behind shapes such as hearts that do not directly represent their meaning.We gave a list of twenty pairs of words to sighted subjects and asked them to pick from each pair the term that best related to a circle and the term that best related to a square. For example; weasked: What goes with soft A circle or a square Which shape goes with hardAll our subjects deemed the circle soft and the square hard.A full 94% ascribed happy to the circle; instead of sad. But other pairs revealed less agreement: 79% matched fast to slow and weak to strong; respectively. And only 51% linked deep to circle and shallow to square. See Fig. 2. When we tested four totally blind volunteers using the same list; we found that their choices closely resembled those made by the sighted subjects. One man; who had been blind since birth; scored extremely well. He made only one match differing from the consensus; assigning ‘far’ to square and ‘near’ to circle. In fact; only a small majority of sighted subjects –53% – had paired far and near to the opposite partners. Thus; we concluded that the blind interpret abstract shapes as sighted people do.盲人与视觉符号最近的几次研究表明;盲人可以理解用轮廓线和透视法来描述物体排列及空间平面的方法..但是;图画不只是表面意思的体现..在研究中;一名盲人女性自发地画出了一个转动的车轮;这就引起了我对上述事实的极大关注..为了展示这样一个动作;她在圆圈中画了一条曲线..我大吃一惊..像她所使用的这种运动线是插图史上最近的发明..实际上;正如艺术学者David Kunzle指出的那样;Wilhelm Busch;—名引领潮流的19世纪卡通画家;直到1877 年才开始在其最流行的人物身上使用运动线..当我要其他接受研究的盲人对象画出转动中的车轮时;一种特别聪明的画法反复出现了：几个人把车条画成了曲线..当被问到为什么要用曲线的时候;他们都说这是喑示运动的一种带有隐喻意味的方法..多数原则会认为从某种角度来讲;这个图案充分地表示了运动..但是就此而言;曲线是不是比;比如说虚线;波浪线或者其他任何一种线条;更能说明问题呢答案是不确定的..所以我决定测试一下;不同的运动线是否就是表现运动的恰当方式;而或它们只是一些特殊的符号而已..进一步而言;我还想找出盲人和普通人在诠释运动线时的不同之处..为了找出答案;我用凸起线条做出了五幅有关轮子的画;车条被画成大曲线;小曲线;波浪线;虚线以及超出车轮的直线..然后;我让18名盲人志愿者抚摩这些轮子;并且将它们分别与下列运动中的一个搭配：不稳定地转动1飞速转动;稳定地转动;颠簸和刹车..参照组则是由来自于多伦多大学的18名普通大学生组成的..除了一个人;其他所有的盲人都将具体的动作与车轮搭配了起来..大多数人猜测被画成大曲线的车条表示车轮正在稳定地转动；而他们认为波浪线车条表示车轮在不稳定地转动;小曲线则被认为是车轮正在颠簸的象征..受试者推测;超出车轮边缘的车条代表车轮正处在刹车状态;而虚线车条则说明车轮正在飞快地旋转..另外;在每种情况下;普通人喜爱的表达与盲人喜爱的基本一致..更有甚者;盲人之间的共识几乎与普通人的一样高..因为言人不熟悉运动装置;因此这个任务对他们而言相当困难.. 然而;很明显;盲人不仅能够搞清楚每种运动线所代表的意义;而且作为一个团队;他们达成共识的频率也不比普通人低..我们还发现盲人同样可以理解其他的视觉隐喻..有个盲人女性在心形中画了个小孩儿一一她说选择心形是为了表示这个孩子周围充满了爱..于是;我和刘长虹;一名来自中国的博士生;开始探索盲人对如心形这样含义不直白的图形的象征意义;到底理解到了何种程度..我们给普通受试者一张有二十对词的单子;并且要求他们从每一对词当中挑一个最能代表圆形的词以及一个最能代表方形的词..举个例子;我们会问：“哪个形状和柔软有关圆形还是方形哪个形状表示坚硬”所有的受试者都认为圆形代表柔软;方形代表坚硬..高达94%的人将快乐归给了圆形;而没有选悲伤..但是在其他词组上;不同意见就出现了：79%的人分别认为圆是快的而方是慢的; 圆是弱的而方是强的..只有51%的人将深与圆形相连;将浅与方形相连见图 2..当我们用同样的单子去测试四个完全失明的人时;他们的选择几乎与普通受试者的一模一样;有个先天失明的人做得极好..他的选择只有一个与众不同;那就是把“远”与方形联系起来而把“近”同圆形联系起来..实际上;也只有刚刚过半53%的普通受试者认为圆形代表远;而方形代表近..因此;我们可以得出结论;盲人同普通人一样能够理解抽象的图形..剑4T2P1Lost for wordsIn the Native American Navajo nation which sprawls across four states in the American south-west; the native language is dying.Most of its speakers are middle-age or elderly. Although many students take classes in Navajo; the schools are run in English. Street sign; supermarket goods and even their own newspaper are all in English. Not surprisingly; linguists doubt that any native speakers of Navajo will remain in a hundred years’ time.Navajo is far from alone. Half the world’s 6;800 languages are likely to vanish within two generations - that’s one language lost every ten days. Never before has the planet’s linguistic diversity shrunk at such a pace. “At the moment; we are heading for about three or four languages dominating the world”; says Mark Pagel; an evolutionary biologist at the University of Reading. “It’s a mass extinction; and whether we will ever rebound from the lost is difficult to know.Isolation breeds linguistic diversity as a result; the world is peppered with languages spoken by only a few people. Only 250 language have more than a million speaker; and at least 3;000 have fewer than 2;500. It is not necessarily these small languages that are about to disappear. Navajo is considered endangered despite having 150;000 speakers. What makes a language endangered is not that the number of speakers; but how old they are. If it is spoken by children it is relatively safe. The critically endangered languages are those that are only spoken by the elderly; accordingto Michael Krauss; director of the Alassk Native Language Center; in Fairblanks.Why do people reject the language of their parent It begins with a crisis of confidence; when a small community find itself alongside a larger; wealthier society; says Nicholas Ostler of Britain’s Foundation for Endangered Languages; in Bath. ‘People lose faith in their culture’he say. ‘When the next generation reaches their teens; they might not want to be induced into the old tradition.’The change is not always voluntary. Quite often; governments try to kill off a minority language by banning its use in public or discouraging its use in school; all to promote national unity. The former US policy of running Indian reservation in English; for example; effectively put languages such as Navajo on the danger list. But Salikoko Mufwene; who chairs the Linguistics Department at the University of Chicago; argues that the deadliest weapon is not government policy but economic globalisation. ‘Native Americans have not lost pride in their language; but they have had to adapt to socioeconomic pressures’ he say. ‘They cannot refuse to speak English if most commercial activity is in English". But are languages worth saving At the very least; there is a loss of data for the study of languages and their evolution; which relies oncomparisons between languages; both living and dead. When an unwritten and unrecorded language disappears; it is lost to science.Language is also intimately bond up with culture; so it may be difficult to reserve one without the other. ‘If a person shifts from Navajo to English; they lose something' Mufwene says. ‘More over; the loss of diversity may also deprive us of different ways of looking at the world’ say Pagel. There is mounting evidence that learning a language produces physiological changes in brain. ‘Your brain and mine are difference from the brain of someone; who speaks French; for instance’ Pagel says; and this could affect our thoughts and perceptions. ‘The patterns and connections we make among various concepts may be structured by the linguistic habits of our community.’So despite linguists’ best efforts; many languages will disappear over the next century. But a growing interest in cultural identity may prevent the direst predictions from coming true. ‘The key to fostering diversity is for people to learn their ancestral tongue; as well as the dominant l anguage’ says Doug Whalen; founder and president of the Endangered Language Fund in New Haven; Connecticut. ‘Most of these languages will not survive without a large degree of bilingualism’ he says. In New Zealand; classes for children have slowed the erosion of Maori and rekindled interestin the language. A similar approach in Hawaii has produce about 8000 new speakers of Polynesian languages in the past few years. In California; ‘apprentice’ programmes have provided life support to several indigenous languages. Volunteer 'apprentices' pair up with one of the last living speakers of Native American tongue to learn traditional skill such as basket weaving; with instruction exclusively in the endangered language. After about 300 hours of training they are generally sufficiently fluent to transmit the language to next generation. But Mufwene says that preventing a language dying out is not the same as giving it new life by using every day. ‘Preserving a language is more likely preserving fruits in a jar’ he sa ys.However; preservation can bring a language back from the dead. There are examples of languages that have survived in written form and then been revived by latter generations. But a written form is essential for this; so the mere possibility of revival has led many speakers of endangered languages to develop systems of writing where none existed before.无言以对对于美洲土着纳瓦霍人其居住在美国西南四州而言;他们的土着语正遭受灭顶之灾..讲土着语的大都是中年或老年人..尽管很多学生仍然在学校中学习纳瓦霍语;但是学校的官方语言却是英语..路牌、超市商品、甚至他们自己的报纸都是使用英语的..不足为奇的是;语言学家已经开始猜测一百年后到底还会不会有讲纳瓦霍语的土着人存在..并非只有纳瓦霍语才如此..全世界6800种语言当中;有一半很可能在两代人之后彻底消失;这相当于每十年就有一种语言消亡..世界语言多样性的萎缩速度从未如此之快..“当前;我们正进入一个由3-4种语言主导。

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graffiti street art or crime雅思阅读【中英文版】Section 1: IntroductionGraffiti, a form of street art, has long been a subject of debate.Some view it as a vibrant expression of creativity and culture, while others consider it a crime that defaces public property.In this IELTS reading task, we will explore both perspectives and delve into the intricacies of this controversial art form.涂鸦，作为一种街头艺术，长期以来一直是争论的焦点。

有些人认为它是创意和文化的生动表达，而另一些人则认为它是破坏公共财产的犯罪行为。

在这次雅思阅读任务中，我们将探讨这两种观点，并深入研究这种具有争议性的艺术形式的复杂性。

Section 2: The Artistic AspectGraffiti can be traced back to ancient times, where cave paintings served as a means of communication and expression.Today, graffiti street art has evolved into a dynamic and accessible form of art that captivates people"s imagination.It often reflects the pulse of the community, showcasing the talents of artists and inspiring social and political commentary.涂鸦可以追溯到古代，当时的洞穴绘画是沟通和表达的手段。

剑桥雅思8-第三套试题-阅读部分-PASSAGE 1-阅读真题原文部分: READING PASSAGE 1You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13 which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.Striking Back at Lightning With LasersSeldom is the weather more dramatic than when thunderstorms strike. Their electrical fury inflicts death or serious injury on around 500 people each year in the United States alone. As the clouds roll in; a leisurely round of golf can become a terrifying dice with death - out in the open; a lone golfer may be a lightning bolt's most inviting target. And there is damage to property too. Lightning damage costs American power companies more than $100 million a year.But researchers in the United States and Japan are planning to hit back. Already in laboratory trials they have tested strategies for neutralising the power of thunderstorms; and this winter they will brave real storms; equipped with an armoury of lasers that they will be pointing towards the heavens to discharge thunderclouds before lightning can strike.The idea of forcing storm clouds to discharge their lightning on command is not new. In the early 1960s; researchers tried firing rockets trailing wires into thunderclouds to set up an easy discharge path for the huge electric charges that these cloudsgenerate. The technique survives to this day at a test site in Florida run by the University of Florida; with support from the Electrical Power Research Institute EPRI; based in California. EPRI; which is funded by power companies; is looking at ways to protect the United States' power grid from lightning strikes. 'We can cause the lightning to strike where we want it to using rockets; ' says Ralph Bernstein; manager of lightning projects at EPRI. The rocket site is providing precise measurements of lightning voltages and allowing engineers to check how electrical equipment bears up.Bad behaviourBut while rockets are fine for research; they cannot provide the protection from lightning strikes that everyone is looking for. The rockets cost around $1; 200 each; can only be fired at a limited frequency and their failure rate is about 40 per cent. And even when they do trigger lightning; things still do not always go according to plan. 'Lightning is not perfectly well behaved; ' says Bernstein. 'Occasionally; it will take a branch and go someplace it wasn't supposed to go. 'And anyway; who would want to fire streams of rockets in a populated area 'What goes up must come down; ' points out Jean-Claude Diels of the University of New Mexico. Diels is leading a project; which is backed by EPRI; to try to use lasers to discharge lightningsafely - and safety is a basic requirement since no one wants to put themselves or their expensive equipment at risk. With around $500; 000 invested so far; a promising system is just emerging from the laboratory.The idea began some 20 years ago; when high-powered lasers were revealing their ability to extract electrons out of atoms and create ions. If a laser could generate a line of ionisation in the air all the way up to a storm cloud; this conducting path could be used to guide lightning to Earth; before the electric field becomes strong enough to break down the air in an uncontrollable surge. To stop the laser itself being struck; it would not be pointed straight at the clouds. Instead it would be directed at a mirror; and from there into the sky. The mirror would be protected by placing lightning conductors close by. Ideally; the cloud-zapper gunwould be cheap enough to be installed around all key power installations; and portable enough to be taken to international sporting events to beam up at brewing storm clouds.A stumbling blockHowever; there is still a big stumbling block. The laser is no nifty portable: it's a monster that takes up a whole room. Diels is trying to cut down the size and says that a laser around the size of a small table is in the offing. He plans to test this moremanageable system on live thunderclouds next summer.Bernstein says that Diels's system is attracting lots of interest from the power companies. But they have not yet come up with the $5 million that EPRI says will be needed to develop a commercial system; by making the lasers yet smaller and cheaper. 'I cannot say I have money yet; but I'm working on it; ' says Bernstein. He reckons that the forthcoming field tests will be the turning point - and he's hoping for good news. Bernstein predicts 'an avalanche of interest and support' if all goes well. He expects to see cloud-zappers eventually costing 100; 000 each.Other scientists could also benefit. With a lightning 'switch' at their fingertips; materials scientists could find out what happens when mighty currents meet matter. Diels also hopes to see the birth of 'interactive meteorology' - not just forecasting the weather but controlling it. 'If we could discharge clouds; we might affect the weather; ' he says.And perhaps; says Diels; we'll be able to confront some other meteorological menaces. 'We think we could prevent hail by inducing lightning; ' he says. Thunder; the shock wave that comes from a lightning flash; is thought to be the trigger for the torrential rain that is typical of storms. A laser thunder factory could shake the moisture out of clouds; perhaps preventing the formation of thegiant hailstones that threaten crops. With luck; as the storm clouds gather this winter; laser-toting researchers could; for the first time; strike back.Questions 1-3Choose the correct letter; A; B; C or D.Write the correct letter in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet.1 The main topic discussed in the text isA the damage caused to US golf courses and golf players by lightning strikes.B the effect of lightning on power supplies in the US and in Japan.C a variety of methods used in trying to control lightning strikes.D a laser technique used in trying to control lightning strikes.2 According to the text; every year lightningA does considerable damage to buildings during thunderstorms.B kills or injures mainly golfers in the United States.C kills or injures around 500 people throughout the world.D damages more than 100 American power companies.3 Researchers at the University of Florida and at the University of New MexicoA receive funds from the same source.B are using the same techniques.C are employed by commercial companies.D are in opposition to each other.Questions 4-6Complete the sentences below.Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.Write your answers in boxes 4-6 on your answer sheet.4 EPRI receives financial support from………………………….5 The advantage of the technique being developed by Diels is that it can be used……………… .6 The main difficulty associated with using the laser equipment is related to its……………….Questions 7-10Complete the summary using the list of words; A-I; below.Write the correct letter; A-I; in boxes 7-10 on your answer sheet.In this method; a laser is used to create a line of ionisation by removing electrons from 7 …………………………. This laser is then directed at 8 …………………………in order to control electrical charges; a method which is less dangerous than using 9 …………………………. As a protection for the lasers; the beamsare aimed firstly at 10………………………….A cloud-zappersB atomsC storm cloudsD mirrorsE techniqueF ionsG rockets H conductors I thunderQuestions 11-13Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1In boxes 11-13 on your answer sheet writeYES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writerNO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writerNOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this11 Power companies have given Diels enough money to develop his laser.12 Obtaining money to improve the lasers will depend on tests in real storms.13 Weather forecasters are intensely interested in Diels's system.READING PASSAGE 1篇章结构体裁说明文主题用激光回击闪电结构第1段：闪电带来的危害第2段：科研人员正在研究回击闪电的方法第3段：先前的闪电回击术介绍第4段：火箭回击术的缺陷第5段：更安全的激光回击术第6段：激光回击术的技术原理第7段：激光回击术的缺陷第8段：通过实地实验改进激光回击术第9段：激光回击术对其他学科也有益处第10段：激光回击术的其他用途解题地图难度系数：★★★解题顺序：按题目顺序解答即可友情提示：烤鸭们注意：本文中的SUMMARY题目顺序有改变;解题要小心；MULTIPLE CHOICE的第三题是个亮点;爱浮想联翩的烤鸭们可能会糊掉..必背词汇1. inflict v. 造成The strikes inflicted serious damage on the economy. 罢工给经济造成了重大损失..2. inviting adj. 吸引人的The log fire looked warm and inviting. 篝火看上去温暖而诱人..3. property n. 财产；属性The hotel is not responsible for any loss or damage to guests’personal property.酒店不承担宾客的任何个人财产的丢失或损坏..a herb with healing properties具有治疗效果的草药physical/chemical properties物理特性/化学特性4. fund v. 资助;投资The project is jointly funded by several local companies. 这个项目得到了当地几家公司的联合资助ernment-funded research政府资助的研究5. back v. 支持;帮助The scheme has been backed by several major companies in the region.这个项目得到了该地区几家大公司的支持..Some suspected that the rebellion was backed and financed by the US.有人怀疑这次叛乱是由美国主使并资助的..6. discharge v. 放电；排出Both forms are readily gasified by electrical discharge without leaving any tangible residue.两种形态都易被放电气化而不剩任何可触察的残余..7. emerge v. 出现;浮现The sun emerged from behind the clouds. 太阳从云朵中探出头来..Eventually the truth emerged. 真相最终浮出水面..8. reveal v. 展现;显示；揭示;泄露He may be prosecuted for revealing secrets about the security agency.他可能会因为泄露国安局机密而遭检控..He revealed that he had been in prison twice before. 他透露说他曾经坐过两次牢..9. generate v. 使产生The program would generate a lot of new jobs. 这项计划会创造很多新职位..Tourism generates income for local communities. 旅游业给当地社区带来了收入..10. surge n. 涌流：猛增a surge of excitement一阵兴奋a surge of refugees into the country 涌入该国的难民潮a surge in food costs食品价格猛涨11. install v. 安装They've installed the new computer network at last. 他们最终安装了新的计算机网络..Security cameras have been installed in the city centre. 市中心安装了安全摄像头..12. nifty adj. 灵便的a nifty little gadget for squeezing oranges一个榨橘子汁用的灵便小工具13. in the offing即将发生的Big changes were in the offing. 剧变即将发生..认知词汇dramatic adj. 激动人心的fury n. 狂怒;狂暴本文中指雷暴电流leisurely adv. 轻松地dice with death拿性命开玩笑neutralize v. 中和brave v. 勇敢地面对armoury n. 军械库on command 按指令power grid 电力网precise adj. 精确的voltages n. 电压frequency n. 频率failure rate 失败率trigger v. 激发;触发branch n. 岔路populated adj. 人口密集的extract v. 提取atom n. 原子ion n. 离子ionization n. 离子化electric field 电场conductor n. 导体sporting event体育项目stumbling block 绊脚石monster n. 庞然大物manageable adj. 易管理的yet adv. 尚未；还没有come up with 准备好；提供reckon v. 料想;预计forthcoming adj. 即将来临的field test 实地测试turning point 转折点an avalanche of似雪片般的current n. 电流matter n. 物质interactive meteorology互动气象学confront v. 面临;对抗menace n. 威胁hail n. 冰雹torrential rain 暴雨moisture n. 水汽giant hailstone 大冰雹佳句赏析1. If a laser could generate a line of ionisation in the air all the way up to a storm could; this conducting path could be used to guide lightning to Earth; before the electric field becomes strong enough to break down the air in an uncontrollable surge.参考译文：如果激光器能够生成一条直达暴雨云的离子线;就可以在闪电电场增强为一股无法控制的涌流并击破空气之前;用这条传导通道把电荷引导到地面上来..语言点：状语从句——条件状语从句条件状语从句的连接词主要有：if; unless;as/so long as;on condition that等..此处为if引导的条件状语从句..例句：Just imagine how horrible the world would be if humans are the only creature in the world.想一想;如果人类是这世界上唯一的生物;这世界会变得多可怕..Some animal species are under threat if they stay in their natural habitat.如果留在自然栖息地;某些动物物种会面临威胁..If引导的条件句有真实条件句和非真实条件句两种..非真实条件句可以表示：1同现在事实相反的假设：从句一般过去时+主句should/would+动词原形2与过去事实相反的假设：从句过去完成时+主句should/would have+过去分词3对将来的假设：从句一般过去时+主句should+动词原形；从句were+不定式/should+动词原形+主句would+动词原形例句：If drug use were to be legalized;considerable police time would be spent in dealing with other more serious problems.如果吸食毒品合法化;警察大量的时间就将用于解决其他更严重的问题..2. A laser thunder factory could shake the moisture out of clouds; perhaps preventing the formation of the giant hailstones that threaten crops.参考译文：一个激光雷工厂可以把水汽从云层中震出;这样也许可以阻止威胁庄稼的大冰雹的形成..语言点：现在分词作状语例句：Facing high competition;people may suffer great pressure.面对高度竞争;人们可能会承受巨大的压力..Being confronted with economic pressure;women have to gooutside to work.面临经济压力;妇女不得不外出工作..Not wearing proper clothes people will be considered those who do not know social and interpersonal skills.如果衣着不当;人们会被当成是不懂社交和人际关系技巧的人..试题解析Questions 1-3题目类型：MULTIPLE CHOICES题目解析：解题小窍门：读清题干巧定位;四个选项要读完;绝对only排除掉;正确选项在中间..题号定位词题目解析1main topic 题目：本文讨论的主题是A闪电攻击对美国高尔夫场地和高尔夫选手造成的损失..B闪电对美国和日本电力供应的影响..C试图用来控制闪电袭击的各种方式..D一种试图用来控制闪电袭击的激光技术..正确翻译后;选项A和B比较容易排除;选项C比较具有迷惑性;但是只要看看文章标题;就不难发现本文主题是laser;所以正确答案是D..2 lightning 题目：根据文章;每年闪电会A在暴风雨期间对建筑物造成相当大的破坏..B在美国主要导致高尔夫球手死亡或受伤..C在全世界范围内导致500人死亡或受伤..D破坏了100多家美国电力公司..选项C和D中的具体数字是很好的定位词;可定位至文章第一段..文中提到;只是在美国;闪电每年就能杀伤500人;而不是世界范围内;因此排除选项C..而100这个数字在文中是100 million a year;说的是每年闪电会让电力公司损失超过一亿美元;而不是说毁掉100多家电力公司;因此排除选项 D..文中提到了云层翻滚而来时在户外打高尔夫是非常危险的;并没有说每年因雷击而死伤的是高尔夫球手;因此排除选项 B..文中提到;there is damage to property too. buildings属于property的范畴;因此正确答案为A..3University of Florida;University of New Mexico 题目：佛罗里达大学和新墨西哥大学的研究员们A有同样的资金来源..B使用同样的技术C受雇于商业公司..D互相反对..此题是不可过多联想的典型;越直白的想法越能解题..一般来讲;带有金钱的选项应该去掉;但是此题剑走偏锋;偏偏选了带funds一词的选项A..文中有两处支持这个答案：第一处在第三段：…with support from the Electrical Power Research Institute EPRI…另一处在第五段：…which is backed by EPRI…两处暗示两项研究都得到了EPRI的资助;因此答案为A..选项B可以从文中说的一个主张用火箭;一个主张用激光来排除；选项C 在文中并没有提及；选项D则是过多推理的结果;尽管使用技术不同;但是并不代表两者互相反对..Questions 4—6题目类型：SENTENCE COMPLETION题目解析：题号定位词文中对应点题目解析4 EPRI;financialsupport 第三段：EPRI;which is funded bypower companies…用EPRI定位到文章第三段;EPRI第一次出现之后即指出其是由电力公司资助的;原文中的funded等同于题干中的receives financial support from;因此答案应该填power companies..注意不要写成单数..5Diels 第五段：…to try to use lasers todischarge lightning safely…用人名Diels在文中定位到第五段;从题目看出这里应填入一个副词;所以可以在人名周围寻找use或者use的替换词;并且在其周围找带有-ly形式的词;这样正确答案safely很快就能浮出水面了..6 difficulty;laser equipment 第七段：The laser is no nifty portable：it’s a monster that takes up a whole room. Diels is trying to cut down the size…这道题目的定位稍微有一些困难;需要将difficulty一词与文章中的stumbling block联系起来;进而找到第七段中的laser一词..文中提到;该激光设备并不方便携带;它是个体积占据了一整间房间的庞然大物..看到这里;通过理解;考生们可以想到激光设备最大的问题就是体积太大;不好携带;所以正确答案是size..Questions 7-10题目类型：SUMMARY COMPLETION解题小窍门：题目解析：解题小窍门：1. 理解词库里的单词;并将其按词性归类..2. 带动整道题的定位词是第一行的ionisation;比较容易定位到文章第六段;那么整个summary的答案就应该在这个词周围寻找..题号定位词文中对应点题目解析7electrons 第六段：…to extract electrons out of atoms…本题关键是要理解题目中的remove…from…与文中的extract…out of…属于同义替换;这里要表达的是从原子atoms中提取电荷electrons..故正确答案是B..8 directed at 第六段：If a laser could generate a line of ionization in the air all the way up to a storm cloud…注意文中generate是“产生”的意思；directed at对应文中的all the way up to;其后的a storm cloud 即对应空格处要填的内容..因此正确答案是C..9 less dangerous 第五段：…who would want to fire streams of rockets in a populated area…to try to use lasers to discharge lightning safely…这道题比较麻烦;对于只是按照顺序寻找答案的考生;定位答案会比较困难..这里需要联系第五段中的信息;参照词库里的单词;推测出空格所在句的意思是“用激光控制闪电是比用火箭更安全less dangerous的方式”..正确答案是G..10 protection;aimed firstly at 第六段：To stop the laser itself beingstruck…Instead it would be directed at amirror… protection对应文中的stop…being struck；at是解题关键词;即使不知道文中的directed和题目中的aimed是同义词;也可以从词组的形式上看出来两者是同位的;其后的名词即为答案..由此可知答案是D..Questions 11-13题目类型：YES/NO/NOT GIVEN题目解析：11. Power companies have given Diels enough money to develop his laser.参考译文电力公司已经向Diels提供了足够的资金来研发他的激光器..定位词Diels;money解题关键词have given…enough money文中对应点由定位词及顺序规律可以定位到第八段：“I cannot say I have money yet; but I am working on it. ”“我还不能说我已经拿到钱了;但是我正在为之努力..”看到这句话;再联系上句：Bernstein says that Diels’ system is attracting lotsof interest from the power companies. But they have not yet come up with the 5 million that EPRI says will be needed to develop a commercial system… Bernstein表示;Diels的激光系统正在引起各电力公司的广泛兴趣..但他们还没有准备好EPRI提出的500万美元——开发一个……的商用系统的所需资金..这两句话足以证明Diels的系统还没有得到足够的资金支持..答案NO12. Obtaining money to improve the lasers will depend on tests in real storms.参考译文获得改善激光器所需的资金依赖于在真正的暴风雨中进行的试验..定位词obtaining money. tests in real storms解题关键词tests in real storms文中对应点第八段：第11题对应的原文下一句提到：He reckons that the forthcoming field tests will be the turning point…其中turning point是“转折点”的意思;联系上题中说到的;目前该项目还没有拿到钱;可知这句话的意思是field tests就是得到资金的转折点..field tests=tests in real storms答案YES13. Weather forecasters are intensely interested in Diels's system.参考译文天气预报员们对Diels的系统设备特别感兴趣..定位词Diels;weather forecasters解题关键词intensely interested文中对应点这是一道典型的完全未提及的题目;interest一词出现在第八段的末尾;而weather forecasters这两个词也仅在第九段最后两句中出现：…not just forecasting the weather butcontrolling it…;而具体内容则完全不相干..答案NOT GIVEN参考译文用激光回击闪电很少有比雷暴天气更令人感到恐怖的天气了..仅在美国;猛烈的雷暴电流每年都会造成大约500人死亡或重伤..云层翻滚而来的时候;在户外打一场轻松的高尔夫成了一件异常可怕的事情;无异于是在拿自己的性命开玩笑——孤身一人在户外的高尔夫球手可能是闪电最喜欢攻击的目标..此外;闪电也会带来财产损失..每年闪电会对美国电力公司造成超过一亿美元的损失..不过;美国和日本的研究人员正在策划回击闪电的方案..他们已开始通过实验测试中和雷暴电荷的各种方法..今年冬天;他们将直面雷暴：使用配备的激光器射向空中的雨云;使其在闪电出现之前放电..迫使雨云根据指令释放闪电并非一个新想法..早在20世纪60年代早期;研究者们就尝试过把带着拖曳线的火箭射入雨云;以期为这些云层发出的庞大的电荷群搭建起便捷的放电路径..由于受到建在加利福尼亚的电力研究所EPRI的支持;这一技术在佛罗里达的州立大学试验基地幸存到了今天..EPRI由电力公司资助;现正致力于研究保护美国输电网不受闪电袭击的方法..“我们可以通过火箭让闪电击向我们想让它去的地方;”EPRI 的闪电项目经理Ralph Bemstein如此说道..该火箭基地现在能对闪电电压进行精确测量;并可以让工程师们检测电气设备的负载..不良行为虽然火箭在研究中功不可没;但它们无法提供闪电来袭时所有人都希求的保护..每支火箭造价大约1;200美元;发射频率有限;而失败率却高达40％..即使它们确实能够引发闪电;事情也无法总是按计划顺利进行..“闪电可不那么听话;”Bernstein说;“它们偶尔会走岔路;射到它们本不该去的地方..”但不管怎样;有谁会想在人口密集的地区发射成群的火箭呢“射上去的肯定会掉下来;”新墨西哥大学的Jean-Claude Diels指出..Diels现在正在负责一个项目;该项目由ERPI所支持;试图通过发射激光使闪电安全放电——安全是一项基本要求;因为没人愿意把他们自己的性命或他们的昂贵设备置于危险之中..有了迄今为止的50万美元的投入;一套有巨大潜力的系统装置正在该实验室慢慢成形..这一系统装置的想法始于大约20年前;当时正在开发大功率激光器从原子中提取电荷并生成离子的能力..如果激光器能够生成一条直达暴雨云的离子线;就可以在闪电电场增强为一股无法控制的涌流并击破空气之前;用这条传导通道把电荷引导到地面上来..为了防止激光器本身受到电击;不能把它直接对准云层;而是要把它对准一面镜子;让激光通过镜子折射向天空..要在靠近镜子的四局布置闪电传导器从而对其进行保护..理想的做法是;云层遥控器枪要比较廉价;以便能够把它们安装在所有重点电力设备周围；另外还要方便携带;以便在国际运动赛事场地中用于使逐渐聚积的雨云失去威力..绊脚石可是;仍存在巨大的绊脚石..激光器并不方便携带：它是个能占据整个房间的庞然大物..Diels一直想要缩小它的体积;并表示很快就会有小型桌子大小的激光器了..他计划在明年夏天用真正的雨云来实际测试这个更容易操作的激光系统..Bemstein表示;Diels的激光系统正在引起各电力公司的广泛兴趣..但他们还没有准备好EPRI提出的500万美元——开发一个让激光器更小巧、价格也更便宜的商用系统的所需资金..Bernstein说：“我还不能说我已经拿到钱了;但是我正在为之努力..”他认为;即将进行的实地测试会成为一个转折点;而且他也在期待着好消息..Bemstein预言;如果一切顺利;这将吸引“排山倒海般的兴趣和支持”..他希望看到云层遥控器的最终价格能定在每台5万到10万美元之间..其他科学家也能从中受益..如果手上有了控制闪电的“开关”;材料科学家就可以了解强大的电流遇到物质时会发生什么现象..Diels也希望看到“互动气象学”问世——不仅仅是预测天气;而且能控制天气..“如果我们能使云层放电;我们也许就能左右天气;”他说..而且也许;Diels说;我们将能够对抗一些其他的气象威胁..“我们认为我们也许能通过引导闪电来阻止冰雹;”他说..雷;来自于闪电的冲击波;被认为是大暴雨——典型的雷暴天气——的触发器..一个激光雷工厂可以把水汽从云层中震出;这样也许可以阻止威胁庄稼的大冰雹的形成..如果运气好的话;在今年冬天雨云聚积的时候;持有激光器的研究者们就能第一次对其进行回击了..剑桥雅思8-第三套试题-阅读部分-PASSAGE 2-阅读真题原文部分: READING PASSAGE 2You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26; which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.The Nature of GeniusThere has always been an interest in geniuses and prodigies. Theword 'genius'; from the Latin gens = family and the term 'genius'; meaning 'begetter'; comes from the early Roman cult of a divinity as the head of the family. In its earliest form; genius was concerned with the ability of the head of the family; the paterfamilias; to perpetuate himself. Gradually; genius came to represent a person's characteristics and thence an individual's highest attributes derived from his 'genius' or guiding spirit. Today; people still look to stars or genes; astrology or genetics; in the hope of finding the source of exceptional abilities or personal characteristics.The concept of genius and of gifts has become part of our folk culture; and attitudes are ambivalent towards them. We envy the gifted and mistrust them. In the mythology of giftedness; it is popularly believed that if people are talented in one area; they must be defective in another; that intellectuals are impractical; that prodigies burn too brightly too soon and burn out; that gifted people are eccentric; that they are physical weaklings; that there's a thin line between genius and madness; that genius runs in families; that the gifted are so clever they don't need special help; that giftedness is the same as having a high IQ; that some races are more intelligent or musical or mathematical than others; that genius goes unrecognised and unrewarded; that adversity makes men wise or that people with gifts have a responsibility to use them. Language hasbeen enriched with such terms as 'highbrow'; 'egghead'; 'blue-stocking'; 'wiseacre'; 'know-all'; 'boffin' and; for many; 'intellectual' is a term of denigration.The nineteenth century saw considerable interest in the nature of genius; and produced not a few studies of famous prodigies. Perhaps for us today; two of the most significant aspects of most of these studies of genius are the frequency with which early encouragement and teaching by parents and tutors had beneficial effects on the intellectual; artistic or musical development of the children but caused great difficulties of adjustment later in their lives; and the frequency with which abilities went unrecognised by teachers and schools. However; the difficulty with the evidence produced by these studies; fascinating as they are in collecting together anecdotes and apparent similarities and exceptions; is that they are not what we would today call norm-referenced. In other words; when; for instance; information is collated about early illnesses; methods of upbringing; schooling; etc. ; we must also take into account information from other historical sources about how common or exceptional these were at the time. For instance; infant mortality was high and life expectancy much shorter than today; home tutoring was common in the families of the nobility and wealthy; bullying and corporal punishment were common at the bestindependent schools and; for the most part; the cases studied were members of the privileged classes. It was only with the growth of paediatrics and psychology in the twentieth century that studies could be carried out on a more objective; if still not always very scientific; basis.Geniuses; however they are defined; are but the peaks which stand out through the mist of history and are visible to the particular observer from his or her particular vantage point. Change the observers and the vantage points; clear away some of the mist; and a different lot of peaks appear. Genius is a term we apply to those whom we recognise for their outstanding achievements and who stand near the end of the continuum of human abilities which reaches back through the mundane and mediocre to the incapable. There is still much truth in Dr Samuel Johnson's observation; 'The true genius is a mind of large general powers; accidentally determined to some particular direction'. We may disagree with the 'general'; for we doubt if all musicians of genius could have become scientists of genius or vice versa; but there is no doubting the accidental determination which nurtured or triggered their gifts into those channels into which they have poured their powers so successfully. Along the continuum of abilities are hundreds of thousands of gifted men and women; boys and girls.What we appreciate; enjoy or marvel at in the works of genius or the achievements of prodigies are the manifestations of skills or abilities which are similar to; but so much superior to; our own. But that their minds are not different from our own is demonstrated by the fact that the hard-won discoveries of scientists like Kepler or Einstein become the commonplace knowledge of schoolchildren and the once outrageous shapes and colours of an artist like Paul Klee so soon appear on the fabrics we wear. This does not minimise the supremacy of their achievements; which outstrip our own as the sub-four-minute milers outstrip our jogging.To think of geniuses and the gifted as having uniquely different brains is only reasonable if we accept that each human brain is uniquely different. The purpose of instruction is to make us even more different from one another; and in the process of being educated we can learn from the achievements of those more gifted than ourselves. But before we try to emulate geniuses or encourage our children to do so we should note that some of the things we learn from them may prove unpalatable. We may envy their achievements and fame; but we should also recognise the price they may have paid in terms of perseverance; single-mindedness; dedication; restrictions on their personal lives; the demands upon their energies and time; and how often they had to display great courage to preserve their。

剑4T1P1Tropical RainforestsAdults and children are frequently confronted with statements about the alarming rate of loss of tropical rainforests. For example, one graphic illustration to which children might readily relate is the estimate that rainforests are being destroyed at a rate equivalent to one thousand football fields every forty minutes - about the duration of a normal classroom period. In the face of the frequent and often vivid media coverage, it is likely that children will have formed ideas about rainforests - what and where they are, why they are important, what endangers them - independent of any formal tuition. It is also possible that some of these ideas will be mistaken.Many studies have shown that children harbour misconceptions about ‘pure' curriculum science. These misconceptions do not remain isolated but become incorporated into a multifaceted, but organised, conceptual framework, making it and the component ideas, some of which are erroneous，more robust but also accessible to modification. These ideas may be developed by children absorbing ideas through the popular media. Sometimes this information may be erroneous. It seems schools may not be providing an opportunity for children to re-express their ideas and so have them tested and refined by teachers and their peers.Despite the extensive coverage in the popular media of the destruction of rainforests, little formal information is available about children’s ideas in this area. The aim of the present study is to start to provide such information, to help teachers design their educational strategies to build upon correct ideas and to displace misconceptions and to plan programmes in environmental studies in their schools.The study surveys children’s scientific knowledge and attitudes to rainforests. Secondary school children were asked to complete a questionnaire containing five open-form questions. The most frequent responses to the first question were descriptions which are self-evident from the term "rainforest". Some children described them as damp, wet or hot. The second question concerned the geographical location of rainforests. The commonest responses were continents or countries：Africa (given by 43% of children), South America (30%), Brazil (25%). Some children also gave more general locations, such as being near the Equator.Responses to question three concerned the importance of rainforests. The dominant idea, raised by 64% of the pupils, was that rainforests provide animals with habitats. Fewer students responded chat rainforests provide plant habitats, and even fewer mentioned the indigenous populations of rainforests. More girls (70%) than boys (60%) raised die idea of rainforest as animal habitats.Similarly, but at a lower level, more girls (13%) than boys (5%) said that rainforests provided human habitats. These observations are generally consistent with our previous studies of pupils’ viewsabout the use and conservation of rainforests, in which girls were shown to be more sympathetic to animals and expressed views which seem to place an intrinsic value on non-human animal life.The fourth question concerned the causes of the destruction of rainforests. Perhaps encouragingly, more than half of the pupils (59%) identified chat it is human activities which are destroying rainforests, some personalising the responsibility by the use of terms such as "we are". About 18% of the pupils referred specifically to logging activity.One misconception, expressed by some 10% of the pupils, was chat acid rain is responsible for rainforest destruction；A similar proportion said chat pollution is destroying rainforests. Here, children are confusing rainforest destruction with damage to the forests of Western Europe by these factors. While two fifths of the students provided the information that the rainforests provide oxygen, in some cases this response also embraced. The misconception that rainforest destruction would reduce atmospheric oxygen, making the atmosphere incompatible with human life on Earth.In answer to the final question about the importance of rainforest conservation, the majority of children simply said that we need rainforests to survive. Only a few of the pupils (6%) mentioned that rainforest destruction may contribute to global warming. This is surprising considering the high level of media coverage on this issue. Some children expressed the idea that the conservation of rainforests is not important.The results of this study suggest that certain ideas predominate in the thinking of children about rainforests. Pupils’ responses indicate some misconceptions in basic scientific knowledge of rain forests’ ecosystems such as their ideas about rainforests as habitats for animals, plants and humans and the relationship between climatic change and destruction of rainforests.Pupils did not volunteer ideas that suggested that they appreciated the complexity of causes of rainforest destruction. In other words, they gave no indication of an appreciation of either the range of ways in which rainforests are important or the complex social, economic and political factors which drive the activities which are destroying the rainforests. One encouragement is that the results of similar studies about other environmental issues suggest that older children seem to acquire the ability to appreciate, value and evaluate conflicting views. Environmental education offers an arena in which these skills can be developed, which is essential for these children as future decision-makers.无论大人还是孩子都经常会遇到这样的报道，那就是热带雨林正在以惊人的速度消失。

1.1阶梯水井一千年前，在印度最干旱的地区，阶梯井是生活的基本保障。

Richard Cox 行至印度西北部，记述这些过往时代的壮观古迹。

在公元六世纪和七世纪时期，生活在现在的印度西北部古吉拉特邦和拉贾斯坦邦的居民开发出一种方法，能够在焊机获得清洁、新鲜的地下水用来饮用、沐浴、供养动物以及灌溉。

然而，这一发明——阶梯井的意义远不止其实际的应用。

阶梯井通常建筑结构复杂，并且在大小和形状方面差异很大，这在这一地区是独一无二的。

在其全盛时期，它们是聚会、休闲以及放松的地点，也是村民们（除了最低的社会阶层）进行礼拜的地点。

多数阶梯井位于古吉拉特邦（在此处它们被称为“vav”）和拉贾斯坦邦（在此处它们被称为“baori”）的沙漠地带，少数阶梯井也存在于德里。

一些阶梯井位于村庄里面或附近，作为社区的公共场所；另一些位于道路旁，作为有人的休息场所。

正如其名称所示，阶梯井由一系列石阶构成，这些石阶从地平面向下延伸至水源（通常是地下含水层），水位随着雨水变化。

当水位高时，使用者只需要向下走几个石阶就可以到达；当水位低时，则需要越过几层阶梯。

一些井是巨大开放的坑状，每一个斜面有上百个阶梯，它们通常是层叠的。

另一些更为精细，有长长的阶梯通道，经过多层通向水源，它们由石头建成，由柱子支撑，还有一些亭子供来访问者躲避酷热。

但或许最令人印象深刻的特征是其复杂的装饰性雕塑，它们美化阶梯井，展现出一些活动——从战斗、舞蹈到女性梳头和制作黄油这样的日常行为。

多少个世纪以来，几千口水井在印度西北部被修建，但其中大多数如今已经停止使用；由于地下水被转移供工业使用并且不再能够达到地下水位，一些水井已经废弃和干枯。

它们的状况并没有因为近来的干旱期而改变：拉贾斯坦邦从1996年至2004年遭遇了八年的干旱。

然而，古吉拉特邦的一些重要地区近期进行了许多阶梯井的恢复工作，城邦政府在去年六月宣布计划爱整个城邦范围内恢复阶梯井。

在古都帕坦，皇后井（Rani Ki Van）或许是如今最好的例子。

英语为各位考生推荐雅思真题-剑桥雅思8阅读Test1Pessage2阅读译文-美国航空交通管制。

想了解更多有关雅思解析8译文，请点击：剑桥雅思8阅读解析。

真题下载，请点击：美国航空交通管制A. 1956年美国大峡谷上空发生的一起事故促成了联邦航空局(FAA)的成立。

该局负责管理和监督美国越来越拥挤的天空。

由此形成的空中交通管制结构大大增加了飞机在美国的飞行安全，世界其他很多地方也采取了类似的空中交通管制程序。

B.早在大峡谷灾难发生之前就存在雏形的航空交通管制(ATC)。

早在20世纪20年代初，最早的空中交通管制员在机场附近用灯和标志旗手动引导飞机。

当时，灯标和闪光灯沿着越野路线放置以建立最早的航线。

然而，这种纯粹的视觉系统在恶劣天气情况下是无用的。

到20世纪30年代，航空交通管制开始使用无线电通讯。

首个采用类似于今天的航空交通管制的地方是纽约市，其他主要的大都市紧随其后。

C.20世纪40年代，航空交通管制中心利用了第二次世界大战催生出的新研制的雷达和改进后的无线电通讯技术，但管制系统仍然很不成熟。

直到联邦航空局分创建以后，美国才开始进行全面的领空管制。

而这一事件却是偶然的，因为喷气式发动机的产生突然导致大批快速飞机的出现。

这些飞机减少了飞行员的误差幅度，并且需要实际的整套规则以使飞机之间保持良好的分离状态，在空中安全行驶。

D.很多人认为，航空交通管制就是一排管理人员坐在国家机场的雷达屏幕前指挥着抵港及离港的交通。

这只是整个场景中的一部分。

美国联邦航空局认识到每时每刻都会有许多不同种类的飞机，为了这样那样的目的，在各种各样的天气情况下飞行在美国的空中。

因此，急需一个能够容纳所有情况的同一体系。

E.为了迎接这一挑战，美国联邦航天局实施了以下重要措施。

首先，让航空交通管制几乎遍及整个美国。

一般来说，离地面365米以及更高的地方，整个国家都被管制空域覆盖。

在某些地区，主要是靠近机场的地带，管制空域扩大到自地面215米以上的范围，而在紧邻机场的区域，管制空域包括地面以上所有区域。