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文章编号：1008 − 8857(2018)03 − 0132 − 04DOI: 10.13259/ki.eri.2018.03.002我国太阳能有机朗肯循环研究现状朱正良，张 华（上海理工大学 能源与动力工程学院，上海 200093）摘 要：太阳能具有易转化为低温热源的特性，而有机朗肯循环是利用低温热源或工业余热发电的理想方式，两者相结合形成基于太阳能的有机朗肯循环发电技术。
综述了我国光热太阳能发电技术和市场现状以及针对有机朗肯循环的研究现状。
经分析发现，目前研究中理论分析或计算机模拟较多，缺乏实际应用的验证。
论述了有机朗肯循环工质的选择、循环性能分析方法以及所面临的问题和改善方法。
关键词：太阳能；有机朗肯循环；发电中图分类号：TK11+5 文献标志码：AResearch status of solar organic Rankine cycle in ChinaZHU Zhengliang，ZHANG Hua(School of Energy and Power Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China)Abstract：Solar energy can be easily changed into the low temperature heat source. And organic Rankine cycle is an ideal way for the electricity generation from the low temperature heat source or industrial waste. Combination of these could form solar organic Rankine cycle power generation technology. The technologies of concentrating solar power, current situation of its market and the research status of organic Rankine cycle were summarized in this paper. It could be found that most of studies focused on theoretical analysis and numerical simulation, which lacked the validation of the practical application. The selection of working medium, methods for the cycle performance analysis, problems it faced and their improvement methods, were discussed in this paper as well. Keywords：solar; organic Rankine cycle; power generation随着石油、煤炭、天然气等化石能源迅速消耗，太阳能作为一种可再生的清洁能源，其开发利用已经受到世界各国的普遍关注。
浅析国际光热电站工程现状与项目管理摘要：光热（Concentrating Solar Power - CSP）电站，即利用太阳能集热技术，将太阳能转化为热能，蒸汽发生器将该热能转化为高压蒸汽，蒸汽压力推动汽轮机旋转，热能转换成机械能，然后汽轮机带动发电机旋转，将机械能转变成电能，是一种新型、绿色、可再生发电厂（以下简称CSP电站或光热电站）。
CSP电站的发展已有数十年历史，已使太阳能热电成为世界上成本较低的太阳能发电方式之一。
20世纪初期，CSP电站进入迅猛的发展阶段，目前全球范围已有十几个投入运行的电站；国内已有数个示范项目并网运行，且政府已经明确发布了光热电站的指导电价，为光热电站的进一步发展奠定了基础。
目前世界主流的CSP电站技术有塔式、槽式、蝶式、线性菲涅尔式等发电技术，塔式和槽式因其发电机组容量大、效率高、运行稳定等特点，使用范围较广，为目前主流的光热发电技术。
关键词：光热电站；CSP；总承包；国际工程；一、光热电站工程管理1.对光热技术供应商的依托由于光热电站技术尚处于发展阶段，各大技术供应商的技术基本不同，如SENER的塔式定日镜镜面面积为178m2，SolarReserve的定日镜镜面面积为96m2，而Abengoa的定日镜镜面面积为138m2。
且各技术供应商都是使用自行研发的性能模型软件，来计算光热电站的性能模型与发电量。
所以光热电站的核心部分设计，特别是镜厂部分的设计，必须依托于光热电站技术供应商，而无法像燃煤电站一样采用典型机组设计。
2.光热技术供应商选择与管理光热电站不同于燃煤电站，项目立项与概念设计阶段必须确定技术供应商，即镜厂设备和技术的供应商。
只有确定了技术供应商，才能确保镜厂布置、性能与发电量、投资成本计算的准确性。
光热电站的性能计算重点为镜厂性能及其与吸热器运行模式的配合，且镜厂的性能直接受定日镜控制系统设计的影响，所以在选择光热技术供应商和进行采购管理时，推荐定日镜、吸热器、经常和吸热器控制系统，统一由光热技术供应商提供。
Solar powerThe PS10 concentrates sunlight from a field of heliostats(日光反射装置) onto a central tower.Solar power is energy which comes from the sun. It is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV)（太阳能光电板,光电池）, or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP)（聚光太阳能发电技术）.Concentrated solar power systems use lenses（透镜）or mirrors and tracking systems（跟踪系统）to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam（小光束）.Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using the photoelectric effect（光电效应）.Solar power is a clean, renewable source of energy.Contents∙ 1 Applications∙ 2 Concentrating solar powerApplicationsSolar power is a versatile source of renewable energy that can be used in an amazing number of applications, providing power for everything from cars and boats to houses and spacecrafts. It can provide electricity for businesses or industry. Solar power is also clean and pollution-free. So it is sometimes called “Green Power ”.Solar power is being used in a wide variety of ways. Solar heat, captured by solar thermal power(太阳能热发电), is used to heat water, homes,swimming pools and even cook food.（solar power home system ）∙ 3 Photovoltaicso 3.1 Photovoltaic power systems∙ 4 Development(heat water)In addition to heating homes and producing electricity, solar power is used in any number of gadgets（小器具，小配件）and lighting products. Solar power is used to wirelessly light up gardens, landscapes, decks and patios（甲板，露台）, driveways, campsites（露营地）and tents, and to power flashlights（手电筒）for use anywhere.Solar power is built into radios, phones, fans, Christmas lights, clothing, luggage, lawn ornaments and any number of other devices. Anything that requires electricity and has a reason to be outside in the sunshine can receive at least a portion of its power from solar electricity.Concentrating solar powerFurther information: Solar thermal energy（太阳热能） and Concentrated solar power(聚光太阳能)Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant（常规电站）. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists; solar power tower is one of the most developed. Various techniques are used to track the Sun and focus light. In all of these systems a working fluid(液体) is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation（发电机设备）or energy storage（储能器）.（ A solar power tower uses an array of tracking reflectors (heliostats) to concentrate light on a central receiver atop a tower. Power towers are more cost effective, offer higher efficiency and better energy storage capability among CSP technologies. The PS10 Solar Power Plant and PS20 solar power plant are examples of this technology.）PhotovoltaicsA solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect.Photovoltaic power systems（Simplified schematics of a grid-connected residential PV power system （民用太阳能并网发电系统））Solar cells produce direct current (DC) power, which fluctuates（波动）with the intensity of the irradiated（被辐射的）light. This usually requires conversion to certain desired voltages（电压）or alternating current (AC)（交流电）, which requires the use of the inverters（换流器，变频器）. Multiple solar cells are connected inside the modules. Modules are wired together to form arrays（阵列）, then tied to inverter, which produces power with the desired voltage, and frequency（频率）(when its AC).DevelopmentThe early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s. It was driven by an expectation（预期）that coal would soon become scarce（缺乏的）. However, development of solar technologies stagnated（停滞）in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability, economy, and utility（实用）of coal and petroleum（石油）. In 1974 it was estimated that only six private homes in all of North America were entirely heated or cooled by functional solar power systems. The 1973 oil embargo(禁令) and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies.Between 1970 and 1983 photovoltaic installations grew rapidly, but falling oil prices in the early 1980s moderated the growth of PV from 1984 to 1996. Since 1997, PV development has accelerated（加速）due to supply issues with oil and natural gas, global warming concerns, and the improving economic position of PV relative to other energy technologies. Photovoltaic production growth has averaged 40% per year since 2000.Commercial concentrating solar thermal power (CSP) plants were first developed in the 1980s.Off-grid PV systems（离网太阳能系统）have traditionally used rechargeable batteries（充电电池）to store excess electricity. With grid-tied systems（并网系统）, excess electricity can be sent to the transmission grid（输电网）.。
Solar energySolar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar radiation, along with secondary solar-powered resources such as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity and biomass, account for most of the available renewable energy on earth. Only a minuscule fraction of the available solar energy is used.Solar powerSolar power is the generation of electricity from sunlight. This can be direct as with photovoltaics (PV), or indirect as with concentrating solar power (CSP), where the sun's energy is focused to boil water which is then used to provide power. Solar power has the potential to provide over 1,000 times total world energy consumption in 2008, though it provided only 0.02% of the total that year. If it continues to double in use every two to three years, or less, it would become the dominant energy source this century. The largest solar power plants, like the 354 MW SEGS, are concentrating solar thermal plants, but recently multi-megawatt photovoltaic plants have been built. Completed in 2008, the 46 MW Moura photovoltaic power station in Portugal and the 40 MW Waldpolenz Solar Park in Germany are characteristic of the trend toward larger photovoltaic power stations.Much larger ones are proposed, such as the 100 MW Fort Peck Solar Farm, the 550 MW Topaz Solar Farm, and the 600 MW Rancho Cielo Solar Farm.Solar power is amazing. On average, every square meter of Earth's surface receives 164 watts of solar energy. In other words, you could stand a really powerful (150 watt) table lamp on every square meter of Earth's surface and light up the whole planet with the Sun's energy! Or, to put it another way, if we covered just one percent of the Sahara desert with solar panels, we could generate enough electricity to power the whole world. That's the good thing about solar power: there's an awful lot of it—much more than we could ever use.But there's a downside too. The energy the Sun sends out arrives on Earth as a mixture of light and heat. Both of these are incredibly important—the light makes plants grow, providing us with food, while the heat keeps us warm enough to survive—but we can't use either the Sun's light or heat directly to run a television or a car. We have to find some way of converting solar energy into other forms of energy we can use more easily, such as electricity. And that's exactly what solar panels do.Solar cellA solar cell is a device that converts the energy of sunlight directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Sometimes the term solar cell is reserved for devices intended specifically to capture energy from sunlight such as solar panels and solar cells, while the term photovoltaic cell is used when the light source is unspecified. Assemblies of cells are used to make solar panels, solar modules, or photovoltaic arrays. Photovoltaics is the field of technology andresearch related to the application of solar cells in producing electricity for practical use. The energy generated this way is an example of solar energy.History of solar cellsThe development of the solar cell stems from the work of the French physicist Antoine-César Becquerel in 1839. Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect while experimenting with a solid electrode in an electrolyte solution; he observed that voltage developed when light fell upon the electrode. About 50 years later, Charles Fritts constructed the first true solar cells using junctions formed by coating the semiconductor selenium with an ultrathin, nearly transparent layer of gold. Fritts's devices were very inefficient, transforming less than 1 percent of the absorbed light into electrical energy.By 1927 another metalÐsemiconductor-junction solar cell, in this case made of copper and the semiconductor copper oxide, had been demonstrated. By the 1930s both the selenium cell and the copper oxide cell were being employed in light-sensitive devices, such as photometers, for use in photography. These early solar cells, however, still had energy-conversion efficiencies of less than 1 percent. This impasse was finally overcome with the development of the silicon solar cell by Russell Ohl in 1941. In 1954, three other American researchers, G.L. Pearson, Daryl Chapin, and Calvin Fuller, demonstrated a silicon solar cell capable of a 6-percent energy-conversion efficiency when used in direct sunlight. By the late 1980s silicon cells, as well as those made of gallium arsenide, with efficiencies of more than 20 percent had been fabricated. In 1989 a concentrator solar cell, a type of device in which sunlight is concentrated onto the cell surface by means of lenses, achieved an efficiency of 37 percent due to the increased intensity of the collected energy. In general, solar cells of widely varying efficiencies and cost are now available.StructureModern solar cells are based on semiconductor physics -- they are basically just P-N junction photodiodes with a very large light-sensitive area. The photovoltaic effect, which causes the cell toconvert light directly into electrical energy, occurs in the three energy-conversion layers.The first of these three layers necessary for energy conversion in a solar cell is the top junction layer (made of N-type semiconductor ). The next layer in the structure is the core of the device; this is the absorber layer (the P-N junction). The last of the energy-conversion layers is the back junction layer (made of P-type semiconductor).As may be seen in the above diagram, there are two additional layers that must be present in a solar cell. These are the electrical contact layers. There must obviously be two such layers to allow electric current to flow out of and into the cell. The electrical contact layer on the face of the cell where light enters is generally present in some grid pattern and is composed of a good conductor such as a metal. The grid pattern does not cover the entire face of the cell since grid materials, though good electrical conductors, are generally not transparent to light. Hence, the grid pattern must be widely spaced toallow light to enter the solar cell but not to the extent that the electrical contact layer will have difficulty collecting the current produced by the cell. The back electrical contact layer has no such diametrically opposed restrictions. It need simply function as an electrical contact and thus covers the entire back surface of the cell structure. Because the back layer must be a very good electrical conductor, it is always made of metal.How do solar cells workA solar cell is a sandwich of n-type silicon (blue) and p-type silicon (red).1.When sunlight shines on the cell, photons (light particles)bombard the upper surface.2.The photons (yellow blobs) carry their energy down through thecell.3.The photons give up their energy to electrons (green blobs) inthe lower, p-type layer.4.The electrons use this energy to jump across the barrier into theupper, n-type layer and escape out into the circuit.5.Flowing around the circuit, the electrons make the lamp lightup.Solar Power - Advantages and Disadvantages Solar Power AdvantagesThere are many advantages of solar energy. Just consider the advantages of solar energy over that of oil:· Solar energy is a renewable resource. Although we cannot utilize the power of the sun at night or on stormy, cloudy days, etc., we can count on the sun being there the next day, ready to give us more energy and light. As long as we have the sun, we can have solar energy (and on the day that we no longer have the sun, you can believe that we will no longer have ourselves, either).· Oil, on the other hand, is not renewable. Once it is gone, it is gone. Yes, we may find another source to tap, but that source may run out, as well.· Solar cells are totally silent. They can extract energy from the sun without making a peep. Now imagine the noise that the giant machines used to drill for and pump oil make!· Solar energy is non-polluting. Of all advantages of solar energy over that of oil, this is, perhaps, the most important. The burning of oil releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases and carcinogens into the air.·Solar cells require very little maintenance (they have no moving parts that will need to be fixed), and they last a long time.· Although solar panels or solar lights, etc., may be expensive to buy at the onset, you can save money in the long run. After all, you do not have to pay for energy from the sun. On the other hand, all of us are aware of the rising cost of oil.· Solar powered lights and other solar powered products are also very easy to install. You do not even need to worry about wires.Here are the disadvantages of solar energy:•The initial cost is the main disadvantage of installing a solar energy system, largely because of the high cost of thesemi-conducting materials used in building one.•The cost of solar energy is also high compared tonon-renewable utility-supplied electricity. As energy shortages are becoming more common, solar energy is becoming moreprice-competitive.•Solar panels require quite a large area for installation to achievea good level of efficiency.•The efficiency of the system also relies on the location of the sun, although this problem can be overcome with the installation of certain components.•The production of solar energy is influenced by the presence of clouds or pollution in the air.•Similarly, no solar energy will be produced during nighttime although a battery backup system and/or net metering willsolve this problem.Development, deployment and economicsBeginning with the surge in coal use which accompanied the Industrial Revolution, energy consumption has steadily transitioned from wood and biomass to fossil fuels. The early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce. However development of solar technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability, economy, and utility of coal and petroleum.The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies.Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the US and the Sunshine Program in Japan. Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the US (SERI, now NREL), Japan (NEDO), and Germany (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE).Between 1970 and 1983 photovoltaic installations grew rapidly, but falling oil prices in the early 1980s moderated the growth of PV from 1984 to 1996.Photovoltaic production growth has averaged 40% per year since 2000 and installed capacity reached 10.6 GW at the end of 2007,and 14.73 GW in 2008.Since 2006 it has beeneconomical for investors to install photovoltaics for free in return for a long term power purchase agreement. 50% of commercial systems were installed in this manner in 2007 and it is expected that 90% will by 2009. Nellis Air Force Base is receiving photoelectric power for about 2.2 ¢/kWh and grid power for 9 ¢/kWh.Commercial concentrating solar thermal power (CSP) plants were first developed in the 1980s. CSP plants such as SEGS project in the United States have a levelized energy cost (LEC) of 12–14 ¢/kWh.The 11 MW PS10 power tower in Spain, completed in late 2005, is Europe's first commercial CSP system, and a total capacity of 300 MW is expected to be installed in the same area by 2013.In August 2009, First Solar announced plans to build a 2 GW photovoltaic system in Ordos City, Inner Mongolia, China in four phases consisting of 30 MW in 2010, 970 MW in 2014, and another 1000 MW by 2019. As of June 9, 2009, there is a new solar thermal power station being built in the Banaskantha district in North Gujarat. Once completed, it will be the world's largest.。
太阳能光伏学习资料.txt男人的承诺就像80岁老太太的牙齿，很少有真的。
你嗜烟成性的时候，只有三种人会高兴，医生你的仇人和卖香烟的。
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太阳能发电太阳能发电太阳能是一种干净的可再生的新能源，越来越受到人们的亲睐，在人们生活、工作中有广泛的作用，其中之一就是将太阳能转换为电能，太阳能电池就是利用太阳能工作的。
而太阳能热电站的工作原理则是利用汇聚的太阳光，把水烧至沸腾变为水蒸气，然后用来发电。
现有能源随着经济的发展、社会的进步，人们对能源提出越来越高的要求 ,寻找新能源成为当前人类面临的迫切课题。
现有电力能源的来源主要有 3 种，即火电、水电和核电。
火电的缺点火电需要燃烧煤、石油等化石燃料。
一方面化石燃料蕴藏量有限、越烧越少，正面临着枯竭的危险。
据估计，全世界石油资源再有 30 年便将枯竭。
另一方面燃烧燃料将排出二氧化碳和硫的氧化物，因此会导致温室效应和酸雨，恶化地球环境。
水电的缺点水电要淹没大量土地，有可能导致生态环境破坏，而且大型水库一旦塌崩，后果将不堪设想。
另外，一个国家的水力资源也是有限的，而且还要受季节的影响。
核电的缺点核电在正常情况下固然是干净的，但万一发生核泄漏，后果同样是可怕的。
前苏联切尔诺贝利核电站事故，已使 900 万人受到了不同程度的损害，而且这一影响并未终止。
太阳能满足新能源的条件这些都迫使人们去寻找新能源。
新能源要同时符合两个条件：一是蕴藏丰富不会枯竭；二是安全、干净，不会威胁人类和破坏环境。
目前找到的新能源主要有两种，一是太阳能，二是燃料电池。
另外，风力发电也可算是辅助性的新能源。
其中，最理想的新能源是太阳能。
2. 太阳能发电是最理想的新能源照射在地球上的太阳能非常巨大，大约 40 分钟照射在地球上的太阳能，便足以供全球人类一年能量的消费。
可以说，太阳能是真正取之不尽、用之不竭的能源。
塔式太阳能热发电技术浅析14121330 彭启1. 前言太阳能热发电是利用聚光器将太阳辐射能汇聚，生成高密度的能量，通过热功循环来发电的技术［1］。
我国太阳能热发电技术的研究开发工作始于70年代末，一些高等院校和科研所等单位和机构，对太阳能热发电技术做了不少应用性基础实验研究，并在天津建造了一套功率为IkW的塔式太阳能热发电模拟实验装置，在上海建造了一套功率为IKW的平板式低沸点工质太阳能热发电模拟实验装置［2~3］。
目前主流的太阳能热发电技术主要有4种方式：塔式、槽式、碟式和线性菲涅尔式［4］，这4种太阳能光热发电技术各有优缺点。
塔式太阳能聚光比高、运行温度高、热转换效率高，但其跟踪系统复杂、一次性投入大，随着技术的改进，可能会大幅度降低成本，并且能够实现大规模地应用，所以是今后的发展方向。
槽式技术较为成熟，系统相对简单，是第一个进入商业化生产的热发电方式，但其工作温度较低，光热转换效率低，参数受到限制。
碟式光热转换效率高，单机可标准化生产、既可作分布式系统单独供电，也可并网发电，但发电成本较高、单机规模很难做大。
线性菲涅尔式结构简单、发电成本低、具有较好的抗风性能，但工作效率偏低、且由于发展历史较短，技术尚未完全成熟，目前处于示范工程研究阶段。
2. 发电原理与系统塔式太阳能热发电系统的基本形式是利用独立跟踪太阳的定日镜群，将阳光聚集到固定在塔顶部的接收器上产生高温，加热工质产生过热蒸汽或高温气体，驱动汽轮机发电机组或燃气轮机发电机组发电，从而将太阳能转换为电能［5］。
塔式太阳能热发电系统，也称集中型太阳能热发电系统，主要由定日镜阵列、高塔、吸热器、传热介质、换热器、蓄热系统、控制系统及汽轮发电机组等部分组成，基本原理是利用太阳能集热装置将太阳热能转换并储存在传热介质中，再利用高温介质加热水产生蒸汽，驱动汽轮发电机组发电。
塔式太阳能热发电系统中，吸热器位于高塔上，定日镜群以高塔为中心，呈圆周状分布，将太阳光聚焦到吸热器上，集中加热吸热器中的传热介质，介质温度上升，存入高温蓄热罐，然后用泵送入蒸汽发生器加热水产生蒸汽，利用蒸汽驱动汽轮机组发电，汽轮机乏汽经冷凝器冷凝后送入蒸汽发生器循环使用。
太阳能热发电知识普及●概念太阳能热发电，全称为聚焦型太阳能热发电（英文全称：Concentrating Solar Power，简称CSP），是通过大量反射镜以聚焦的方式将太阳能直射光聚集起来，加热工质，产生高温高压的蒸汽，蒸汽驱动汽轮机发电。
●太阳能利用概述其实人类利用太阳能已有3000多年的历史，非常悠久。
但真正把太阳能作为一种能源和动力加以利用，其历史却只有不到400年。
自17世纪初以来可以按照太阳能利用发展和应用的状况，把现代世界太阳能利用的发展过程大致划分为以下8个阶段。
初始阶段：近代太阳能利用的历史，一般从1615年法国工程师所罗门，德·考克斯发明世界上第一台利用太阳能驱动的抽水泵算起；第二阶段：1901～1920年这一阶段世界太阳能研究的重点，仍然是太阳能动力装置。
但采用的聚光方式多样化，并开始采用平板式集热器和低沸点工质；第三阶段：1921～1945年由于化石燃料的大量开采应用及爆发了第二次世界大战的影响，此阶段太阳能利用的研究开发处于低潮，参加研究工作的人数和研究项目及研究资金大为减少；第四阶段：1946～1965年，太阳能利用的研究开始复苏，加强了太阳能基础理论和基础材料的研究，在太阳能利用的各个方面都有较大进展；第五阶段：1966～1973年此阶段由于太阳能利用技术还不成熟，尚处于成长阶段，世界太阳能利用工作停滞不前，发展缓慢；第六阶段：1973～1980年这一时期爆发的中东战争引发了西方国家的“石油危机”，使得越来越多的国家和有识之士意识到，现时的能源结构必须改变，应加速向新的能源结构过渡，客观上使这一阶段成了太阳能利用前所未有的大发展时期；第七阶段：1981～1991年由于世界石油价格大幅度回落，而太阳能产品价格居高不下，缺乏竞争力，太阳能利用技术无重大突破；第八阶段：1992年至今，1992年6月联合国“世界环境与发展大会”在巴西召开之后，世界各国加强了对清洁能源技术的研究开发，使太阳能的开发利用工作走出低谷，得到越来越多国家的重视和加强。
太阳能光热发电——供热联产研究（1.北方工程设计研究院有限公司，石家庄0500112.天威（成都）太阳能热发电开发有限公司，成都610000）摘要：简述了太阳能热发电系统，详细介绍了槽式太阳能光热发电—供热的联产方案。
在工程实际应用方面，提出了一个光热发电—供热联产方案，对光场、装机容量及储热系统进行了设计和计算，并对方案进行了经济效益分析，最后通过经济评价得出光热发电—供热联产方案的补贴措施。
关键词：光热发电；热电联产；经济性分析中图分类号： TM511 文献标识码：A1 引言相比于其他可再生能源，太阳能资源取之不尽，用之不竭。
太阳能每秒钟到达地球的能量高达8×1013kW，如果可以把地球表面0.1%的太阳能转为电能，转化率按照5%计算，每年的发电量就相当于全世界能耗的40倍[1]。
我国是世界上太阳能资源最丰富的地区之一，陆地表面每年接受的太阳能辐射相当于1.7万亿t标准煤，对1971～2000年辐射资料进行统计，我国太阳年总辐照量基本上在3780～8820MJ/m2之间，大于3780MJ/m2的地区占国土面积的96%以上。
按太阳能总辐照量的空间分布，我国可以划分为四个区域，如表1所示[2]。
从全国太阳能资源登记区划表分析，我国太阳能资源I、II类地区包括西藏、新疆、青海、甘肃及内蒙古地区。
这些太阳能资源丰富的地区地广人稀，土地使用成本较低为建设聚光型太阳能发电电站（光热电站）提供了有利条件。
表1 我国太阳能资源登记区划表从太阳索取资源来发电，不仅可以保护人类的生存空间；而且可以节约化石能源，为国家能源可持续发展作贡献。
在我国西北地区在未利用的土地上，如沙地、戈壁滩、荒漠地、废弃盐碱地上，建设太阳热发电电厂，不仅可以利用太阳能产生绿色电力，而且还可以在冬季给周边居民区供暖。
采用天然气作为辅助能源，不会对环境造成污染。
通过科学的设计和严格的组织施工，导热油的使用也不会对环境造成污染。
2 光热发电技术光热发电技术即聚光型太阳能发电（Concentrating Solar Power，CSP）技术是太阳能利用中的重要方向之一。
太阳能光热光伏词汇A1、absorptions coefficient——吸收系数, 吸收强度（α－吸收系数）2、aperture diameter width——开口直径，指槽式聚光镜抛物槽的开口直径大小3、axis ——轴4、azimuth ——方位角，方位角又称地平经度(Azimuth (angle)缩写Az) ，是在平面上量度物体之间的角度差的方法之一。
是从某点的指北方向线起，依顺时针方向到目标方向线之间的水平夹角。
5、absorptance ——吸收率C1、Concentrating Solar Power——聚光式太阳能发电，简称CSP ，又叫做STP （Solar Thermal Power）——光热太阳能发电2、concentrator ——聚光器或聚光镜3、collector ——集热器，直接将太阳能转化为热能，使用高储热的物质诸如水或油等，之后使用热交换器使用所搜集的热量。
是聚光太阳能设备的总称，其中包括，concentrator （聚光镜）和receiver （接收器）.4、collecting loop 集热回路，槽式太阳能集热回路包括两种模式，一种是双回路系统，包括导热油（HTF 系统）和（水蒸汽系统），另一种叫DSG 系统，直接产生蒸汽系统。
两种系统的区别在于，第一种是由导热油做为热量转换的中间介质，而后者是太阳能直接转化为水蒸气的热能。
第一种系统效率低于第二种，第二种技术对集热管要求较高。
(Skyfuel公司在文件中介绍的便是采用南北向布置的双回路带储能的槽式发电系统。
)5、curve ——曲线6、cable ——电缆7、concentration ratio——聚光比，包括几何聚光比和能量聚光比。
8、contour of the dish——蝶式太阳能聚光镜的骨架（又叫蚌壳）9、ceramics ——陶瓷，在槽式太阳能热管中，关键的技术就是在集热管的高温选择性吸收涂层。
T he limited supply of fossilhydrocarbon resources and thenegative impact of CO2emissions on the global environment dictate the increasing usage of renewable energy sources. Concentrated solar power (CSP) is the most likely candidate for providing the majority of this renewable energy, because it is amongst the most cost-effective renewable electricity technologies and because its supply is not restricted if the energy generated is transported from the world's solar belt to the population centres.identified during the past decades forgenerating electricity in the 10kW toseveral 1000MW range:q dish/engine technology, which candirectly generate electricity inisolated locationsq parabolic trough technology, whichproduces high pressuresuperheated steamq solar tower technology whichproduces air above 1000°C orsynthesis gas for gas turbineoperation.a certain maturity, as has beendemonstrated in pilot projects in Israel,Spain and the USA, significantimprovements in the thermo-hydraulicperformance are still required if suchinstallations are to achieve the reliabilityand effectiveness of conventionalpower plants. This first article focuseson present CSP technologies, theirhistory and the state of the art. Thesecond article, in the next issue ofIngenia, looks at the technical,environmental, social and economicissues relating to CSP in the future. ingenia1HANS MÜLLER-STEINHAGEN,FRENG AND FRANZ TRIEBINSTITUTE OF TECHNICALTHERMODYNAMICS, GERMANAEROSPACE CENTRE, STUTTGART,GERMANYSECTION Concentrating solar powerA reviewof the technologyIs solar power the answer to theever-growing problems of globalwarming and depleting fossil fuelsupplies? In the first of two articlesHans Müller-Steinhagen and FranzTrieb explain the principles anddevelopment of concentrated solarpower and outline its considerablepotential for alleviating theconstant pressure on our existingresources.cannot be concentrated. Line focusing systems are easier to handle, but have a lower concentration factor and hence achieve lower temperatures than point focusing systems.T able 1 gives an overview of some of the technical parameters of the different concentrating solar power concepts.Parabolic troughs, linear Fresnel systems and power towers can be coupled to steam cycles of 10 to 200MW of electric capacity, with thermal cycle efficiencies of 30–40%. The values for parabolic troughs, by far the most mature technology, have beendemonstrated in the field. T oday, these systems achieve annual solar-to-electricity efficiencies of about 10–15%,with the aim that they should reachingenia 2SECTIONabout 18% in the medium term. The values for other systems are, in general,projections based on component and prototype system test data, and the assumption of mature development of current technology. Overall solar-electric efficiencies are lower than the conversion efficiencies of conventional steam or combined cycles, as they include the conversion of solar radiative energy to heat within the collector and theconversion of the heat to electricity in the power block. The conversion efficiency of the power block remains essentially the same as in fuel fired power plants. Because of their thermal nature,each of these technologies can be‘hybridised’, or operated with fossil fuel as well as solar energy. Hybridisation has the potential to improve dramatically the value of CSPtechnology by increasing its power availability and dispatchability,decreasing its cost (by making more effective use of the power block equipment), and reducing the technological risk by allowingconventional fuel use if, for example,the collector has to be repaired. Solar heat collected during the daytime canTable 1Performance data for various concentrating solar power (CSP) technologiesFigure 1Technologies for concentrating solar radiation: left side parabolic andlinear Fresnel troughs, right side central solar tower receiver and parabolic dish (Source: DLR)(d)= demonstrated; (p) = projected; ST steam turbine; GT gas turbine; CC combined cycle.Solar efficiency =Capacity factor =solar operating hours per year8760 hours per yearnet power generation incident beam radiationSECTIONbe stored in concrete, molten salt, ceramics or phase-change media. At night, it can be extracted from storage to run the power block. Fossil and renewable fuels such as oil, gas, coal and biomass can be used for co-firing the plant, thus providing power capacity whenever required.Moreover, solar energy can be used for co-generation of electricity and heat. In this case, the high value solar energy input is used with the best possible efficiencies of up to 85%. Possible applications include the combined production of electricity, industrial process heat, district cooling and sea water desalination.It is generally assumed that solar concentrating systems are economic only for locations with direct incidence radiation above 1800kWh m–2year–1. Typical examples are Barstow, USA, with 2500–2700 kWh m–2year–1and Almeria, Spain, with1850–2000kWh m–2year–1. Today, all installations would have capacity factors of 25%, equivalent to about 2000 full load operating hours per year, with the aim of using solar operation for base load with thermal energy storage and larger collector fields. ToTo generate electricity, the fluidflowing through the absorber tube –usually synthetic oil or water/steam –transfers the heat to a conventionalsteam turbine power cycle (Figure 2).With the sunlight concentrated byabout 70–100 times, the operating temperatures achieved are in therange of 350 to 550°C.With 354MW of parabolic troughpower plants (about 2 million m2ofmirror area) connected to the grid in southern California, parabolic troughs represent the most mature CSP technology. In the solar electricity generating systems (SEGS) plants developed since the 1980s inCalifornia, a synthetic thermal oil isused for operating temperatures up to 400°C. In a steam generator, this heat-transfer oil is used to produce slightly superheated steam at 5–10MPa pressure, which then feeds a steamturbine connected to a generator to produce electricity. No new plants have been built since 1991, becauseingenia3 Figure 3First parabolictrough plant inEgypt(Source:Stinnesbeck, 1914)11Figure 2Schematic diagram of asteam cycle power plantwith a parabolic troughcollector and a thermal energy storage (Source: DLR)generate 1MWh of solar electricity per year with CSP, a land area of only4–12m2is required. This means, that 1km2of arid land can continuously and indefinitely generate as much electricity as any conventional 50MW coal- or gas-fired power station.Line focusing systemsAs schematically shown in Figure 1, line focusing systems use a trough-like mirror and a specially coated steel absorber tube to convert sunlight into useful heat. The troughs are usually designed to track the Sun along one axis, predominantly north–south. The first parabolic trough systems were installed in 1912 near Cairo (Egypt), to generate steam for a 73kW pump which delivered 2000m3/h of water for irrigation (see Figure 3). At the time, this plant was competitive with coal-fired installations in regions, where the cost of coal exceeded 10 German Marks per tonne (Stinnesbeck, 191411).five years. In addition, troughcomponent manufacturing companieshave made significant advances inimproving absorber tubes, processknow-how and system integration. It isestimated that new plants, usingcurrent technology with these provenenhancements, will produce electricalpower today for about 10 to 12 UScents/kWh in solar only operationmode. Performance data for the nineSEGS plants are given in Table2.Despite the promising technology,the initiator of these plants, LUZInternational Ltd, did not succeed.There were several reasons for LUZ’sfailure:q energy prices did not increase asprojected in the mid 1980sq the value of the environmentalbenefits was not recompensedq a changing undefined tax status didnot allow to the necessary profit obe realised.However, three operating companiestook over the plants and are delivering800–900million kWh of electricity to theCalifornian grid every year, reachingtoday a total accumulated solarelectricity production of almost9billion kWh (12billion kWh includingnatural gas operation), which is roughlyhalf of the solar electricity generatedworld wide to date. The plants had atotal turnover of over US$1.5 billion.While the plants in California use asynthetic oil as a heat transfer fluid withinthe collectors, and a separate heatexchanger for steam generation, effortsto achieve direct steam generation withinthe absorber tubes are underway in theDISS and INDITEP projects sponsoredby the European Commission, with theaim of reducing costs and enhancing ingenia4SECTIONFigure 4Parabolic trough concentrating solar collector field of the 150MW (5 ×30MW) steam cycle solar electricity generating systems at KramerJunction, California (Source: KJC)Figure 5Highlights of line concentrating systemsdevelopment in Europe(Source: DLR, Flagsol, Solarmundo)collector, which aims to achieve better performance and cost by enhancing the mechanical structure, and the optical and thermal properties of the parabolic troughs (Figure 5, middle). A prototype was successfully tested in summer 2003 under real operating conditions at the Californian solar thermal power plants within the PARASOL project funded by the German Federal Ministry for the Environment.Another European consortium has developed a collector with segmented flat mirrors following the principle of Fresnel (Figure 5). The linear Fresnel system also shows a good potential for low cost steam generation, and provides a semi-shaded space below,which may be particularly useful in desert climates. Acting like a large,segmented blind, it could shade crops,pasture and water sheds to protect them from excessive evaporation and provide shelter from the cold desert sky at night. However, theperformance of the linear Fresnelsystem has so far only been tested in a 50m installation in Belgium; further modelling and experimental work will be required to determine under what conditions it may be more cost-effective than the parabolic trough system with direct steam generation.Point focusing systemsDish/Stirling systemsParabolic dish concentrators arerelatively small units that have a motor generator mounted at the focal point of the reflector. The motor-generator unit can be based on a Stirling engine or a small gas turbine. Several dish/engine prototypes have successfully operated over the last 10 years, ranging from 10kW (Schlaich, Bergermann and Partner design), 25kW (SAIC) to the 400m 2, 100kW ‘big dish’ of the Australian National University. Like all concentrating systems, they canadditionally be powered by fossil fuel or biomass, providing firm capacity at any time. Because of their size, they are particularly well suited for decentralised power supply and remote, stand-alone power systems. Within the European project EURO-DISH, a cost-effective 10kW Dish-Stirling engine fordecentralised electric power generation has been developed by a European consortium with partners from industry and research (Figure 6).i n g e n i a5SECTIONTable 2Data for the nine commercial solar electricity generating systems in California, USAFigure 6The EURO-DISH parabolic dish concentrator with a Stirling motor-generator in the focal point at the CIEMAT solarthermal test centre Plataforma Solar de Almeria, Spain (Source: SBP)Central receiver systemsCentral receiver (or power tower) systems use a field of distributed mirrors – heliostats – that individually track the sun and focus the sunlight on the top of a tower. By concentrating the sunlight 600–1000 times, they achieve temperatures from 800°C to well over 1000°C. The solar energy is absorbed by a working fluid and then used to generate steam to power a conventional turbine. In over 15 years of experiments worldwide, power tower plants have proven to be technically feasible in projects using different heat transfer media (steam, air and molten salts) in the thermal cycle and with different heliostat designs. At Barstow, California (see Figure 7), a 10MW pilot plant operating with steam from 1982 to 1988, and subsequently with molten salt as the heat transfer and energy storage medium, has now several thousand hours of operating experience delivering power to the electricity grid on a regular basis.Early approaches with central receivers used bundles of steel tubes on top of the tower to absorb the concentrated solar heat coming from the heliostat field. The Californian10MW test plant Solar II used molten salt as heat transfer fluid and as the thermal storage medium for night time operation. In Europe, air was preferred as the heat transfer medium, but the 20MW air cooled central receiver project GAST in the early 1980sshowed that tube receivers where notappropriate for that purpose, becauseof an inadequate heat transfer andlocal overheating of the tubes. Thus,the concept of the volumetric receiverwas developed in the 1990s within thePHOEBUS project, using a wire meshdirectly exposed to the incidentradiation and cooled by air flowingthrough that mesh (Figure 8). Thisreceiver easily achieved 800°C andwas used to operate a 1 MW steamcycle. A ceramic thermal heat storagewas used for night time operation. Thisconcept has been validated at 2.5MW(thermal) level in tests conducted atthe Plataforma Solar in Almería. In thisinstallation, the solar energy isharvested by 350 heliostats of 40m2area each. For even highertemperatures, the wire mesh screensingenia 6SECTION Figure 8Volumetric receiver (Source: DLR)are replaced by porous SiC or Al 2O 3structures.The high temperatures available in solar towers can be used not only to drive steam cycles, but also for gas turbines and combined cycle systems.Since such systems promise up to 35% peak and 25% annual solar-electric efficiency when coupled to a combined cycle power plant, a solar receiver was developed within the European SOLGATE project forheating pressurised air by placing the volumetric absorber into a pressure vessel with a parabolic quartz window for solar radiation incidence. This design is shown in Figure 9. Since December 2002, thisabsorber has been successfully used to operate a 250kW gas turbine at over 800°C. Combined cycle power plants using this method will require 30% less collector area than plants using equivalent steam cycles (Figure 10). Ceramic volumetric absorbers with an operatingtemperature of over 1200°C are under development for this purpose.ConclusionsConcentrating solar power technology for electricity generation is ready for the market. Various types of single- and dual-purpose plants have been analysed and tested in the field. In addition, experience has been gained from the first commercial installations,in use world-wide since the beginning of the 1980s. Solar thermal power plants will, within the next decade,provide a significant contribution to an efficient, economical and environmentally benign energy supply both in large-scalei n g e n i a 7SECTIONFigure 9REFOSpressurised receiver concept(Source: DLR)Figure 10Schematic of a combined cycle system poweredby a volumetric central receiver using pressurised air as heat transfer fluid (Source: DLR)grid-connected dispatchable markets and remote or modular distributed markets. Parabolic troughs, central receivers and parabolic dishes will be installed for solar/fossil hybrid and solar-only power plant operation. In parallel, decentralised process heat for industrial applications will be provided by low-cost concentrated collectors.Following a subsidised introduction phase in green markets, electricity costs will decrease from 14 to 18 Euro cents per kilowatt hour presently in Southern Europe towards 5 to 6 Euro cents per kilowatt hour in the near future at good sites in the countries of the Earth’s sunbelt. After that, there will be no further additional cost in the emission reduction by CSP. This, and the vast potential for bulk electricity generation, moves the goal of long-term stabilisation of the global climate into a realistic range. Moreover, the problem of sustainable water resources and development in arid regions is addressed in an excellent way, making use of highly efficient, solar poweredco-generation systems. However, during the introduction phase, strong political and financial support from the responsible authorities is still required, and many barriers must be overcome. These topics will be addressed in the second article.sReferences and additional reading 1Bockamp, S., Griestop, T., Fruth, M., Ewert, M., Lerchenmüller, H.,Mertins, M., Morin, G., Häberle, A.,Dersch, J. (2003) Solar ThermalPower Generation(Fresnel),PowerGen2Buck, R., Bräuning, T., Denk, T., Pfänder, M., Schwarzböezl, P.,Tellez, F. (2002) ‘Solar-hybrid gasturbine-based power towersystems(REFOS)’, J. Solar EnergyEngineering, 124, 2–93Becker, M. et al. (2002) The Future for Renewable Energy 2, EURECAgency, James & James (SciencePublishers) London4Eck, M. (2001) ‘Die Dynamik der solaren Direktverdampfung undÜberhitzung inParabolrinnenkollektoren’, VDIFortschrittsberichte, Vol. 6, No. 464.5Geyer, M., Lüpfert, E., Osuna, R.,Esteban, A., Schiel, W., Schweitzer,A., Zara, E., Nava, P., Langenkamp,J., Mandelberg, E. (2002)‘EuroTrough – parabolic troughcollector developed for costefficient solar power generation’,Proceedings of11th SolarPACESInternational Symposium onConcentrated Solar Power andChemical Energy Technologies.Sept. 4–6, Zurich6Keck, T., Schiel, W., Reinalter, W.,Heller, P. (2002) ‘EuroDish – aninnovative dish/stirling system’,Proceedings of11th SolarPACESInternational Symposium onConcentrated Solar Power andChemical Energy Technologies.Sept. 4–6, Zurich.7León, J., Zarza, E., Valenzuela, L.,Hennecke, K., Weyers, D., Eickhoff,M. (2002) ‘Direct steam generation– three years of operation of DISSProject’, Proceedings of11thSolarPACES InternationalSymposium on Concentrated SolarPower and Chemical EnergyTechnologies. Sept. 4–6, Zurich.8Price, H., Lüpfert, E., Kearney, D.,Zarza, E., Cohen, G., Gee, R.,Mahoney, R. (2002) ‘Advances inparabolic trough solar powertechnology’, ASME Journal of SolarEnergy Engineering,124, 109–125.9Romero, M., Marcos, M.J., Osuna,R., Fernández, V. (2000) ‘Designand implementation of a 10MWsolar tower power plant based onvolumetric air technology in Seville(Spain)’, Proceedings of the Solar2000, Solar Powers Life–Share theEnergy, June 17–22, Madison,Wisconsin.10Steinmann, W-D. (2002) ‘Dynamiksolarer Dampferzeuger’, VDIFortschrittsberichte, Vol. 6, No. 467.11Stinnesbeck, L. (1914/1915)‘Sonnenkraftmaschinen’, Keller´sMonatsblätter, Bergstadtverlag, Vol.3, No. 112Sugarmen, C., Ring, A., Buck, R.,Uhlig, R., Beuter, M., Marcos, M.J.,Fernandez, V. (2002) ‘Solar-hybridgas turbine power system’,Proceedings of11th SolarPACESInternational Symposium onConcentrated Solar Power andChemical Energy Technologies,September 4–6, Zurich, Switzerland13SUN-LAB Snapshot (2000) SolarTwo Demonstrates Clean Power forthe Future, US Department ofEnergyUseful Internet siteshttp://www.solarmundo.behttp://www.dlr.de/TT/solartherm/solargasturbine/projekte/eurodish/sunlab/ingenia 8SECTIONFranz Trieb has worked in the fieldof renewable energies since 1983.After the implementation ofhydrogen storage for anautonomous renewable energysystem at the University ofOldenburg,Germany, hefollowed a two-yearpostgraduatecourse ‘RenewableEnergy’ at theNational Universityof Tacna, Peru.Since 1994, he hasbeen projectmanager at the Institute ofTechnical Thermodynamics of theGerman Aerospace Center (DLR),working on solar energy resourceassessment by satellite remotesensing, market strategies forconcentrating solar power andrenewable energy scenarios.SECTIONainegni9。
