语言学(第五章)

语⾔学第五章SemanticsChapter Five SemanticsTeaching Focus1. What is semantics2. Meanings of “meaning”3. Sense and reference4. Sense relations5. Componential analysis --- a way to analyze lexical meaning6. Predication analysis --- a way to analyze sentence meaning1. What is semantics?Semantics is the study of meaning in language.Or specifically, it is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.Different focus of the study in semantics:Logical semantics/philosophical semantics: Logicians and philosophers have tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences (typically, statements, or …propositions?) within a single language.Linguistic semantics: The linguistic approach is broader in scope, aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way, with reference to as wide a range of utterances and languages as possible.2. Meanings of “Meaning”The word “meaning” has different meanings.It has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists.The naming theory: Plato & AristotleWords are just names or labels for things.Can you show the limitations of this theoryThe semantic triangle: C. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards (1923) → The Meaning of Meaning.There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. ?thought/reference (concept)symbolizes refers tosymbol/form referent(word, phrase) stands for(object)Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:Conceptual meaningConnotative meaningSocial meaningAffective meaning associative meaningReflected and meaningCollocative meaningThematic meaning(1) Conceptual meaningIt makes the central part of meaning.Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.(2) Connotative meaningThe communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.A multitude of additional, non-criterial properties, including not only physical characteristics but also psychological and social properties, as well as typical features. ?Involving the …real world? experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it.Unstable: they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.Any characteristic of the referent, identified subjectively or objectively, may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which denotes it.(3) Social meaningWhat a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.Dialect: the language of a geographical region or of a social class.Time: the language of the 18th c., etc.Province: language of law, of science, of advertising, etc.Status: polite, colloquial, slang, etc.Modality: language of memoranda, lectures, jokes, etc.Singularity: the style of Dickens, etc.domicile: very formal, official steed: poeticresidence: formal horse: generalabode: poetic nag: slanghome: general gee-gee: baby language (4) Affective meaningReflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.Youre a vicious tyrant and a villainous reprobate, and I hate you for it!Im terribly sorry to interrupt, but I wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your voices a little. orWill you belt up.(5) Reflected meaningArises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense. When you hear …click the mouse twice, you think of Gerry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited.Many taboo terms are result of this.(6) Collocative meaningThe associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.pretty: girl, boy, woman, flower, garden, colour, village, etc.handsome: boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.(7) Thematic meaningWhat is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.Mrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize.The first prize was donated by Mrs Bessie Smith.They stopped at the end of the corridor.At the end of the corridor, they stopped.3. Sense and referenceSense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.Grammatical words like but, if ,and do not refer to anything. And words like God, ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things. Therefore it is suggested that we should study meaning in terms of sense rather than reference.4. Sense relationsSynonymygradableAntonymy complementaryconverseHyponymyPolysemy4.1 SynonymySynonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. Complete synonyms are rare. According to the way they differ, synonyms can be divided into the following groups:i. Dialectal synonyms --- used in different regional dialectsBritish English American Englishautumn falllift elevatorflat apartmenttube undergroundii. Stylistic synonyms --- differing in stylekid, child, offspringkick the bucket, pop off, die, pass away, deceaseiii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningcollaborator, accompliceiv. Collocational synonymsaccuse, chargev. Semantically different synonymssurprise, amaze, astound4.2 AntonymyThe term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.There are three types of antonyms.i. Gradable: Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very; Can have comparative forms; Can be asked with how. good, badyoung, oldhot, coldii. Complementary: the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.alive, deadmale, femalepresent, absentiii. Converse or relational: exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the pair; one presupposes the other. husband, wifebuy, sellbefore, after4.3 HyponymyHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general word and a more specific word. It is a kind of inclusiveness. Superordinate: the more general wordHyponyms: the more specific wordsCo-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinateflower, rose, lilyanimal, cat, dogfurniture, bed, desk4.4 PolysemyPolysemy refers to the sense relation that the same one word has more than one meaning. Such a word is called a polysemic word.table: a piece of furniture; orderly arrangement of facts, figures5. Componential analysis---a way to analyze lexical meaningComponential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, calledsemantic features.HUMANman (ADULT, MALE)woman (ADULT, FEMALE)boy (NON-ADULT, MALE)girl (NON-ADULT, FEMALE)father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)x is a parent of y, and x is male.take: CAUSE (x, (HA VE (x, y)))x causes x to have y.give: CAUSE (x, (~HA VE (x, y)))x causes x not to have y.Componential analysis provides an insight into the meaning of words and a way to study the relationships between words that are related in meaning.6. Predication analysis --- a way to analyze sentence meaningThe meaning of a sentence is obviously related to the meanings of the words used in it, but it is also obvious that sentence meaning is not simply the sum total of the words.Predication analysis: proposed by the British linguist G. LeechThe basic unit in this method is called prediction. It is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.An argument is logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. Tom smokes.Tom is smoking.Tom has been smoking. TOM (SMOKE)Does Tom smokingTom does not smoke. argument predicateKids like apples. → KID, APPLE (LIKE)It is hot. → (BE HOT)AssignmentsHow can words opposite in meaning be classified To which category does each of the following pairs of antonyms belong?north/south vacant/occupiedliterate/illiterate above/belowdoctor/patient wide/narrowpoor/rich father/daughterhonest/dishonest normal/abnormalExercisesI. Multiple choice.1. The naming theory seems applicable to ___ only.A. verbsB. adjectivesC. adverbsD. nouns2. Hyponyms of the superordinate “flower” do not include “___”.A. wardrobeB. tulipC. lilyD. rose3. Predication analysis is a way to analyze ___ meaning.A. phonemeB. wordC. phraseD. sentenceII. Make judgments (true or false)1. In the diagram of the classic semantic triangle, the word “symbol” refers to the object in the world of experience.2. When the same one word has more than one meaning we call it a polysemic word.3. Complete synonyms, i.e. synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rare in English.。

语言学纲要第五章语义和语用
《语言学纲要》是叶蜚声、徐通锵著，北京大学出版社2010 年出版的图书。

其中，第五章语义和语用的主要内容如下：
第五章首先介绍了词汇和词义，包括词和词汇、词的词汇意义、词义的概括性、词义的构成等内容；其次，介绍了词义的各种关系，包括一词多义、同义词、反义词等；再次，介绍了句义和句子的语义结构，包括句子的意义、句子的语义结构、句义和词义的关系等；最后，介绍了语用，包括语境、语境对词义的影响、句子的语用意义、话题和说明、焦点和预设等内容。

第五章主要探讨了语言中词汇和词义的关系，以及句义和句子的语义结构，同时也介绍了语境和语用对词义和句子意义的影响。

第五章语言的表达内容──语义教学目的与要求：了解语素、词语、词组和句子等语言单位的定义以及具有的意义；了解语音、语汇和语法这三个语言要素的意义第一节语义概说一、什么是语义1、定义：语义指的是“语言的意义”，是语言形式的表达内容2、语义所包括的内容：（1）语汇意义：实词和固定短语所表达的意义语法意义：虚词、语序、形态、句调等所表达的意义。

（2）言内之意：一般的、稳定的意义言外之意：个别的、临时的意义如：今天天气很热（3）理性意义：表达人们对客观世界的事物和现象的认识非理性意义：表达人们的主观情感、态度及语体风格如：你真讨厌二、语义的性质★（1）概括性：人们可以从具体事物中抽象概括出使一类事物区别于他类事物的特征，同时舍弃同类事物之间的各种差别。

如：笔（2）模糊性：模糊性是指词义所反映的对象只有一个大致的范围，而没有明确的界线。

如：土豪、中午。

（3）民族性：由于不同的民族对客观事物的认识不同，对客观事物的概括及分类也存在差异，因而不同语言的语义也会有所不同。

如：龙：中国的龙是一种吉祥的动物；而西方的dragon是一种危害人间的怪物。

三、语义在语言系统中的地位1、要不要研究语义语言形式和语言意义彼此密不可分，互相不能取代，强调语言研究中形式和意义的“结合”2、怎样研究语义：研究各种语言片段表示的语汇意义和语段意义第二节词语的意义一、词义的构成要素1、理性意义和非理性意义（1）理性意义：是人们对主观世界事物的反映，而且是概括性的反映如：山、河、神仙、天堂（2）非理性意义：附着在词的理性意义之上的，因而又叫做词义的附加色彩。

主要表现为：感情色彩、语体色彩、形象色彩2、语素义（1）单纯词：词义=语素义，单纯词由一个语素构词如：书（2）合成词：①词义=语素义+语素义如：皮包②词义并不能从其构成语素义推导而来如：针线3、义项★（1）定义：义项是词典释义的最小单位。

一个词有几个义项，根据词所反映的对象的多少来决定的如：凉：①温度低。

《语言学概论》第五章語義和語用第五章語義和語用语义是以语音形式表达的各级语言单位所包含的意义，以及在语言使用过程中产生的意义。

语言意义:语言系统中固有的意义是抽象的、概括的、相对稳定的，不受语境和语境的影响。

语用意义:指在一定的交际环境中所表达的特定的、暂时的、隐含的意义。

第一节词汇和词义一词和词汇词是语言中可以自由使用的最小符号，是语法结构中最重要的语法单位。

词汇是一种语言中所有的词和成语等固定用语的总汇，具有全民常用性、稳固性、能产性。

一般词汇语言词汇中除了基本词汇以外的词，包括新词、古词、外来词、行业用语、科技术语、方言俚语等，其特点为：数量大，成分杂，变化快。

二词的词汇意义1概念意义也称词的“理性意义”，它是词义的核心，指说一种语言的人在对现实世界的认知中形成的共同的主观映像，是认知的成果。

它这包含三个方面：1它是对现实世界中各种现象的分类和概括反映；2它对于说一种语言的所有人来说是共同的；3它必须与某种语言的特定声音相结合。

2色彩意义也称词的“修辞意义”，是指以理性意义为基础附加上人们的主观态度的意义，包括感情色彩、形象色彩、语体色彩、联想色彩。

a感情色彩：是指说话者对所谈对象的主观感情评价和态度。

有褒、贬、中性之分。

b形象意义：词在获得理性意义的同时，还往往因对对象的描绘而具有某种形象感。

①内部形式比较生动的复合词；②拟声、绘色、摹状的词；③具有比喻义的词。

c语体意义：词用于不同的语体时所产生的一种附加意义。

d联想意义：通过理性意义或语音中介的联想而产生的，大多具有民族特点。

3搭配意义一个词经常与一些词组合而不与另一些词搭配，这种由于组合关系而产生的意义叫搭配意义。

三词义的概括性1一般。

在复合词的词义中可以更清楚地看到，在词义的泛化中，把特殊复杂的东西变成一般简单的东西。

2模糊性。

一个词的意义所指的现象有一个大致的范围，它还必须包含能区别于其他现象的特征，但往往没有明确的界限。

3全民性。

第五章语法一、什么是语法A：语法是语言中词的构成与变化的规则与组词成句规则的总和。

1.词的构成与变化的规则词的构成规则——构词法词根+后缀词的变化规则——构形法2.组词成句的规则由词组成词组或短语，由词或词组组合成句子，二者全称为句法。

词法和句法合称语法。

二、语法的各级单位语素语言中最小的音义结合体词语言中能够独立运用的最小的音义结合单位短语[词组] 词与词的组合，分为固定短语和自由短语两类句子语言中具有一定语调，表达一个相对完整意思的最小的使用单位。

句组[句群、句段、超句体] 表达一个完整意思、大于句子的语言片段。

三、语法的性质和特点1.抽象性语法的最大特点在于它的抽象性和概括性。

语法的抽象性和词汇的抽象性A.抽象的对象不同[事物句子]B.抽象的依据不同词汇依据的是意义，语法依据的是单位间的关系△理解语法的抽象性应从两方面着手：A.语法关系的抽象性B.语法单位的抽象性2.稳固性语法的稳固性（三重意思）1.稳固性指语法的基本格局未变2.稳固性不是不变性3.稳固性是相对于语音、词汇而言的第一节语素和词一、语素和语素变体1.语素：语素是最小的音义结合的单位。

我们人们的话语进行切分，分到最后还有意义的单位就是语素。

2.语素变体：同一语素内部略有差异的单位就是该语素的变体。

语素是一种音义的结合体。

它的变体分为语音变体和语义变体（义项）两类。

二、词和词的构成单纯词：由一个语素构成的词合成词：由两个或两个以上语素构成的词合成词的构成方式:1.并列式2.偏正式3.述宾式4.述补式5.主谓式语法意义：任何语法形式所表达的意义都是语法意义。

语法手段：把具有共同的语法形式概括起来形成的类就是语法手段。

第二节语法手段和语法范畴一、语法手段语法形式：表达语法意义的形式就是语法形式。

常见的语法手段有：1.语序：利用词或词组在语言结构中的排列顺序表示语法意义的手段。

2.虚词：虚词又称功能词或辅助词，指基本上没有词汇意义而专门表示语法意义的词。