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中式英语特点浅析Ξ■ 陈三东 摘 要:英语学习中常出现中式英语,本文从语音、词法、句法、语篇及语用的层面分析了中式英语的特点。
最后指出了避免中式英语的几种对策。
关键词:中式英语 避免 对策中式英语(Chinglish ),也叫汉式英语或中国式英语,是指中国人在学习和使用英语时,把汉语的语言规则运用到英语语言之中,受汉语的思维方式和相应的文化背景知识的干扰和影响而说出或。
[1]在我国,由于与英语国家的历史背景、政治、经济、社会、文化以及价值观等存在着很多不同,而且,大多数中国人学习英语是在掌握了母语后开始,在这个年龄阶段他们已养成了用母语思考和表达的能力。
因此在学习时,他们习惯于从中国人的角度来思考问题,不考虑西方的国情及语言习惯,这样便造成大量的中式英语的出现。
总结起来,中式英语的特点主要表现在如下五个层面。
一、语音层面中国学生在发不出英语中的某些音位时,倾向于使用母语中的某些发音部位类似或听起来类似的音代替英语发音。
例如,我们标准汉语中没有ΠθΠ和Πe Π这两个音,但是我们有与ΠθΠ和Πe Π发音部位和听起来都很类似的Πs Π和Πd Π,大多中国的英语学习者都很自然地借用了汉语中的这两个音,把ΠθΠ和Πe Π发成Πs Π和Πd Π,从而造成了中式英语。
再如,英语和汉语中都有Πr Π这个音,但是这两个Πr Π是有区别的。
英语中的Πr Π要求有摩擦,不像汉语中的Πr Π那么简单平实,只要卷舌就可以了。
大多中国学生由于受汉语干扰,用汉语里的Πr Π代替英语里的Πr Π,发Πr Π开头的英语单词时,摩擦都不够。
就好像大多数美国人学汉语时,由于受到他们母语的影响,会在发“热(re )”这个音上用上很多不必要的摩擦,发成“Πre Π”一样。
中国学生发英语的Πr Π音时也会受到汉语发音习惯的影响。
二、词法层面在词汇方面,我国英语学习者经常出现的中式英语主要有六类,即生搬硬套、用词不当、搭配不当、重复和累赘、过多使用修饰词、褒贬误用等。
论从中式英语、中国英语到标准英语英语作为一门语言,随着英美两国的崛起而诞生、发展,随着世界全球化,成为国际上使用最广泛的交流工具。
正因为语言的可变性和包容性,随着时间的推移,英语的变体还会源源不断的产生,英语也将会有继续发展的空间,这其中也势必融入在泱泱大国——中国所孕育的具有中国特色的英语变体。
一、中国英语人们通常认为中国英语(Chinese English)是一种使用型英语变体,主要用于中国人与非本国人之间的交流和交往。
它具有以标准英语为核心并带有中国特色的双重性质。
“以标准英语为核心”保证了中国英语作为信息媒介所体现出来的可理解性和可接受性,而“带有中国特色”则弥补了标准英语在涉及中国人固有的思维模式和中国特有文化传统方面的相对欠缺。
自葛传槼先生1983年首次提出“中国英语”这一概念之后,国内的学者纷纷从不同的角度对中国英语进行论证。
概括而言,中国英语应具备以下普遍特征:1.适宜性(Appropriateness)。
随着以语言在不同社会条件下运用、变异为中心的社会语言学的发展,“标准不标准”的问题已逐渐被“适宜与不适宜”所取代。
中国英语虽然表现的是中国特有事物,但在表达上仍应确保其被英语国家人士所理解和接受。
中国英语主要包含两大类:一类诸如一国两制(one country two systems)、中草药(Chinese herbal medicine)、一箭双雕(one arrow, two hawks)等,这种通过借译或语义再生的手段生成的,虽然在标准英语中没有出现过,但英语国家人士还是能从字面的表述中大体明白其所含之意;另一类如麻将(mahjong)、功夫(gongfu)、汤圆(tangyuan)、风水(fengshui)、广东人(Cantonese)等,这类通过普通话或粤、闽地区的发音直接转化而成,且附有必要注解的,能够让英语国家人士了解中国特有的文化,也填补了英语语言表达中的空白。
中式英语的特点与演变Chinglish：Characteristics＆EvolutionAbstract：Chinglish is a special variety of English which differs from the common English in spelling，pronunciation，grammar and usage．Many of the early Chinese borrowings in English were derived from Cantonese while nowadays most Chinese borrowings come from putonghua．M any of the early Chinese borrowings were introduced into English by transliteration while the carrenttendencv is meaning borrowing．M ost of the early Chinese borrowings in English were words while their modern and contemporary counterparts are phrases．Key words：Chinglish；borrowing；evolution中式英语的特点与演变[摘要]中式英语是一种独特的英语变体，在拼写、语音、语法和语用上都存在有别于通用英语的特点。
早期英语中的汉语借词不少来自粤语，现在绝大部分来自普通话，用的是汉语拼音。
早期汉语借词不少是音译借词，当代发展趋势是意译借词。
早期借用以单词为主，现当代则出现大量的借用短语。
[关键词]中式英语；借词；演变中式英语的出现由来已久，但中式英语的研究仅有7O年左右的历史，国内学者一般认为始于英语语言史专家Serjeantson的论著《英语中的外来词历史》(1935)。
摘要本文首先探讨了中外学者对中式英语的不同定义，指出中式英语是一种有中国特色的英语变体；然后将中式英语和中国英语进行了对比分析，总结出中国英语是由中式英语发展而来，并已自然而然地被外国人所接受；其次，阐述了中式英语的四个特点，即语音特点、词汇特点、语法特点，和语用特点，并从母语干扰、不同的思维方式、不同的文化背景这三方面分析了产生中式英语的原因；最后讨论了中式英语发展的趋势，对其发展的必然性和合理性进行了阐释。
关键词：中式英语；特点；原因；趋势ABSTRACTThis paper first explores different definitions of Chinglish given by the scholars home and abroad and points out that Chinglish is a kind of English variety with Chinese flavor. It then compares Chinglish with China English and concludes that China English is derived from Chinglish and is accepted by native speakers naturally. In addition, it elaborates the four characteristics of Chinglish: characteristics of pronunciation, characteristics of vocabulary, characteristics of grammar, and characteristics of pragmatics, and analyzes the causes of Chinglish from three aspects, namely mother tongue interference, different thinking patterns, different cultural background. It finally discusses the development trend of Chinglish and elaborates its inevitability of development and rationality of development.Key words：Chinglish; characteristics; causes; trendContents1. Introduction (50)2. What is Chinglish (51)2.1 Definition of Chinglish (51)2.2 Differences between Chinglish and China English (52)3. Characteristics of Chinglish (54)3.1 Characteristics of pronunciation (54)3.1.1 V oice substitution (54)3.1.2 Mixture of allophone (55)3.1.3 Confusion of voiced and voiceless sounds (55)3.2 Characteristics of vocabulary (55)3.2.1 Verbosity (55)3.2.2 Catachresis (56)3.2.3 Neglect of word order (57)3.2.4 Unsuitable match (57)3.3 Characteristics of grammar (57)3.3.1 Confusion of article (57)3.3.2 Omission of predicate (58)3.3.3 Inconformity between modifier and subject (58)3.4 Pragmatic characteristics (58)3.4.1 Mechanical use of Chinese structure (59)3.4.2 Simplified transfer of concept (59)4. The Causes of Chinglish (60)4.1 Mother tongue interference (61)4.2 Different thinking patterns (62)4.3 Different cultural background (64)4.3.1 Linguistic knowledge (64)4.3.2 Values (65)4.3.3 Customs (65)5. Trend of the Development of Chinglish (66)5.1 Inevitability of the development of Chinglish (66)5.2 Rationality of the development of Chinglish (66)6. Conclusion (68)Acknowledgements (69)References (70)1. IntroductionAs we know, English is the most widely spoken language in the world and has been a multinational, multicultural and multifunctional language. With more and more communication between Chinese and English speakers in the fields of business and education, English is playing an important role among Chinese and has become a necessary tool in today’s competitive world. However, with an impressive command of English vocabulary and good master of grammar as well as phonetics, which, to some extent, are beyond the native speakers’capacity, they are confronted with quite a few problems when they are talking or writing in English. Their gestures, either shrug or shake their heads, usually make the foreigners confused and at the same time make themselves trapped in an embarrassed situation. What has happened to the Chinese speakers? Why does the language they use sound alien to the foreigners? Retracing the cause, I find most of the Chinese learners’mistakes are not made due to their lack of grammar or vocabulary but due to an odd language they use, namely Chinglish, an excrescence of standard English, which is defined as a portmanteau of the two words Chinese and English and refers to spoken or written English which is influenced by Chinese. In order to make English learners convey their views more efficiently both in speech and writing, I attempt to illustrate the characteristics and causes of Chinglish in detail and predict the trend of the development of Chinglish so as to help people make proper use of Chinglish when they communicate with native speakers of English.2. What is ChinglishChinglish appears in many aspects. This thesis will especially focus on the Chinglish appearing in the writing and speech of college students. In order to let readers have a thorough comprehension of Chinglish, definitions of Chinglish will be a first important part to be studied. From the various definitions of Chinglish, we get to know what Chinglish really is. Of course, Chinglish can hardly be understood fully without being studied in connection with the characteristics of Chinglish. According to a variety of studies, I believe we will get a better understanding of the development trend of Chinglish.2.1 Definition of ChinglishIn early and mid-20th century, Chinglish was derogatorily called“pidgin”in Chinese. Pidgin English is another term for Chinglish: A simplified form of speech that is usually a mixture of two or more languages, has a rudimentary grammar and vocabulary, is used for communication between groups speaking different languages, and is not spoken as a first or native language (Definition from the American Heritage dictionary). Thus, expressions like “People mountain, people sea”are taken as “Pidgin English”. Pidgin English occurred when Chinese began to trade with the native speakers of English. In China, Chinglish has been profoundly discussed since 1980’s. It is Professor Ge Chuangui who first puts forward the difference between Chinglish and China English in 1980’s. He pointed out that some peculiar language, such as 科举（imperial examination）、五四运动（May Fourth Movement）can not be taken as Chinglish, but can be taken as China English [1]5.Many teachers and scholars home and abroad have noticed this language phenomenon and studies on Chinglish are scattered in books and articles in the field of English teaching and learning. Nevertheless, due to the unsystematic and unsteady nature of Chinglish, people do not always resonate a clear and unanimous voice on what Chinglish is and hereby present diverse and incomplete definitions from different angles in light with their ownunderstanding. The famous professor Pinkham defines it is a misshapen, hybrid language that is neither English nor Chinese but that might be described as “English with Chinese characteristics”[2]4; Deng Yanchang and Liu Runqing view it as speech or writing that shows the interference of Chinese [1]9. They believe Chinglish may be grammatically correct, but the choice of words or phrases and the manner of expression do not conform to Standard English usage. Although its understanding may not be a problem, Chinglish is unacceptable; Li Wenzhong considers it as abnormal or deformed English that is produced by Chinese English learners or users when they are influenced by Chinese language rules [1]9; He Mingzhu regards it as an awkward mixture in which ideas conceived in Chinese are ungrammatically or unidiomatically expressed in English[1]9; Li Guowen thinks Chinglish is misshapen English which is produced by Chinese learners who draw upon Chinese rules and structures mechanically as a result of mother tongue interference [1]9. From the above, we can conclude that the main cause of Chinglish is the interference of language learners’ mother tongue and their Chinese thinking.To sum up, Chinglish is defined differently by different scholars. It can be believed that to some extent, Chinglish has a very strong “Chinese flavor” in it. Chinglish is usually found in written form in which the choice of words or phrases and the manner of expression do not conform to standard English usage.2.2 Differences between Chinglish and China EnglishThe differences between Chinglish and China English have been a focus for a long time in the field of linguistics. Preliminary to the detailed discussion of Chinglish, it is necessary to draw a clear discrepancy between these two concepts.The concept of China English was first put forward by Ge Chuangui in the early 1980s [3]6. It has experienced three periods: the period of Pidgin English, the period of Chinese English (or Chinglish or Sinicized English), and the period of China English, which is the well-developed period. A Pidgin is a lingua franca that arises in order to facilitate communication between speakers of different languages who are in sustained contact with each other, e.g in trade or plantation situations (William, 1992:224). Although it is not anyone’s nativelanguage, a pidgin usually involves mixture or compromise between the native languages of its users. In comparison with these, it is restricted in social roles, and simplified or reduced in linguistic resources. As to China English, I think it is derived from Chinglish. Professor Ge said: “English is the language of th e English people. The other people who speak English should certainly follow the idiomatic ways of the English people. However, each nation has its own peculiarities. So far as China is concerned, there are some phenomena unique to Chinese political, economic, cultural and social fields that need to be expressed in written or oral English [4]8.”So, in his view, China English is created to translate or depict things and concepts typical of China. It exists objectively and contains four implications: China English is used only by Chinese people in China; China English takes normative English as its nucleus English and completely conform to international normative English grammar; China English has its own characteristics to carry forward China’s civilization; China English can realize the function of language communication. But the first implication doesn’t correspond to practice nowadays, because some words are used not only by Chinese people but also by western people [4]15. Chinglish is a kind of defective and arbitrary English. On the ground of influence of Chinese thinking and superficial understanding of words, Chinese English learners usually directly put Chinese meaning or usage into English, which easily leads to Chinglish. Furthermore, for lack of certain cultural background of English-speaking countries, English learners get into habit of applying English mechanically, especially in the translation of idioms. On these circumstances, Chinglish comes out naturally and causes misunderstanding among native speakers.Therefore, we can conclude that the main difference between China English and Chinglish lies in the communicative effect depending on the recognition of Normative English speakers. Say further, China English is better and widely accepted among communicators home and abroad, rather than Chinglish. However, I want to point out that the development of China English, to some extent, inevitably experiences the period of Chinglish.3. Characteristics of Chinglish3.1 Characteristics of pronunciationPronunciation of Chinglish influenced by Chinese is non-standard. It has a negative effect on fluent communication for English learners. Based on their mother tongue Pu Tong Hua, Chinese English learners easily make a mistake in voice substitution, mixture of allophone, confusion of voiced sound and voiceless sound and the like. Most of mistakes are produced owing to the limitation of the rules of Chinese pronunciation. Another cause is for lack of full understanding of English pronunciation. I explain these mistakes above in more detail.3.1.1 Voice substitutionV oice substitution means Chinese English learners always use some sounds of their mother language to replace some sounds of English. It is a common mistake and often creates ambiguity. For example, value [v ae lju] is replaced by [w ae lju], three[θri:] is replaced by [sri:], this[ðis] is replaced by [dis]. In addition, English learners replace the pronunciation “-er” in words, such as later, player, summer, with Chinese “儿”.3.1.2 Mixture of allophoneUnder the influence of the rules of Chinese pronunciation, many Chinese English learners believe each letter should conform to its own pronunciation. For example, speak [spi:k] is pronounced /spik/ in Chinese phonetic alphabet. They neglect allophones. In the same syllable, the pronunciations of /p,t,k/ in the front of /s/ are different from those when they are after /s/. Take / p/ for an example. There is a rule in English: if /p/ is after /s/, aspiration will not occur. In other cases, aspiration occurs. Accroding to the rule, speak should be pronounced [sp=i:k], span should be pronounced [sp=ae n].3.1.3 Confusion of voiced and voiceless soundsConfusion of voiced and voiceless sounds is another aspect of pronunciation of Chinglish. In the pronunciation of English, the letter “s” as a symbol of plural words, which is behind voiceless consonants, except [s, tʃ, ʃ], should be pronounced [s]. The letter “s”, which is behind vowels and voiced consonants, except [z, d] should be pronounced [z]. Chinese English learners always pronounce “s” as [s] no matter what letter is in the front of it.3.2 Characteristics of vocabularyThe characteristics of Chinglish are also reflected in vocabulary. According to the study of writing and translation from English major students and non-English major students, there are four types in the vocabulary of Chinglish, which is verbosity, catachresis, neglect of word order, and unsuitable match.3.2.1 VerbosityJoan Pinkham pointed out that there are unnecessary words appearing in the translation and writing, which do not conform to the need of the conciseness of an English sentence. Let’s look at this sentence:There have been good harvests in agriculture.Analysis: In English, harvests include the meaning of agriculture.Therefore, we can omit “in agriculture” to achieve conciseness.More examples come from students’ language use.1) We will share the information resources together(“Share”implies having something with somebody together, so “together” should be deleted.)2) My mother has gone to the shops to buy things.(The notion of “go to shop”implies buying things, so “to buy things”should be deleted.)3) Fish must stay in water. If they don’t, they die.(Repeated reference to the same thing is another type of verbosity in Chinglish. The notion of “if they don’t”can be replaced by “or”to compound the sentence.)3.2.2 CatachresisTo many English learners, catachresis is often seen in practice. The main reason to cause it is that English learners believe that there is absolute equivalence between Chinese and English. But in fact, there is not. Take some sentences as examples:1)Later, many people found that the beggars were using their sympathy.(“Use” is usually used to modify something concrete, while sympathyis an abstract noun. So “Sympathy”is suitable to be used with “playon”, instead of “use”. )2) Their hearts become cold and detached.(Cold usually modify one’s attitude or weather. “H eart” can be modified by “chill”.)3) Cut hundreds of buildings down(“Cut down” usually modifies “trees, price, and expense”. “Hundreds of buildings” shouldn’t be modified by “cut down”. We can say “Hundreds of buildings fall down”.)4) You shouldn’t change the law of nature.(“Change should be replaced by “violate”. “Change” means something is totally different from the original one. “Violate” means being against something. “Law of nature” is an objective law and cannot be changed or created. But it canbe violated.)3.2.3 Neglect of word orderIn the Chinese and the English languages, there are many expressions in which the component words are arranged in just the opposite order. The neglect of word order often gives rise to Chinglish. For example:1) Industry and agriculture ( Chinglish )Agriculture and industry ( Normative English )2) Clothing and food ( Chinglish )Food and clothing ( Normative English )3) Forth and back ( Chinglish )Back and forth ( Normative English )3.2.4 Unsuitable matchWord match has become one of the difficult points for Chinese learners of English, and commonly unsuitable match appears in Chinglish, for many English learners ignore the difference of word match between Chinese and English and translate English to Chinese or Chinese to English mechanically. For example, Chinese English learners would say “deep sleep”, “big rain”, “receive the telephone”, instead of “sound sleep”, “heavy rain”, “answer the telephone”. The following are the typical examples of the kind:We can learn a lot of knowledge by reading good books. ( acquire/obtain ) We want the newest information. ( the latest )The demand draws the particular concern of the public. ( arouses )3.3 Characteristics of grammar3.3.1 Confusion of articleConfusion of articles, including omission of articles and redundance of articles is a common mistake made by English learners. For example:1).我们每个人有一套桌椅。
2262019年07期总第447期ENGLISH ON CAMPUS互联网时代中式英语的成因及特点文/张晓霞被网友轻易喜爱。
通过网络的运用，网络化的中式英语逐渐得到广泛的传播。
3.模因的复制功能而产生。
模因论主要是将达尔文的进化论作为基础，对文化规律进行解释的一种理论。
其主要是指文化领域当中人与人之间互相模仿、散播而形成的一种思想或者注意，且在后代逐渐相传而留下来。
模因(meme)使用了和基因(gene)相似的发音，意思为由于相同基因而造成相似，因此，模因也被称作为文化基因。
模因通常被作为文化进行传递的单位，例如，观念、行为方式、语言等的传递，通常与生物进化当中的遗传复制相似，其不相同的是，基因主要是通过遗传进行繁殖，而模因主要是通过模仿进行传播。
例如，ungelivable该词的逐渐流传，网友还按照该词创造出更新、更类似的网络化的中式英语，如Vegeteal，niubility等。
例如，在2009年的时候，中国网民所发现的新型的流行词“躲猫猫”，其后来被收录在上海译文出版社新编的《汉英大词典》当中，并被翻译为“hide-and-seek”，后来，网民们又将“suicide”(自杀)和“hide”相结合形成新词“suihide”，且该词在网络上逐渐得到广泛传播。
2013年，微博上出现的“不作死不会死”，其在网络上被翻译为“no zuo no die”，且该词在2014的时候，被收录在“Urban Dictionary”的美国俗语和俚语网站中，因此，这也是中式英语产生以及实现广为流传的一项原因。
二、网络中式英语的特点1.评价性。
网络中式英语通常具有一定的评价意义，其将说话者对事物的的态度、描述和看法真实的反映出来。
网络当中所流行的中式英语通常有很多都与Niubility具有相似的构成方式，也就是派生发，派生法通常包括两种，一种为前缀，一种后缀，一般来说，前缀只能对词的意义进行改变，不会导致词类的变化；而后缀通常会改变词类，不会导致词义的变化，只是种态度。
中式英语的特点与演变中式英语的出现由来已久，但中式英语的研究仅有70年左右的历史，国内学者一般认为始于英语语言史专家Serjeantson的论著《英语中的外来词历史》(1935)。
随着中国国力日益强大，中外交流日趋频繁，大众传媒飞速发展，汉语对英语渗透的步伐不断加快，大量中式英语逐步为英语国家所理解和接受。
以英语原版图书为例，20世纪30年代Serjeantson 的《英语中的外来词历史》仅收录27个汉语借词，但时至80年代，英语正规词典及其他出版物中实际上涵盖厂1189个中式英语条目(Cannon 1988：4)。
有媒体最新透露，根据“全球语言监督”(Global Language Monitor)的统计，自1994年以来，中式英语对国际英语词汇的贡献为5％到20％，中文成为英语新词最大来源。
20世纪英语新词中外语借词约占5％(Ayto 2002：XIII)，可见中式英语的发展态势迅猛。
由于近年来中国政府汉语文化向世界推广的力度加大，孔子学院在世界各国纷纷建立，中式英语必然对英语发展产生更大的影响。
本文结合有关英语中汉语借词的两篇重要论文“Chinese Borrowings in English”和“英语词汇中汉语借词的来源”，探讨中式英语的特点及演变，希望有助于英语中外来词语的教学与研究。
一、定义由于英语已成为国际性的通用语言，世界各地都在使用，而且各有各的特点，不再是铁板一块，不少语言学家谈到英语，不再用English一词，而是用Englishes。
中式英语就是国际英语家族中的一个成员或变体，与印度英语、新加坡英语等处于同等地位。
“中式英语”在英语中一般叫Sinicized English或Chinglish。
本文所说的中式英语，不包括所有母语为汉语的人所用的英语，例如作为笑料的“好好学习，天天向上”的英语译文good good study，day day up，而主要指已不同程度地进入普通英语的汉语词汇，见于英语国家媒体或正式出版物的具有汉语特色的英语，或称英语中的汉语借词。
据英语专家估计，这样的汉语借词约有1000个，例如chow mein，ginseng，kung fu，taipan，typhoon等(McArthur 1998：119)。
二、“Chinese Borrowings in English”评介(一)基本内容“Chinese Borrowings in English”一文发表于1988年，作者Garland Cannon是英语中的汉语借词研究专家。
该文从7个方面讨论汉语借词：借词重复、借词出现的时间、借词标记及其在8部主要案头词典中的分布、借词的来源、借词的语义、借词的形式和语法、借词的分类。
借词重复在1189个汉语借词中，重复的占210个，该研究剔除了这些重复词语。
其中含Japan一词的有95个，另外115个与词典中的主要词条有拼写差异，如tea的异体词cha／chia／tay／tsia，ginseng的异体词genseg／ginseng／ginshang／ginsing，T’ai Chi的异体词T’ai Chi Ch’uan，Four Books的异体词Ssu Shu都从语料库中排除。
借词出现的时间tea和Japan两词生产能力最强。
tea出现于1598年，在含tea的复合词中出现最早的是teaspoon(1686)和tea table(1688)；Japan出现于1613年，其复合词出现最晚的是形容词Japlish(1970)。
其它他词语中，出现最早的有galingale(1000)，bonze，li，litchi，typhoon(1588)等。
在众多外语借词中，汉语借词数量排名第11。
借词标记及其在8部主要案头词典中的分布yen(“瘾”)等词标记为俚语，Jap标记为贬义，Japanee标记为幽默。
在语料库的979个词条中，出现在1部词典的有168个，101个见于2部词典，40个见于3部词典，18个见于4部词典，34个见于5部词典，27个见于6部词典，32个见于7部词典，45个见于8部词典。
累计收录在3部及3部上的词语有196个，占语料库的20％，这些词语属于通用国际英语。
借词的来源汉语借词主要来自广东话和普通话。
由于英国早期的贸易基地设在广东，所以许多早期借词源于或译自粤语。
该研究的语料库词条大部分来自北京话。
有些借词拼写既有广东话的，又有普通话的，两者相差很大，所以有些案头词典不得不两者兼收。
1986年版《牛津英语辞典》补编收录的46个汉语借词中，仍有8个存在拼写异体现象，如Tachai(Dazhai)，tan(dan)，Tao Kuang(Daoguang)。
另外，还有通过中介语如日语等辗转进入英语的汉语借词。
借词的语义英语中的汉语借词几乎清一色只有一个意义。
近年出现的30个借词中只有3个(chiao，Shih Tzu，the ch’i)有两个意义。
当然，进入英语几百年的借词可能产生附加义，例如，tea在1598年表示茶叶，1601年表示喝茶，1663年表示茶树，1738年表示茶点。
汉语借词中有大量专有名词，如地名、人名、民族名、宗教名、朝代名等。
这些借词可大别为19个语义范畴，按数量多少依次为：饮食(含有关器具)、动植物、地理、艺术、宗教哲学、政府政治、民族学、身份职业、度量单位及货币、语言书写、朝代、服装、娱乐、协会、武术、药物、经济、地质、颜色及其他。
借词的形式和语法语料库中名词占83％，形容词占15％，动词仅占1.9％。
可数名词的复数大多是不规则的或零复数。
对借词的形成的分析是一个棘手问题。
979个条目中知道出现时间的只有552个，其中有些还不够准确。
这样就很难说，同一条目存在两种词性的，究竟一个是另一个经过功能变化而来的，还是两者大致同时借入。
语料库中的借词大部分是音译词，只有49个意译词，如barefoot doctor，dragon’s eyes，Gang of Four，Middle Kingdom，paper tiger,running dog，Son of Heaven，winter melon等。
个别词既有音译又有意译，如san-anti-Sanfan，wallposter-dazibao。
借词的分类英语中的汉语借词可分为3类。
第一类是保留形式和意义，这些都是经过音译而来的借词。
第二类是保留形式而有所添加，如Canton ginger。
第三类是翻译而来的，如drunken shrimp，long march，Warring States等。
该节特别强调本文所谓的借词必须是在归化前直接或间接来自另一种语言，如果只是表达外语中的某种意义，这样的词不能算借词。
没有源词(etymon)的不叫借词，如Red China(Communist China的同义词语)和Little Red Book(指Quotations from Chairman MaoTse-tung)。
根据这种三分法，Cannon甚至认为silk一类的词不能称为借词(1inguisticborrowing)，但不妨称之为借意(meaning borrowing)。
文章结尾说，有研究表明，对汉语蜻蜓点水或只字不提的英语史是有遗漏的，需要修正。
就对英语新词的贡献而言，日语和西班牙语是第二大来源，汉语位居第11。
(二)简评Cannon对英语中汉语的借词所作的分析，主要依据8部英语案头词典，对借词的形式、意义、来源、分类等进行了细致的阐述，其深度和广度至今鲜有出其右者。
但该文也有明显的缺点，通篇都是静态的描写，对汉语借词的功能和语用不置一词，这不能不说是一大憾事。
另外，文章对汉语借词发展估计不足，说什么汉语对英语新词的贡献不及日语，短期内不能与后者抗衡，这种预言已被事实所粉碎。
正如开篇所说，汉语现已成为英语新词最大的来源。
三、“英语词汇中汉语借词的来源”评介(一)基本内容该文由汪榕培和常骏跃合写，2001年发表。
第一作者汪榕培是我国著名词汇学研究专家，出版了《英语词汇学教程》(1997)和《英语词汇学研究》(2000)等有影响的词汇学著作。
该文开篇对国内外英语中的汉语借词研究作了简要综述，正文从三个方面论述了汉语借词问题：汉语词汇进人英语的历史回顾；汉语词汇进入英语的途径；汉语词汇被英语吸收同化的进程。
汉语词汇进入英语的历史回顾首先谈到最早(888年)进入英语的silk 一词，这反映了中国丝绸文化对西方的影响。
该词具有很强的构词能力，其衍生词和复合词多达65个。
然后谈到与“中国”和瓷器相关的几个词，包括china，China和Sino。
其中Sino是从中国第一个封建王朝“秦”演变而来，首先进入阿拉伯语，后经希腊语、拉丁语、法语而传人英语，是一个比较活跃的构词成分。
另外还重点谈到tea的产生和发展。
Morrison来华传教、鸦片战争及以后的多次社会变革都在英语中得到反映，产生了新的汉语借词。
新中国成立以来，进入英语的汉语借词明显增加，到20世纪末更为显著。
不少汉语借词活跃在大众传媒，有些还被英语国家词典收录。
“这一时期的借词在语义上更加多样化，拼写逐渐趋向统一，但是一时流行的政治术语偏多，”如Gang of Four，Four Modernizations，reform and opening up tothe outside world，One country with two systems等。
汉语词汇进入英语的途径主要有4种途径：贸易、传媒、英汉双语地区的存在以及交通通讯。
特别是国内外英语报刊、电台、电视台，如《中国日报》、《北京周报》、TIME、中央电视台英语频道等促进了中式英语的传播与发展。
该节末了谈到四种借词现象：狭义的借词(既借形又借义，语音稍有变化)及三种广义借词混合借词、转移借词(借义)、翻译借词。
汉语词汇被英语吸收同化的进程该文提出汉语借词的同化进程可分为四个阶段：渗透阶段、初步同化阶段、相当同化阶段、完全同化阶段。
相应地，根据其同化程度的差异，汉语借词可分为四级，一级借词如guanxi 具有明显的外来语形式，而四级借词如china则与普通英语词汇无异。
从英语权威词典收录的情况看，一级借词一般只被一两部词典录入，二级一般被三四部词典录入，三级被五至七部词典收录，四级则见于8部词典。
(二)简评“英语词汇中汉语借词的来源”对英语中汉语的借词所作的分析糅合宏观与微观，历史与现实兼顾，趣味性与科学性兼得，涉及语形、语音、语义、语用各方面，堪称英语中汉语借词研究的一篇力作，体现了作者深厚的词汇学研究功底。
有些观点发人深省，如说汉语借词的发展是一个“动态过程”，不光要研究借词的语音、语义、语法特征，“更重要的是从语言学、社会语言学的角度对借用中的问题进行分析和归纳，从而揭示语言借用现象的一般规律”，阐述了借词现象的辩证性，为借词研究提出了更高的目标，指明了新的方向。
