语用学笔记

第6章语用学
6.1 复习笔记【知识框架】
【考点归纳】
考点一：语用和语用学
1．语言运用（语用）
语言运用是指交际双方在一定场合，为着一定目的，以某种方式进行的话语表达和话语理解的活动。

表6-1 语言运用（语用）
2．语用学
（1）语用学的兴起
表6-2 语用学的兴起
（2）语用学的任务
表6-3 语用学的任务
（3）语用学与相关学科
表6-4 语用学与相关学科
考点二：语言环境
1．含义
语言环境（context）简称语境。

语境是语用研究中的一个核心概念。

语境有狭义和广义之分。

表6-5 语言环境的含义
2．语境的构成
语境是由影响言语交际的各种相关因素构成的，主要包括语言内部的上下文语境和语言外部的情景语境、背景语境。

表6-6 语境的构成
3．语境的功能
语境的功能指语境对意义的表达和理解所产生的影响，语境并不是独立地发挥功能，而是参与、协助话语的表达和理解。

可以分别从话语的表达和话语的理解两个角度考察语境的功能。

表6-7 语境的功能
考点三：语用原则
1．合作原则
表6-8 合作原则。

一、名词解释1、Psychological distance: it may be that the truly pragmatic basis of special deixis is actually psychological. Physically close objects will tend to be treated by the speaker as psychologically close. Also ,sth that is physically distant will generally be treated as psychologically distant.2、Reference: reference is an act in which a speaker, or writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a listener, or reader, to identify something.3、inference: Inference is the act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true.4、Presupposition: a presupposition is something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance, speakers, not sentences, have presupposition.5、Entailment: an entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance, sentences, not speakers, have entailments.6、Face,: face means the public self-image of a person. It refers that emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize.7、Politeness: in an interaction, can then be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person's face.二、简答题1、what's pragmatics ? T ypes of it.P r agmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker( or writer) and interpreted by a listener{or reader}①pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning.②pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning.③pragmatics is the study of how more gets it communicated than is said.④pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distance.2、what's deixis ?Deixis is a technical term( from Greek) for one of the most basic things we do with utterance. It means 'pointing' via language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this 'pointing' is called a deictic expression. Deictic expressions are also sometimes called indexicals. They are among the first forms to be broken by very young children and can be used to indicate people via person deixis( me, you), or location via spatial deixis( here, there), or time via temporal deixis( now, then).3、T ypes of presupposition.①The existential presupposition is not only assumed to be present in possessive construction ( for example, ' your car '>> 'you have a car)②The presupposed information following a verb like ' know ' can be treated as a fact, and is described as a factive presupposition, such as …realize‟ and …regret‟..③General speaking, in lexical presupposition, the use of one form with its asserted meaning is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another ( non-asserted ) meaning is understood, such as …stop‟, …star‟, and…again‟.④In addition to presupposition which are associated with the use of certain words and phrases, there are also structural presupposition. ( for example, when did he leave? >> he left. / where did you buy the bike ? >> you bought the bike. )⑤A non-factive presupposition is one that is assumed not to be true. ( example, I dreamed that I was rich.>> I was not rich/ we imagined we were in Hawaii.>>we were not in Hawaii. / hepretends to be ill.>>he is not ill. )⑥At end of the discussion of deixis, a structure that is interpreted with a non-factivepresupposition. Indeed, this type of structure creates a counter-factual presupposition, meaning that what is presupposed is not only true, but is the opposite of what is true, or ' contrary ' to ' facts'.( example, if you were my friend, you would have helped me.>>you are not my friend.)4.Cooperation and implicature.The cooperative principle: Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at stage it which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.①Quantity,i.Make your contribution as informative as is required ( for the current purposes of theexchange).b)Do you make your contribution more informative than is required.②Quality. Try to make your contribution one that is true.a)Do not say what what you believe to be false.b)Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.③Relation. Be relevant.④Manner. Be perspicuous.a)A void obscurity of expression.b)A void ambiguity.c)Be brief( avoid unnecessary prolixity).d)Be orderly.Properties of conversational implicatures1.Conversational implicatures are deniable. They can be explicitly denied(or alternatively,reinforced) in different ways.2.Implicatures can be calculated by the listeners via inference. In terms of their definingproperties, then, conversational implicatures can be calculated, suspended, cancelled, and reinforced.Speech actThe action performed by producing an utterance will consist of three related acts.1.Locutionary act, which is the basic act of utterance, or producing a meaningful linguisticexpression,2.The illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance.3.Depending on the circumstances, you will utter on the assumption that the hearer willrecognize the effect you intended. This is also generally known as the perlocutionary effect.Positive and negative politenessA positive politeness atrategy leads the requester to appeal to a common goal, and even friendship,via expressions such as those in the following example(a. how about letting me use your pen? b.hey, buddy, I‟d appreciate it if you‟d let me use your pen.)However, in most English-speaking contexts, a face saving act is more commonly performed via a negative politeness strategy. For example(a. could you lend me a pen? B. I‟m sorry to bother you, but can I ask you for a pen or something? C. I know you are busy, but might I ask you if-em-if you happen to have an extra pen that I could,you know-eh-maybe borrow?)三、论述题1. Speech act classification.①Declaration are those kinds of speech acts that change the world via their utterance. ( example. Priest: I now pronounce your husband and wife./ Referee: you're out. / Jury Foreman: we find the defendant guilty.)In using a declaration, the speaker changes the world via words.②Representatives are those kind of speech acts that state what the speaker believes to be the case or not. ( example. The earth is flat. / Chomsky didn't write about peanuts. / it was a warm sunny day.)In using representative, the speaker makes the words fit the world( of belief)③Expressive are those kind of speech acts that state what the speaker feels. ( example. I'm really sorry. / congratulations / Oh, yes, great, mmmm, ssahh. )In using an expression, the speaker makes words fit the world( of feeling).④Directives are those kinds of speech that speakers use to get someone else to do something. (example. Gimme a cup of coffee. Make it black. / could you lend me a pen, please?/ don't touch that.In using a directive, the speaker attempts to make the world fit the words( via the hearer).⑤Commissives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to commit themselves to some future action. ( I'll be back/ I'm going to get it right next time/ we will not do that. ) In using a commissive, the speaker undertakes to make the world fit the words (via the speaker)These five general functions of speech acts, with there key features, are summarized in Table 6. I.The role of co-text1.The co-text clearly limits the range of possible interpretations we might have for a word like“Brazil”. It is consequently misleading to think of reference being understood solely in terms of our ability to identity referents via the referring expression. The referring expression actually provides a range of reference, that is, a number of possible referents.2.Of course, co-text is just a linguistic part of the environment in which a referring expression Iused. The physical environment, or context, is perhaps more easily recognized as having a powerful impact on how referring expressions are to be interpreted.3.Reference are depends on local context and the local knowledge of the participants. It maycrucially depend on familiarity with the local socio-cultural conventions as the basis for inference (for example, if a person is in a hospital with an illness, then he or she can be identified by nurses via the name of illness). These conventions may differ substantially from one social group to another and may be marked differently from one language to another.Reference, then, is not simply a relationship between the meaning of a word or phrase and an object or person in the world. It is a social act, in which the speaker assumes that the word or phrase chosen to identify an object or person will be interpreted as the speaker intend.。

The Use of English8.1 Pragmatic Approach to Language8.1.1Pragmatics（语用学）It is the study of meaning in use. meaning in context. speaker meaning. contextual meaning.Pragmatics studies communication (utterance production and comprehension) from a functional (i.e. social, cultural, cognitive) perspective.8.1.2 Semantics(语义学) V.S PragmaticsSemanticism: semantics includes pragmaticsPragmaticism: pragmatics includes semanticsComplementarism: semantics studies meaning in the abstract; pragmatics studies meaning in the context/use.8.2 Deictic Expressions （指示语）8.2.1DeixisDeixis: (from Greek) anchoring, pointing (toward the context) phenomenon.The linguistic means used in this function are known as deictics, indexicals ( or indexical / deictic expressions).Examples: pronouns, demonstratives, time and place adverbs, and some grammatical categories such as tense.8.2.2 Characteristics in useThe egocentricity of deixisDeictic expressions are anchored to specific points in the communicative event. The unmarked points, called the deictic center, are typically assumed to be as follows (S. Levinson: Pragmatics): I love this game!1) the central person is the speaker2) the central time is the time at which the speaker produces the utterance3) the central place is the speaker’s location at utterance time4) the discourse center is the point which the speaker is currently at in the production of his utterance5) the social center is the speaker’s social status and rank, to which the status or rank of addressees or referents is relative.8.2.3 Deictic VS. Non-deicticDeictic: gestural/symbolicYou, you, but not you, are dismissed. (gestural)What did you say? (Symbolic)Non-deictic: anaphoric /non-anaphoricJack is a student. He comes from Britain.You can never tell what sex they are nowadays.There you go again./There we go.I did this and that.8.2.4 Classification of deicticPerson deixisPlace deixisTime deixisSocial deixisDiscourse deixis8.3 Speech Act TheorySaying is acting. (John Austin, How to Do Things with Words, 1962)“Speech acts” refer to actions performed via utterances.Speech acts are “the basic or minimal units of linguistic communication”.8.3.1 Constatives (表述句）and performatives （施为句）a. There is a book on the desk.b. I promise I’ll be there ten sharp tomorrow.hereby-test: first person singular subject, simple present tense, indicative mood, active voice, performative verbs (with exceptions, though)8.3.3 Collapse of Performative Hypothesisa. Not all performative utterances require a performative verb;b. An utterance with a performative verb may not be the type of act suggested by the verb;8.3.4 felicity conditions （适切条件）a. Essential condition （基本条件）b. Preparatory condition (预备条件）c. Propositional content condition （命题内容条件）d. Sincerity condition （真诚条件）Felicity conditions for a promise:1) The speaker can do what is promised; (基本）2）The promised act has not taken place yet; (预备）3）The utterance is about a future act; The promised act is to the benefit of the hearer; The promised act will be fulfilled by the speaker;（命题内容）4) The speaker means what he says. （真诚）etc.Searle’s classification of illocutionary actsRepresentatives/assertives（阐述类）describe, inform, deny, state, claim, assert, remind, etc.Directives （指令类）:request, ask, urge, tell, demand, order, advise, command, beseech, etc.Commissives （承诺类）:commit, promise, threaten, pledge, consent, refuse, offer, guarantee, etc.Expressives （表达类）:apologize, boast, thank, deplore, welcome, congratulate, greet, etc.Declarations （宣告类）:declare, resign, appoint, nominate, bless, christen, name, etc.8.4 Presupposition8.4.1Presupposition and entailment8.4.2Presupposition triggers: linguistics device that make inference possible.9.1 Cooperation in using English9.1.1Cooperative PrincipleMake your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.H. P. Grice, Logic and Conversation, 19759.1.2Maxims of the principleQuality: Be truthful.a. Do not say what you believe to be false.b. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.Quantity: Be informative.a. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purposes of the exchange)b. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.Relation: Be relevant.Make sure that whatever you say is relevant to the conversation at hand.Manner: Be perspicuous (明晰).a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief(avoid unnecessary prolixity)d. Be orderly.9.1.3 ImplicatureIt is a kind of extra meaning that is not contained in the utterance. When any of the maxims is blatantly(公然地) violated and the hearer knows that it is being violated, a particular conversational implicature arises.9.1.4 Some properties of conversational implicatureA. It can be cancelled, either by an explicit declaration that the speaker is opting out or, implicitly, by the co-text and context.(cancellability可取消性)B. It can be inferred (calculability可推导性)Ways to calculate an implicature:a.The conventional meaning of the words used, and the references of referring expressions;b.the cooperative principle and its maxims;c.the co-text and context;d.background knowledge;e.the supposition that all participants suppose that all relevant items falling under(1)-(4) are available to them all.1 Since I have good reason to believe that she has information about X’s writing skills, the speaker has deliberately failed to observe (flouted) the maxim “Be informative”2 But I have no reason to believe that she has really opted out of the cooperativeprinciple. So, she is only being apparently uninformative.3 If I draw the inference that X hasn’t got very good writing skills, then the speaker is being cooperative. She knows that I am capable of working this out.4 Therefore, she has implied (or “implicated”to use Grice’s term) that the student’s writing skills are not very good.C.It may be indeterminate:in many cases,the list of possible implicatures of an utterance is open.(indeterminacy不确定性)D.Non-detachability [given the same proposition]9.2 Politeness in using English9.2.1Leech’s Politeness PrincipleMinimize (other things being equal) the expression of impolite beliefs andMaximize (other things being equal) the expression of polite beliefs.9.2.2The 6 maxims of Leech’s PPTact MaximMinimize cost to otherMaximize benefit to otherGenerosity MaximMinimize benefit to selfMaximize cost to selfApprobation MaximMinimize dispraise of otherMaximize praise of otherMaxim of modestyMinimize praise of selfMaximize dispraise of selfAgreement MaximMinimize disagreement between self and otherMaximize agreement between self and otherSympathy MaximMinimize antipathy between self and otherMaximize sympathy between self and other9.2.3Politeness scale:DirectnessCost - benefit9.3 Face considerations in using EnglishFace, the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself, consisting in two related aspects:Negative face and positive faceAccording to Brown and Levinson (1978/1987)Negative face: the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distractioni.e. to the freedom of action and freedom from imposition.Positive face: the positive consistent self-image or ‘personality’(crucially includingthe desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants.9.4 Developing pragmatic competenceThe Varieties of English10.1 Interrelation between language and societyIndications of interralation/relatedness between language and societyAn obvious indication of the inter-relationship between language and society is the fact that language is not always used to exchange information as is generally assumed, but rather it is sometimes used to fulfil an important social function--- to maintain social relationship between people.Another indication is that users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in partdetermined by his social background. When we speak we cannot avoid giving our listeners clues about our origin and our background.Chomsky (cognitive approach, ideal speaker) vs. Saussure (social semiotic approach)Any use of language is socially marked/stamped.As society changes, language will change. Language reflects society, as shown by the lexicon of "snow", "camel".Whereas English, for example, has only one word for snow ( or two if we include sleet), Eskimo has several. The reasons for this are obvious. It is essential for Eskimos to be able to distinguish efficiently between different types of snow.English, of course, is quite able to make the same distinctions: fine snow, dry snow, soft snow, and so on, but in Eskimos this sort of distinction is lexicalized---made by means of individual words.10.1.2 Approaches to the study of the interrelationMacro-sociolinguistics: a bird's-eye view: how language functions in society and how language reflects the social differentiations. [sociology of language] Micro-sociolinguistics: a worm's-eye view: how language functions in the communication between members of the society. [sociolinguistics]It is an obvious fact that people who claim to be users of the same language do not speak the language in the same manner. For example all the English –speaking people do not speak the same type of English. And the language used by the same individual varies as circumstances vary.10.2 Regional dialects of English10.2.1 Language and dialectLanguage: writing system; may include several dialects; often politically defined Dialect: [traditionally only variation with space, but now with the space, the temporal factor and social factors] usu. spoken; often part of a language; not distinct enough from other dialects of the same language to be treated as an independent language; often marked by geographical or social barriers; restricted purposesChinese vs. CantoneseRegional dialect often coincides with geographical barriers, like mountains, rivers, etc. [accent]Transition from one dialect to another is gradual rather than abrupt. Two neighboring dialects are often intelligible.10.2.2 Temporal dialectLanguage is also determined by the time we live in. [temporal distance] Old English; Middle English; Modern English [diachronic/historical linguistics vs.synchronic linguistics]10.3 Social dialects of English10.3.1Social dialect (also social-class dialect, sociolect, class dialect) [social distance] arises from the separation brought about different social conditions. It refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.10.3.2 Social factorsSocial factors that are believed to influence our language behavior: class, gender, age, ethnic identity, education background, occupation, and religious belief.10.4 Register theory10.4.1Field of discourse: related to what is going on, the purpose and the subject matter of communication; answers the questions of why and about what communication takes place.Technical: linguistic lectures, specialist communication [vocabulary]Non-technical: shopping, chatting10.4.2Tenor of discourse: answers the question of to whom the speaker is communicating, determines the level of formality of language use.10.4.3Mode of discourse: answers the question of how communication takes place ; spoken or written; spontaneous or non-spontaneous.11.1 Speech communitySpeech Community is a concept in sociolinguistics, it is a group of speakers who share the same regularities of language use, and have the same language attitude toward communitiy language variation.Virtual SC, migrant worker SC, urban SC, rural SC, international student SC, etc. Five elements of a SC: population, region, public facilities, interaction, identity.11.2 Pidgin and CreolePidgins(洋泾浜) are mixed or blended languages used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.Chinese-English pidgin: limited vocabulary and reduced grammar.1)Phonetics: [l]→[r] room-loom right-light2) the word side was widely used to signify space, top-side=above, bottom-side=below, farside=beyond, allo-side=around, what-tim=when nother tim=again3) basic words origin from English: chin-chindie-lo, buy-lo, pay-lo, wailo, numpa one,plopa=proper, you belong to plopa? = Are you well?When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their mother tongue, it is said to be a Creole(混合语).The original pidgin is expanded in terms of its grammar and vocabulary. English-based Creole of Jamaica and the French-based Creole of Haiti.11.3 Bilingualism and DiglossiaBilingualism（双语）: two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; language switching/code switching occurs when the situation changes. It is often a result of immigration.Diglossia（双言）: two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play. [Ferguson in 1959]11.4 Code Mixing and Code SwitchingCode switching: Weinreich (1953)Intersentence code-switchingIntrasentential code-switchingTag code-switchingCS has its social values and communicative aims.日期： 6 月30 日（星期四）我喜爱的书是：《假如给我三天光明》喜爱的原因：海伦·凯勒那坚强不屈的意志深深地感染了我。

语用学何伟彭漪教程五单元知识点(一)语用学何伟彭漪教程五单元知识点整理一、什么是语用学？•语用学是研究语言使用的学科领域•研究语言在特定情境中的使用规则和意义•强调语言与上下文的关系，关注交际意义和信息传递二、语用学的基本概念•语用学三要素：说话人、听话人、语言材料•言外之意：言外之意是指在语言表达中，不直接表达的内容•语绩：语用言外之意的实现效果，即言外之意被听话人所理解的程度•语用推理：根据上下文和常识推断出的言外之意三、话语行为理论•话语行为理论：对话语的言外之意进行分析的理论•类型话语行为：常见的类型话语行为有陈述、命令、请求、劝说等•言外之意与行为意图：言外之意是指话语背后所表达的更深层的意图，与说话人的行为意图相关四、言外之意的推理•含蓄和虚化：通过不直接陈述言外之意，而采用隐喻、暗示等表达方式•猜测与推断：根据对话语上下文和背景知识的推理，获取言外之意•领域知识与语境：对言外之意推理的重要依据是对话语所在领域或语境的了解五、言外之意的跨文化差异•礼貌与文化：不同文化对待言外之意的态度和表达方式存在差异•跨文化误读和理解：言外之意容易受到说话人和听话人文化背景的影响而产生误读•适应和理解：在跨文化交际中，要尽量适应对方的文化习惯，提高对言外之意的理解能力以上是对语用学何伟彭漪教程五单元相关知识的整理和详解。

语用学作为研究语言使用的学科，强调语言与上下文的关系，关注交际意义和信息传递。

在语用学中，关注的重点包括言外之意、话语行为理论、言外之意的推理以及跨文化差异等内容。

通过深入了解这些知识点，我们可以更好地理解语言的使用规则和意义，提高交际能力和理解能力。

六、言语行为和联邦关系•言语行为与社会关系：言语行为不仅仅是交流信息，还与社会关系密切相关•礼貌和尊重：通过适当的言语行为表达对他人的尊重和礼貌•冲突和解决：言语行为中可能存在冲突，需要通过有效的沟通和解决来维护关系七、言语行为和权力关系•权力和影响：通过言语行为可以表达权力和影响力•政治正确和语言权力：言语行为中的政治正确与权力关系相互影响•欺骗和操控：言语行为可以用于欺骗和操控他人，需要警惕和辨别八、言语行为和媒体•媒体言语行为：媒体中的言语行为对舆论和观点形成有很大影响•公众舆论和倾向性报道：媒体的言语行为对公众舆论的形成和倾向性报道有一定影响•网络言语行为：网络中的言语行为对信息传播和社会互动具有重要影响九、言语行为和社会变革•言语行为与社会变革：言语行为反映了社会变革的需求和愿望•言语行为的积极作用：言语行为可以推动社会变革和进步•反思和批判：言语行为也需要被反思和批判，警惕不良影响和言语暴力这些知识点涉及到言外之意的推理、跨文化差异、言语行为与社会关系、权力关系、媒体和社会变革等方面，对于我们更深入地了解语用学及其在实际生活中的应用具有重要意义。

Chapter 8 Language in Use1. 语义学与语用学的区别1.1 语用学（Pragmatics）Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.（语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。

）1.2 区别Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.（语用学主要研究在特定的语境中说话人所想要表达的意义，语义学研究的句子的字面意义，通常不考虑语境。

）2. 合作原则及其准则（Herbert Paul Grice）2.1. 合作原则(Cooperative Principle)说话人经常在话语中传达着比话语表层更多的信息，听话人也能够明白说话人所要表达的意思。

格莱斯认为一定存在一些管理这些话语产生和理解的机制。

他把这种机制称作合作原则。

2.2. 准则(maxims)数量准则(quantity)①使你的话语如（交谈的当前目的）所要求的那样信息充分。

②不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。

质量准则(quality)设法使你的话语真实①不要讲明知是虚假的话②不要说没证据的话关系准则(relation)所谈内容要密切相关方式准则(manner)要清晰。

①避免含糊不清②避免歧义③要简练（避免冗长）④要有序3. 言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）---John Austin3.1. 施为句&叙事句(Performatives & Constatives)施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证真假；叙事句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证真假。

语用学概论知识点总结语用学是语言学的一个重要分支领域，研究语言在特定语境中的使用和理解。

语用学主要关注语言的交际功能，研究语言的使用方式、用语者的意图和言语行为等方面。

在日常生活中，语言的使用涉及到很多细节和差异，语用学的研究可以帮助我们更好地理解和运用语言。

一、语用学的基本概念1. 语言的交际功能语言不仅仅是一种工具，它更是人们进行交际的重要方式。

语用学研究的重点就是语言在交际过程中的使用和理解。

2. 语用言语行为语用言语行为是指用语者在言语行为中所包含的具体交际目的和意图。

通过语用学研究，可以揭示用语者的意图，帮助我们更好地理解言语行为。

3. 语境的重要性语用学强调语境对语言使用和理解的重要性。

语境包括语境的环境、参与者的身份、前后文的内容等多个方面，对语言的使用产生着重要影响。

4. 言外之意言外之意是指言语中不直接表达的含义和信息，它可能依赖于语境、用语者的意图等多种因素。

二、语用学的研究内容1. 语用能力语用能力是指语用者在语言交际中的能力，包括语言的适应能力、交际策略的运用等方面。

语用能力的高低直接关系到语言交际的效果和质量。

2. 言语行为的分类言语行为可以根据其所包含的交际目的和意图而分类，如陈述、疑问、命令、祝愿等。

3. 言语行为与语用规则语用规则是指语言交际中的一些约定俗成的规则，如礼貌用语、语用禁忌等。

语用规则对交际的顺利进行起着重要的作用。

4. 言语行为的承受能力言语行为的承受能力是指用语者对言语行为的接受程度和态度。

不同的文化和人群对于言语行为的承受能力可能有所不同。

三、语用学的相关理论1. 言语行为理论言语行为理论是语用学中的一个重要理论，强调言语行为的目的和意图，将言语行为看作是一种特殊的行为活动。

2. 言语行为的演化理论言语行为的演化理论是指言语行为的发展和演变过程。

语言交际在不同历史时期和文化环境中有着不同的使用方式和规则，言语行为的演化理论可以帮助我们更好地理解这种规律。

语言学语用学知识点1. 概述语言学是研究语言的科学，而语用学是语言学的一个分支领域，关注语言在社会交际中的使用和理解。

本文将介绍语言学语用学的主要知识点，包括交际意图、言辞行为、场景适应、语用推理和言语间关系等。

2. 交际意图交际意图是指说话人使用语言表达时的意图和目的。

在语用学中，我们常常会分析说话人的交际意图，以理解他们使用特定语言表达的含义和目的。

交际意图可以通过直接问句、反话、暗示等方式来实现。

通过研究交际意图，我们能够更好地理解语言在社会交际中的功能和作用。

3. 言辞行为言辞行为是指说话人通过语言所实现的特定行为。

根据语用学的观点，说话人的语言使用不仅仅是传递信息，还包含着言辞行为。

例如，当我们说“请帮我关一下窗户”时，实际上是在表达一个请求行为。

言辞行为可以分为直陈陈述、承诺、威胁、命令等不同类型。

4. 场景适应场景适应是指说话人根据语境和交际环境来选择合适的语言表达方式。

语境包括时间、地点、参与者身份等因素，而交际环境则涉及到社会文化和情境。

在语言交际中，我们需要根据具体的场景适应自己的语言选择和表达方式，以确保对方能够准确理解我们的意思。

5. 语用推理语用推理是指我们通过语境和常识对言语进行的推理和理解。

在语用学中，我们意识到语言表达的含义不仅仅取决于字面意思，还需要通过推理来理解隐含的意思。

通过语用推理，我们能够更好地解读他人的言辞，准确理解对方的意图和目的。

6. 言语间关系言语间关系是指多个句子或言语之间的关联和衔接。

在交际过程中，说话人通常会使用多个句子或言语来表达连续的思想和意思。

通过理解这些句子或言语之间的关系，我们可以更好地理解对方的观点和意图。

言语间关系包括因果关系、对比关系、条件关系等。

结语通过学习语言学语用学的知识点，我们能够更好地理解语言的使用和理解。

掌握语用学的理论和方法，可以帮助我们更准确地理解他人的意思，有效地进行社会交际。

希望本文能够为读者提供有关语言学语用学的基础知识，并对相关研究领域产生兴趣。

语用学定义语境理论指示语理论、预设理论会话含义理论（合作原则、新格莱斯会话含义理论、言语行为理论（起源、经典理论、间接言语行为理论）、语用与文化、礼貌原则（含脸-面理论），并能运用这些理论来分析话语和会话。

★What is pragmatics?Pragmatics, a new subfield of linguistics, deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation。

To be more specific, pragmatics is concerned with the following areas:⏹Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning.⏹Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning.⏹Pragmatics is the study of how more gets communicated than is said.e.g. ：It’s hot in here. (please open the door/air-conditioner)⏹Is this your pen ? (can I borrow your pen?/ pick it up (request)⏹Tom had a chicken.(ate/ possessed/owned)⏹ A boy says to a girl “你不戴眼镜的时候很漂亮”，and the girl immediately responds “我戴眼镜的时候一定很丑了”.--- When we study language, we should pay attention to people, society, not language itself only.)★Context◆Example:I’ve got a flat tyre.In a garage, this might be taken to mean that I need help; or addressed to a friend with a car, that I need a lift; or as a response to a request for a lift from a friend without a car, that I cannot give him/her a lift.◆Types of context: linguistic context/co-text; situational context; social/cultural contextLinguistic context(上下文/言语语境) : It refers to specific parts of an utterance (or text) near or adjacent to a unit which is the focus of attention.e.g. bank1. used in a sentence together with words like steep or overgrown2. hear somebody say that she has to get to the bank to cash a checkSituational Context/physical context(情景语境)e.g. bankIf you see the word BANK on the wall of a building in a city, the “physical” location wil l influence your interpretation.→M.A.K Halliday’s theory of context of situation⏹Field(语场): what the language is being used to talk about;⏹tenor(超语言的，extra linguistic): the role relationships between the participants;⏹mode: the role language is playing in the interactionSocial/ cultural Context(约定俗成)e.g. A Fairy Tale⏹打招呼：英语（HOW ARE YOU？）汉语（你吃了吗？）★Deixis（指示语理论）Deixis is a technical term which means “pointing” via language.The meaning of deictic expressions cannot be captured by truth-conditional semantics, and their interpretation must depend on analysis of the context of utterance in which they occur.Main Points⏹D eixis directly concerns the relationship between the structure of language and the context in whichit is used.⏹Deictic expressions（指示/别语）or simply deictics refer to certain aspects of their context ofutterances, including the role of participants in the speech event and their spatio-temporal（空间-时间）and social location.⏹Five classes of deixis are presently recognized, namely person deixis（人称指示）, place deixis, timedeixis, discourse deixis and social deixis.Two uses of deictics：⏹Gestural usesThe use of deictics together with paralinguistic（副语言特征，除语言以外的，non-verbal linguistic）features is called the gestural use.(e.g.: eye contact)e.g.He’s not the president. He is. He’s the secretary.Put the piano here. No, not here, but here.⏹Symbolic usesThe use of deictics without paralinguistic features is called the symbolic use.e.g.This city is highly congested.We can’t afford a holiday abroad this year.(exophoric reference)Types of deixis→Person deixis⏹Personal pronounsUnmarked(无标记的，standard, normal, basic) uses vs. marked uses（特殊用法）⏹Vocatives(称呼语)e.g. “ Do you understand?” ---(You : listener/ hearer; also some other people.)“你看电视好好的,他却把电视给关了”---这里的你,指说话人.“我们年青人应该多学点知识”--- 老师讲给学生,我们指的是你们.→Time deixis⏹Time adverbials: now, then, today, in three minutes , two days ago, etc.⏹Units of time: morning, week, month, etc.⏹Tense:⏹Note: calendar-time expressions (e.g. May 6,1987)are not considered deictic.→Place deixis⏹Here, there⏹This , that⏹Come , go; bring, take→Discourse（话语/语篇）deixis⏹This , that⏹But, therefore, in conclusion, to the contrary, besides, etc.⏹The last paragraph , the next sentence, the following section, the previous words, etc.→Social deixis⏹Social deixis is the use of deictic terms for indicating social status of the participants in a discourse,and their relations determined thereupon.⏹Honorifics(敬称)⏹tu vs. vous⏹du vs. Sie⏹你vs. 您★PresuppositionWhat is presupposition?⏹ A presupposition is something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance.⏹Presuppositions are inferences about what is assumed to be true in the utterance rather than directlyasserted to be true (Peccei, J. 1999).e.g. Mary’s brother bought three hor ses.In producing the above utterance, the speaker will normally be expected to have the presuppositions that⏹ a person called Mary exists;⏹she has a brother;Constancy under negationBasically, it means that the presupposition of a statement will remain constant (i.e. still true) even when that statement is negated.e.g. Mary’s dog is cute presupposes that Mary has a dog. Mary’s dog isn’t cute also presupposes thatMary has a dog.Presupposition vs. entailmente.g. John managed to stop in time.From the example we can infer:John stopped in time.John tried to stop in time.Now take the negation of the example:John didn’t manage to stop in time.From this we cannot infer “John stopped in time.”, yet the inference to “John tried to stop in time.” is preserved and thus shared by the example sentence and its negative form.On the basis of the negation test, we identify that the presupposition of both the example sentence and its negative form is “John tried to stop in time.”, but not “John stopped in time.”.Clearly, the example sentence entails “John stopped in time.”, but its negative form does not entail it.Negation alters a sentence’s entailment, but it leaves the presuppositions untouched.⏹ A statement A presupposes another statement B iff:1) if A is true, then B is true.2) if A is false, then B is true.e.g. John is married.John exists.John is not married.John exists.⏹ A statement A entails another statement B iff:1) if A is true, then B is true.2) if A is false, then B may or may not be true.e.g. 1) That person is a bachelor.That person is a man.2) That person is not a bachelor.That person can be a man or awoman.Types of presupposition⏹Existential presupposition⏹Factive presupposition⏹Lexical presupposition⏹Structural presuppositions⏹Non-factive presupposition⏹Counter-factual presuppositionA property of presuppositionDefeasibility(可撤消性): In some contexts, a presupposition is defeasible.1. Linguistic factorse.g. John didn’t manage to pass the exam. >> John tried to pass the exam.But if uttered in the context,John didn’t manage to pass the exam. In fact he didn’t even try to.Add one more sentence, then the original presupposition is cancelled by the utterance “In fact he didn’t even try to”.2.Non-linguistic factorse.g. She cried before she finished writing the novel. >> She finished writing the novel.But in the utterance,She died before she finished writing the novel.the presupposition She finished writing the novel is cancelled by the common sense knowledge that if someone dies, he cannot write novels anymore.The projection problem(投射问题): The presuppositions of complex sentences are not equal to the combination of the presuppositions of all the sentences.(整体不等于部分之和)★Conversational implicatureMain points:⏹The important point made by Grice regarding the theory of implicature is the distinction betweenwhat is said and what is implicated.⏹The Cooperative Principle is very common not only in verbal communication but also in almost allhuman interactions, and it is followed reasonably, not compulsorily.⏹Conversational implicaturesWhat the hearer infers from the utterance that is not openly stated.Conversational implicature is based on the Cooperative Principle.In Grice’s analysis, the speaker’s flouting of a maxim combined with the hearer’s assumption that the speaker has not really abandoned the co-operative principle leads to an implicature.Generally ,conversational implicatures can be divided into two kinds: generalized and particularized.The cooperative principleMake your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the speech exchange in which you are engaged.CP consists of four specific maxims.→Quantity1) Make your contribution as informative as is required(for the current purposes of the exchange ).2) Do not make your contribution more informative than isrequired.→QualityTry to make your contribution one that is true.1) Do not say what you believe to be false.2) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.→RelationBe relevant.→MannerBe perspicuous1) Avoid obscurity of expression.2) Avoid ambiguity.3) Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).4) Be orderly.◇The maxims of the cooperative principle can be used to describe how participants in a conversation derive implicatures. Grice gives the following example. A is standing by an obviously immobilized car and is approached by B. The following exchange takes place.A: I am out of petrol.B: There is a garage round the corner.A can deduce from B’s reaction thatB means that there is a garage around the corner that is open and sells gasoline. B, however，has not mentioned these facts. A can only make these assumptions if s/he assumes that B is acting in accordance with the cooperative principle and is adhering to the maxim of relevance.◇Features of conversational implicatures:1.cancellability( can be cancelled)2.non-detachability( we can change the form, but the meaning does n’t change, so the implicature doesn’tchange.)e.g.a-d said ironically will all implicate ea. John is a genius.b. John is a mental prodigy.c. John is an enormous intellect.d. John is a big brain.e. John is an idiot.3.Calculability可推导性(从字面意思通过合作原则可推导出来)4.non-conventionalityA conversational implicature is the adding up of the conventional meaning and the context in which it is used. When the context changes, the implicature will change or be lost.e.g. It is cold here.The sent ence may, in one context, generate an implicature like “Close the window”, but, in another context, if it is said between two small boys in the open, there will be no such implicature. So the implicature is not conventional.5.indeterminacy(不确定性)This refers to the fact an expression with a single meaning can produce different implicatures as the contexts and participants vary.e.g. He is an ox.If the sentence is said by his superior in praising him, it will imply that he is tough and hard working, while in another context it may mean that he is mild, but stubborn: “stubborn as an ox” or stupid: “dumb ox”.★Speech act theory: to analyze philosophical problems by looking at ordinary language and trying to ascertain what insights it could offer into reality.◇There is a striking difference between the following two sentences:e.g.(1)It’s raining.(2)I promise that I will give you one hundred dollars tomorrow.In (1) a statement is made that may or may not be true. As for (2), however, it is not possible to say that it is true or that it is not true. With verbs such as ‘promise’ (in the first person), something is not only being said; more importantly, something is being done. In (2) an act is being performed in the form of an utterance. By say ing ‘I promise…’, a promise is made. But saying ‘It’s raining’ does not make it rain.Austin used the terms ‘constative’ and ‘performative’ to describe this difference. In constatives, such as (1), something is said about reality; in performatives, such as (2), an act is performed by the utterance itself. Austin was not ,however, successful in establishing criteria for describing the difference between these two concepts. It can, after all, be argued that an act is being performed in the case of constative utterances as well; an indirect request( a request to the hearer to hand the speaker her umbrella) made or a statement (factual assertion about the world) made as in the case of (1).◇→In recognition of the fact that utterances can both make propositions and perform actions, Austin came to the conclusion that all expressions of language must be viewed as acts. He distinguished three kinds of action within each utterance. First, there is the ‘locution’(言内之意), the physical act of producing an utterance. Second, there is the ‘illocution’ (言外之意), the act which is committed by producing an utterance: by uttering a threat, a threat is made; by uttering an apology, an apology is made.Third, there is the ‘perlocution’,(言后之意) the production of an effect through locution and illocution, for instance, the execution of an order by the hearer.e.g. It’s hot in here.( indirect speech)1) to tell the fact. (‘locution’)2) to let you understand you need turn on the air-conditioner. (‘illocution’)3) You finally do it as I wished. (‘perlocution’)In speech act theory, the illocution is the focus of attention. Certain minimum requirements must bemet if an illocution is to be successful. The American phi losopher John Searle formulated four ‘felicity conditions’ which illocutions must meet. These four conditions will be illustrated using the illocution ‘to promise’.Felicity(合适的) conditions for the speech act ‘to promise’ (每一句话都将其视为言语行为,都可以通过这四个方面来进行分析)a. propositional content conditionS predicates some future act A of S.b. preparatory conditionS believes that A is in H’s best interest and t hat S can do A.c. sincerity conditionS intends to do A.d. essential conditionS puts S under an obligation to H to do A.Note: S: speaker; A: act; H:hearer.◇How does speech act theory contribute to the study of discourse? First, it can provide insights into the requirements which the production of a form (the locution) must meet to ensure that the illocution takes place. This illocution serves as a prerequisite for the achievement of the intended perlocution.Second, this theory can serve as a framework for indicating what is required in order to determine the relationship between form and function, between locution and illocution. Below is an example in the form of an interrogative.e.g.(3) Can you stop by in a minute ?Why is this interrogative generally interpreted as a request? A request can be identified by the following felicity conditions:Felicity conditions for requestsa. propositional content conditionThe content must refer to a future act, x, which is to be carried out by the hearer.b. preparatory condition1. The hearer is capable of executing x and the speaker believes that the hearer is capable ofdoing it.2. It is obvious to both conversational participants that the hearer will not perform the actwithout being asked.c. sincerity conditionThe speaker actually wants the hearer todo what has been requested.d. essential conditionThe utterance serves as an attempt to persuade the hearer to execute x.In this case, the situation is not self-explanatory and knowledge of the surrounding environment is required.★Politeness strategiesThe cooperative principle is valid for informative language use. Language users are not however, always interested in the effective transfer of information. In the following examples the speaker wants the hearer to close the door.(15a) Close the door.(15b) There’s a draft.(15c) Would you close the door?(15d) Would you be so kind as to close the door?According to the maxims of the cooperative principle, (15a) is sufficient. Language is, however, often used more indirectly, as is done in (15b). They also sometimes use certain politeness forms such as in (15c) and (15d).Erving Goffman, American social psychologist , introduced the concept of ‘face’ .By this he meant the image that a person projects in his social contacts with others. Face has the meaning as in the saying ‘to lose face’. In Goffman’s opinion, every participant in the social process has the need to be appreciated by others and the need to be free and not interfered with. Goffman calls the need to be appreciated ‘positive face’ and the need not to be disturbed ‘negative face’.⏹Goffman wanted social interaction, which includes verbal communication, to be studied from theperspective that participants are striving for stability in their relationships with others. Participants in conversations should, therefore, not violate one another’s face. Refusing a request or reproaching someone are actions which can form a threat to the other’s positive or negative face. In the case of ‘face threatening acts’(FTA),something is needed which will reduce the violation of face to a minimum and therefore preserve stability as much as possible. This can be achieved by using ‘face work techniques’.--- Using strategies “face work techniques”to solve the problems caused by ‘face threatening acts’(FTA).How does politeness fit into this approach?◇Politeness prevents or repairs the damage caused by FTAs. The greater the threat to stability, the more politeness, face work technique, is necessary. Just as there are two types of face, there are two types of politeness. Face work that is aimed at positive face is called ‘solidarity politeness’ ,whi le face work that deals with negative face is known as ‘respect politeness’.Below are a few examples. When a personnel manager has to turn down a job applicant who should not have applied in the first place owing to a lack of education, this is an FTA which threatens the positive face of the applicant. For this reason the personnel manager will be more apt to write (16b) than (16a).(16a) We do not understand why you bothered to apply..(16b) We have some doubts concerning your prioreducation.In the following interaction between an instructor and a student at the end of a tutoring session, the second variant is more polite as it is less damaging to the instructor’s face and that of the student.(17) A: I’ve tried to explain this as clearly aspossible .Now I have to leave as I haveanother appointment. I hope that the homeworkwill be easier next time.B: (a) I still don’t understand the material.(b) If problems should arise, is it all right if Istop by tomorrow.◇⏹possible strategies for doing FTAs1.without redressive action, baldlyOn record 2. positive politenessDo the FTA with redressive action 3.negative politeness4. off record( do not mention explicitly)非公开的5. Don’t do the FTA( non-verbal act) – the highest risky.The fifth strategy is implemented when the risk of speaking is too great, when, for instance, an individual does not risk answering an impertinent and face-threatening question and simply remains silent.◇Below are examples of different strategies for asking a person for a hundred dollars.(18a) Hey, lend me a hundred dollars. (baldly)(18b) Hey, friend, could you lend me a hundred bucks? (positive politeness)(18c) I’m sorry I have to ask, but could you lend me a hundred dollars? (negative politeness)(18d) Oh no, I’m out of cash! I forgot to go to the bank today. (off record)The strategies are numbered according to their degree of politeness. (Strategy 5 is left out of consideration.) If the W of a FTA is high, the speaker will choose a strategy with a higher number. This explains why grave accusations or inconvenient requests are often formulated indirectly (strategy 4).The following question is an example of an indirect request.(19) Are you doing anything special tonight?The form of this utterance makes it clear that this is an inquiry about an individual’s planned activities. This question can, however, also be an invitation on the part of the speaker to the hearer to go out together.How can a question in this form have an entirely different function? According to Levinson (1983), the answer is that in some cases speakers first make a pre-request in order to find out whether they will get a positive response to their request. Levinson describes this in an underlying structure consisting of four positions. Below is an example and the underlying structure.(20) A: (1) Are you doing anything special tonight?B: (2) No, not really. Why?A: (3) Well, I wanted to ask if you would like to go out todinner with me.B: (4) I’d love to.The underlying structure of (20):(1) Pre-request(2) ‘Go ahead’ reaction(3) Request(4) ConsentGoffman’s work on ‘face’ offers an explan ation for the pre-request phenomenon. If B had given an evasive answer to the pre-request, then that would have eliminated the necessity of making the main request, preventing the loss of face of either participant. A does not have to deal with a refusal and B does not have to refuse the request in a direct manner; after the pre-request, B can claim to be extremely busy which will soften the blow of the refusal.Indirect requests have certain similarities with pre-requests in that both are attempts to ascertain whether or not there are grounds for refusing a direct request. Consider the following example. A customer walks into a shoestore and asks:(21) Do you sell jogging shoes?This question is actually a preliminary check to see if the sales clerk will be able to give an affirmative response to a request to see an assortment of jogging shoes. In Levinson’s opinion, indirect requests can be viewed as pre-requests in an underlying structure consisting of four positions.(22) A: (1) Do you sell jogging shoes?B: (2) Yes.A: (3) Would you show me some, please?B: (4) I’ll go get them for you.◆Leech’s Politeness principle1)Tact maxim (策略准则)a. Minimize cost to other;b. Maximize benefit to other.2)Generosity maxim（慷慨准则）a. Minimize benefit to self;b. Maximize cost to self.3) Approbation maxim （赞扬准则）a. Minimize dispraise of other;b. Maximize praise of other.4) Modesty maxim（谦虚准则）a. Minimize praise of self;b. Maximize dispraise of self.5) Agreement maxim （赞同准则）a. Minimize disagreement between self andother;b. Maximize agreement between self andother.6) Sympathy maxim （同情准则）a. Minimize antipathy between self and other;b. Maximize sympathy between self and other.◆Brown and Levinson⏹Face wants⏹Positive face and negative face⏹Positive threatening act⏹Face saving act⏹Off and on record⏹politeness and negative politeness⏹FaceFace wants⏹Self-image, or (面子).⏹In social interactions, people generally expect their face wants to be respected.⏹Two aspects to face: positive face and negative face.Positive face (积极面子):Our need⏹to be accepted and liked by others,⏹to be treated as a member of the same group,⏹to know that his wants are shared shared by others (Yule, 1996).⏹The want to be thought of as a desirable person.Negative politeness （消极礼貌）⏹Orients to preserving the negative face of other people.⏹Tend to show deference.⏹Emphasize the importance of the other’s time or concerns.⏹Apologize for the imposition or interruption.⏹Mitigating devices.Face threatening act (FTA)⏹Orders, demands, requests, …⏹Suggestions, ad vice, …⏹Warnings, reminding, threatening, …⏹Denying, criticizing, mocking, teasing, complaining, condemning, insulting, accusing, …⏹Refute, disagreement, challenge, …⏹Thanks.⏹Taking thanks or apologies.⏹Excusing.⏹Taking other’s offers.Face saving act⏹The act of saving other’s face.⏹Politeness strategies: solidarity strategies and deference strategies.⏹Solidarity strategies:using positive polite forms, emphasizing closeness between speaker andhearer.⏹Deference strategies: using negative polite forms, emph asizing the hearer’s right to freedom. <Off and on record⏹Off record: giving hints without directly addressed to the other.⏹On record: directly address the other as a means of expressing your needs.In borrowing a pen:⏹Uh, I forgot my pen. Off record⏹Hmm, I wonder where I put my pen. Off record⏹May I use your pen? On record⏹Give me your pen. Bald on record⏹Give me your pen, please. Bald on record + mitigating device⏹<11。

《语用学》读书笔记法1401 赵涵莱文逊（Levinson)所着的《语用学》一书，由英国剑桥大学1983年出版，是英国剑桥大学出版社语言学教材系列中的一种。

它是第一本比较全面地对语用学这一领域作出阐述的教科书和专着。

这本书的价值除出版早外，更重要的是因为它写得好。

作者对语用学研究的几个最基本、最重要的题目作了比较全面的归纳和比较深人的论述。

本书的第一章是导论，介绍了语用学的研究范围。

作者在这一章里谈到了语用研究的起源、它的实质、它和语言学研究尤其是和语义学研究的关系等等。

读者期待在这一章里能看到语用学的定义，但在这一节的开头，莱文逊却说道“给语用学下一个定义决非易事，我们将探讨一系列可能的定义，其中的每一种至多勾画出这一领域可能的研究范围。

”直到这一章的结束，莱文逊确实没有给出一个语用学的定义，他只是对一系列可能的定义作了讨论。

但我认为这样的讨论十分有益，这是十分值得细细一读的一节，读一下他对各种可能的定义发表的高见，远比仅仅看到一个很宽泛的定义有帮助。

在对各种可能的定义进行讨论的过程中，莱文逊涉及到了语言学和语用学研究中一系列基本概念，基本范畴，和一些重要关系，例如语言的功能观、语境、语言和语境的关系及其语法化等等。

其中特别值得注意的是对“语用学是对语义理论未能包含的那些意义侧面的研究”这一定义的讨论。

莱文逊还谈到了语用研究和语义研究的关联和差别，谈到了句子和话语的区别，诸如格莱斯（Grice）的自然意义和非自然意义，句子意义和话语意义等各种类型的意义，以及相互知识在意义理解中的作用，所有这一些概念和关系十分有利于加深对语用和意义的理解。

第二章《指示》是在导论之后进行讨论的和话题，莱文逊把指示作为第一个题目的理由很明确同时也很充分：“语言和语境的关系通过指示这一现象在语言结构得到反映；”在已出版的多种语用学专着和教材中，大多数作者都把指示列为第一章或第一个论题，这是有道理的。

指示这一现象是使语言哲学家和传统的语义学家感到头痛的问题，因为只从真实值这个角度无法解释指示词语的意义，指示词项的“编码”和“解码”都得依赖语言使用的语境，而语境正是语用研究的基础。