reference 3 chapter4

Chapter 4: The Noun Phrase The Structure of a Noun PhraseNoun Determiner + Modifiers + Noun Headwordan insightful and thought provoking remark the laughing, smiling, sunny baby some painfully annoying wisdom teeth those rotten and terribly smelly athletic socks her most challenging classNoun DeterminersFour Categories of Noun DeterminersArticles:a, an, theNumbers (including words that imply numbers):none, one, two, three, four, some many, few, all, several, no, first, second, third, another, each, both, anyPossessives:my, your, his, her, its, our, their, one’s, Herman’s, Rita’s, Sandy’s Other Noun Determiners:this, that, these, thoseNoun Phrase Exercise A Directions: On a separate sheet of paper, rewrite the free modifier noun phrases for each, adding appropriate modifiers as the spaces indicate. Provide noun determiners as required.__________________________________________________ Example:2 By the age of eighteen,1 he had clearly defined his future role,2 the ________ rebel.2 the sensitive rebel.__________________________________________________(1) 1 The teacher knew what to expect from the boy,2 the ________ clown.(2) 2 Throughout high school,1 Sally, / , had been repeatedly elected to class office.2/ a/an ________, ________ organizer(3) 1 The new school seemed to be a terrifying place,2 a/an ________, ________ building.(4) 1 Tim had a knack for guessing the top ten songs of the week,2 a/an ________, ________ skill.(5) 1 The road, / , stretched out for miles.2/ a/an ________, ________ route(6) 1 Sharon could not find her favorite sweater,2 _____ ________ , ________ cardigan.(7) 1 He hurried to join the playing children,2 a/an ________, ________, ________ trio.(8) 1 Kino, / , allows the pearl to take control of his life.2/ _____ ________, ________ hero in Steinbeck's novel (9) 1 Montresor, / , cleverly tries to justify his behavior.2/ _____ very ________, ________ narrator of Poe'sshort storyDirections: On a separate sheet of paper, rewrite the diagrams below and add appropriate noun determiners and modifiers as the spaces indicate. Also, add appropriate punctuation where called for.EXAMPLE: 1 It was an unforgettable trip,2 some skillfully guided sight-seeing,2 the excellent, varied food,2 and some satisfyingly good snapshots.(1) 1 Carla found that she liked everything about college,2 _______ _______ _______ courses,2 _______ _______ _______ dormitory,2 and _______ _______ _______ dates.(2) 1 She was overwhelmed by the paperwork,2 _______ _______ _______ reports,2 _______ _______ _______ memos,2 and _______ _______ _______ recommendations.(3) 1 I'll never forget that last summer at camp,2 _______ _______ _______ days,2 _______ _______ _______ evenings,2 and _______ _______ _______ weekends.(4) 1 Jessica carried in all of the packages from the car,2 _______ _______ _______ groceries,2 _______ _______ _______ shoes,2 and _______ _______ _______ pants.(5) 1 The day before vacation seemed to drag on interminably,2 _______ _______ classes,2 _______ _______ _______ afternoons,2 and _______ _______ paperwork.(6) 2 On Friday,1 two guests appeared on our doorstep,2 _______ _______ _______ friend,2 and _______ _______ _______ uncle.Noun Phrase Exercise C Directions: Complete this exercise on a separate sheet of paper. You are going to construct a total of five sentences forthis exercise. Use the underlined word in your base clause. Then, pick any two of the words that follow and make them each a headword of a noun phrase. Each noun phrase should start with a noun determiner and have at least two modifiers describing the noun headword. Examples:car: body, engine, trim, color, model, power, lights, wheels,carburetor1 Michael described his friend's new car,2 the sleek, low body,2 its four-barrel carburetor.1 Sue drew a picture of her ideal car,2 the vivid exterior color,2 the contrasting interior trim,2 and the four brightly shining wire wheels.(1) breakfast: cereal, toast, juice, eggs, bacon, milk, coffee, cocoa(2) clutter: books, pencils, papers, lamp, boxes, typewriter,calendar, candy(3) everything: water, mud, fish, rocks, cans, tires, boats, ducks,swimmers(4) everywhere: record store, Chinese restaurant, pet shop, movie theater, boutique, food court(5) guests: friends, relatives, neighbors, children, petsNoun Phrase Exercise DDirections: This exercise will give you practice in varying the types of modifiers that you add to your noun phrases. On a separate sheet of paper, rewrite the sentence providing the types of words requested in parentheses that will modify the noun headword given. You will find noun determiners and possessives in the noun phrase section of this workbook.(1) 2 Under the Christmas tree,1 Peter found the gifts he had wanted most,2 (noun determiner) (adjective), (adjective) book,2 and (noun determiner) (adjective), (adjective) (noun)jacket.(2) 1 Mother has thrown out all of our mess,2 (possessive noun determiner) (adjective) comics,2 and (possessive noun determiner) (past participle)models.(3) 1 The resources of our library are limitless,2 (noun determiner) (adverb) (adjective) reference-books,2 (noun determiner) (adjective) reserve books,2 (noun determiner) (adjective) (noun) collections,2 and (noun determiner) (adjective), (past participle)magazines and newspapers.(4) 1 The farmer, / , carried the bale on his hip,2 (noun determiner) (adjective), (adjective) worker.(5) 1 The platform was crowded with luggage:2 (noun determiner) (adjective) (past participle) trunks,2 and (noun determiner) (adjective) (adjective) suitcases.(6) 1 A few hours later we caught two bass,2 (adverb) (adjective) fish (prepositional phrase).(7) 1 The little man pulled at the top of his tie,2 (noun determiner) (adjective) tie (prepositional phrase).N oun P hrase E xercise EDirections: On a separate sheet of paper, write new sentences by taking material from the source sentences and adding it to the final sentence in the manner indicated.EXAMPLE: Source Sentences: Kay looked about her room. It was a cozy place. It was full of sunshine.1 Kay looked about her room,2 a/an neat, cozy, sunshiny place. (n-d) (adjective) (adjective) (adjective) (noun)(1) Source Sentences: The new teenager was always smiling. She was very friendly. No one seemed to notice that she was rather awkward.1 Everyone in the neighborhood likes the new girl down the block,2 (noun determiner) (present participle), (adjective), (adjective)teenager.(2) Source Sentences: The umpire was a short, heavy-set man. He was sweating. He was hard-bitten.1 The crowd shouted insults at the umpire,2 (noun determiner) (adjective), (adjective), (present participle)man.(3) Source Sentences: Jean found that a summer job involved some busy hours. Some were rather hectic. There were days that were interesting. Others were profitable.1 Jean found out what a summer job involved:2 (noun determiner) (adjective), (adjective) hours2 and (noun determiner) (adverb), (adjective) days.(4) Source Sentences: The students were planning an exciting evening. It was to be an unusual one.1 The students were planning the first social event of the season,2 (noun determiner) (present participle), (adjective) evening.Noun Phrase Exercise FDirections: Choose one noun for each sphere and write four “WOW”noun phrases to rename each noun.Noun P hrase Exercise G Directions:2 On a separate piece of paper,1 diagram the sentences below according to the levels of generality,2 filling in the blanks with appropriate noun phrases andprepositional phrases.(EX.) According to Bob, _noun phrase_, Steve and Jamie broke up_prep. phrase_ _prep. phrase_, _noun phrase_ _prep. Phrase.2 According to Bob,3 the know-it-all town gossip,1 Steve and Jaime broke up at the fair on Saturday,2 a rainy, dreary afternoon for both of them.(1) The birthday card, _noun phrase_ _prep. phrase_ _prep.phrase_, arrived late every year.(2) _Noun phrase_ _prep. phrase_ _prep. phrase_, the Palm Pilot kept track of Ron’s busy life, _noun phrase_ _prep. phrase_, _noun phrase_ _prep. phrase_, and _noun phrase_ _prep. phrase_.(3) _Noun phrase_ , the novel had all the right elements of a great piece of literature, _noun phrase_ _prep. phrase_, _noun phrase__prep. phrase_, and _noun phrase_ _prep. phrase_.(4) _Noun phrase_ _prep. phrase_, _noun phrase_ _prep. phrase_, _noun phrase_ _prep. phrase_ — these are the greatest features of _your favorite television show_.(5) Superman, _noun phrase_ _prep. phrase_, might just be able to defeat both Alien and Predator, _noun phrase_ _prep. phrase_.(6) _Prep. phrase_, the computer seems to freeze up, _noun phrase_ _prep. phrase_.(7) The last sentence on this page, _noun phrase_ _prep. phrase_ is at the bottom of this page.。

Table of ContentsAbout1 Chapter 1: Getting started with haxe2 Remarks2 References2 Examples2 Installation2 Windows2 Linux2 Ubuntu3 Debian3 Fedora3 openSuse4 Arch Linux4 OS X5 References5 Hello World5 Requirements5 Code5 Execution5 References6 Chapter 2: Abstracts8 Syntax8 Remarks8 Examples8 Abstracts for data validation8 References9 Operator overloading9 References9 Chapter 3: Branching10 Syntax10If / else if / else10 Reference10 Ternary operator10 Reference11 Switch11 Reference:11 Chapter 4: Enums12 Syntax12 Examples12 Overview12 References12 Capturing enum values12 References13 Matching enum constructors13 References13 Chapter 5: Loops14 Syntax14 Examples14 For14 References14 While14 References15 Do-while15 References15 Flow control15 Break15 Continue15 References16 Chapter 6: Pattern matching17Enum matching17 References17 Structure matching17 References18 Array matching18 References18 Or patterns18 References18 Guards19 References19 Extractors19 References19 Credits21AboutYou can share this PDF with anyone you feel could benefit from it, downloaded the latest version from: haxeIt is an unofficial and free haxe ebook created for educational purposes. All the content is extracted from Stack Overflow Documentation, which is written by many hardworking individuals at Stack Overflow. It is neither affiliated with Stack Overflow nor official haxe.The content is released under Creative Commons BY-SA, and the list of contributors to each chapter are provided in the credits section at the end of this book. Images may be copyright of their respective owners unless otherwise specified. All trademarks and registered trademarks are the property of their respective company owners.Use the content presented in this book at your own risk; it is not guaranteed to be correct nor accurate, please send your feedback and corrections to ********************Chapter 1: Getting started with haxeRemarksHaxe is an open source toolkit that is capable of compiling to many different target languages and platforms.It consists of:•the Haxe programming language - a modern, high-level, and strictly typed programminglanguage•the Haxe standard library - a collection of general purpose, system, and target-specific APIs •the Haxe compiler - a fast, optimising cross-compiler with metadata support, dead codeelimination (DCE), completion mode, resource embedding, runtime type information (RTTI), static analyzer, macros, and moreHaxe has been used to create games, web, mobile, desktop, and command-line applications, as well as cross-platform APIs.As of Haxe 3.3.0-rc.1, Haxe can compile to sources / bytecode of the following languages: ActionScript 3, C#, C++, Flash, HL, Lua, Java, JavaScript, Neko, PHP, and Python.Haxe has a package manager, Haxelib, which is bundled with Haxe. It also has a custom build file format, .hxml, which offers an easier way of passing arguments passed to the Haxe compiler. ReferencesHaxe documentation•ExamplesInstallationHaxe is available on Windows, Linux, and OS X. It is distributed in two forms:as an installer, providing an optional Neko VM dependency and configuring haxe and haxelib •environment variables;•as binaries, providing only the Haxe compiler and package manager.WindowsInstaller and binaries are available from the Haxe website.LinuxBinaries (32-bit and 64-bit) are available from the Haxe website.The Haxe Foundation also officially participates in the maintenance of Haxe and Neko packages for popular Linux distributions. It is recommended to use those packages if available.UbuntuIt is recommended to use the Haxe PPA which provides latest Haxe and Neko releases for all currently supported Ubuntu versions. The PPA can also be used for Ubuntu-based distributions.sudo add-apt-repository ppa:haxe/releases -ysudo apt-get updatesudo apt-get install haxe -ymkdir ~/haxelib && haxelib setup ~/haxelibNote that Neko is installed as a dependency of Haxe.DebianTo install the currently available stable versions, run the following commands:sudo apt-get install haxe -ymkdir ~/haxelib && haxelib setup ~/haxelibNote that Neko will be installed as a dependency of Haxe.To install newer releases from the unstable channel, do the following:1.In /etc/apt/sources.list, adddeb /debian unstable main contrib non-free2.In /etc/apt/preferences.d/, create a new file named unstable with the following content:Package: *Pin: release a=unstablePin-Priority: 100Package: haxe neko libneko*Pin: release a=unstablePin-Priority: 999Pull package index files from the newly added source:3.sudo apt-get update4.Install Haxe (and Neko):sudo apt-get install haxe -yFedoraThe Haxe Foundation maintains the Haxe and Neko RPM packages in the Fedora repository. The packages are up-to-date most of the time. However, when a new version of Haxe is released, it will take a few days, up to 2 weeks, to push an updated package to the stable releases of Fedora. The update activities can be tracked in the Bodhi Fedora Update System.To install the currently available versions of Haxe and Neko, run the following commands:sudo dnf install haxe -ymkdir ~/haxelib && haxelib setup ~/haxelibNote that Neko is installed as a dependency of Haxe.openSuseThe Haxe Foundation maintains the Haxe and Neko RPM packages in the openSUSE:Factory repository. The packages are up-to-date most of the time. However, when a new version of Haxe is released, it will take a few days, up to 2 weeks, to be accepted by openSUSE:Factory.To install currently available versions of Haxe and Neko, run the following commands:sudo zypper install haxemkdir ~/haxelib && haxelib setup ~/haxelibNote that Neko is installed as a dependency of Haxe.To get the lastest Haxe version that may not available to openSUSE:Factory or an openSUSE release, use the devel:languages:haxe project in the openSUSE Build Service. Visit the Haxe package page, click "Download package" at the top-right corner and follow the instructions. Again, Neko will also be installed as a dependency of Haxe.Arch LinuxThere are Haxe and Neko packages in the Arch Linux community repository. The Haxe Foundation will continue to help keep the packages up-to-date. However, when a new version of Haxe is released, it will take time to update the package, depended on the availability of the package maintainer.For currently available versions of Haxe and Neko, check the following pages:•Haxe in Arch Linux•Neko in Arch LinuxTo install the currently available versions of Haxe and Neko, run the following commands:sudo pacman -S haxemkdir ~/haxelib && haxelib setup ~/haxelibNote that Neko is installed as a dependency of Haxe.OS XInstaller and binaries are available from the Haxe website.It is also possible to install the current stable Haxe version through the Brew package manager.brew install haxeReferences•"Downloads", Haxe website•"Linux Software Packages", Haxe websiteHello WorldRequirements1.A version of the Haxe toolkit must be installed2.Haxe must be present in your system path3.Command line must be accessibleCodeNavigate to a desired project directory and create a Test.hx source file with the following content:class Test {static function main() {trace("Hello world");}}Haxe source files are called modules. A module should define a type (abstract, class, enum, interface, or typedef) with the same identifier as the module name - in this case the Test class. Once that requirement is met, a module can define an arbitrary number of different types.Haxe programs require an entry point, as denoted by the static main function. The class implementing the entry point is the startup class or main class. Again, in this case the main class is the Test class.The trace() function is a general purpose logging function exposed to the global namespace for the sake of convenience. It outputs to the target language's standard output handle (e.g. browser console for JavaScript, command line for C++). See the API documentation for more information. ExecutionNavigate to the project folder from your command line. Test to see if Haxe is configured in yourenvironment by calling:haxe --helpThe Haxe interpreter can be used to test code that does not rely on any specific target language API. Use the interpreter by calling:haxe -main Test --interpRemember, the Test module contains the Test startup class, which is why -main Test is passed to the compiler.Haxe sources can compile (transpile) to sources / bytecodes of several different languages. The following table displays the target language, compiler flag, argument type, and compilation result. Use it by calling:haxe -main Test [flag] [argument].Note that the path arguments here are relative to the path haxe was called from. The optional bytecode/binary outputs can be opt-outed by adding the -D no-compilation flags, in order to avoid an additional compilation step involving calling the target language's compiler. ReferencesAPI documentation for haxe.Log••"Hello world" entry in the Haxe Code CookbookRead Getting started with haxe online: https:///haxe/topic/2593/getting-started-with-haxeChapter 2: AbstractsSyntax•abstract identifier(underyling type) { ... }•abstract identifier(underlying type) from typeA from typeB ... to typeA to typeB { ... } RemarksAn abstract type is a compile-time type which resolves to the underlying type at run-time. This means that thee abstract type does not exist in the source code generated by the Haxe compiler. In its stead are placed the underlying type, or types defined for implicit casting.Abstracts are denoted by the abstract keyword, followed by an identifier, and underlying type in parentheses.Abstracts may only define method fields and non-physical property fields. Non-inlined method fields are declared as static functions in a private implementation class, accepting as an additional first argument the underlying type of the abstract.Note that operator overloading is only possible for abstract types.ExamplesAbstracts for data validationThe following abstract defines an EmailAddress type based on the String type which will use a regular expression to validate the passed argument as an e-mail address. If the address isn't valid, an exception will be thrown.abstract EmailAddress(String) {static var ereg = ~/^[\w-\.]{2,}@[\w-\.]{2,}\.[a-z]{2,6}$/i;inline public function new(address:String) {if (!ereg.match(address)) throw "EmailAddress "$address" is invalid";this = address.toLowerCase();}}Use the abstract as follows.varemailGood=newEmailAddress("************");var emailBad = new EmailAddress("");Try the example on .References•"EmailAddress", Haxe Code CookbookOperator overloadingOperator overloading is only possible with abstract types.The following abstract defines a Vec2i type based on the Array<Int> type. This is a two-component vector with integer values. Operator overloading is made possible my the @:op compiler metadata . Only the available numeric operators can be overloaded - custom operators are not allowed to be specified.abstract Vec2i(Array<Int>) {public inline function getX() : Int {return this[0];}public inline function getY() : Int {return this[1];}public inline function new(x : Int, y : Int) {this = [x, y];}@:op(A + B)public inline function add(B : Vec2i) : Vec2i {return new Vec2i(getX() + B.getX(),getY() + B.getY());}}Use the abstract as follows.var v1 = new Vec2i(1, 2);var v2 = new Vec2i(3, 4);v1 + v2;v1.add(v2);Try the example on .References•"EmailAddress", Haxe Code CookbookRead Abstracts online: https:///haxe/topic/4162/abstractsChapter 3: BranchingSyntax•if (condition) { ... }•if (condition) { ... } else { ... }if (condition) { ... } else if (condition) { ... } else { ... }••// Braces are optional for single line statementsif (condition) ... else if (condition) ... else ...switch (expression) { case pattern: ... default: ... }••condition ? expression if true : expression if false;RemarksAll branching expressions make it possible to return evaluated expressions. This means branching results can be assigned to variables. In this case, all expressions that can be evaluated by a successful condition test must pass type unification. If no else expression is given, the type is inferred to be Void.ExamplesIf / else if / elseif (a > b) {trace("You win!");} else if (a == b) {trace("It's a draw!");} else {trace("You lose!");}// Assigning the evaluated expression to a variablevar message = if (a > b) {"You win!";} else if (a == b) {"It's a draw!";} else {"You lose!";}trace(message);Reference•"If", Haxe manualTernary operatorn % 2 == 0 ? trace("n is even!") : trace("n is odd!");// Assigning the evaluated expression to a variablevar message = n % 2 == 0 ? "n is even!" : "n is odd!";trace(message);Reference•"If", Haxe manualSwitchswitch (n % 2) {case 0: trace("n is even!");case 1: trace("n is odd!");default: trace("I don't know!");}// Assigning the evaluated expression to a variablevar message = switch (n % 2) {case 0: "n is even!";case 1: "n is odd!";default: "I don't know!";}trace(message);Note that case body expressions never fall through, so using the break expression in this context isn't supported by Haxe.Reference:"Switch", Haxe manual•Read Branching online: https:///haxe/topic/6265/branchingChapter 4: EnumsSyntax•enum identifier { constructors }ExamplesOverviewHaxe's enumeration types are algebraic data types (ADT). Their primary use is for describing data structures. Enums are denoted by the enum keyword and contain one or more enum constructors.enum Color {Red;Green;Blue;RGB(r : Int, g : Int, b : Int);}The above enum can be instantiated as follows:var c1 = Color.Red;var c2 = Color.RGB(255, 0, 0);Try the example on .References"Enum instance", Haxe manual•Capturing enum valuesValues passed as enum constructor arguments can be captured into variables by use of pattern matching.Assume the following enum:enum Color {RGB(r : Int, g : Int, b : Int);HSV(h : Int, s : Float, v : Float);}The red channel value can be captured as follows:var color = Color.RGB(255, 127, 0);var red = switch (color) {// Match the Color.RGB constructor and capture value into `r` case Color.RGB(r, _, _):// Return the captured red valuer;// Catch-all for matching remaining constructorscase _:// Return -1-1;}Try the example on .References•"Pattern matching", Haxe manual•"Variable capture", Haxe manualMatching enum constructorsEnum constructors can be matched using pattern matching. Assume the following enum:enum Color {Red;Green;Blue;RGB(r : Int, g : Int, b : Int);}Colours with only a green channel value can be matched as follows:var color = Color.RGB(0, 127, 0);var isGreenOnly = switch (color) {// Match Green or RGB with red and blue values at 0case Color.RGB(0, _, 0) | Color.Green: true;case _: false;}Try the example on .References•"Pattern matching", Haxe manual•"Enum matching", Haxe manual•"Or patterns", Haxe manualRead Enums online: https:///haxe/topic/4667/enumsChapter 5: LoopsSyntax•for (variable identifier in iterating collection) { expression }•while (condition) { expression }do { expression } while (condition);••break;continue;•ExamplesForFor-loops iterate over an iterating collection. An iterating collection is any class which structurally unifies with Iterator<T> or Iterable<T> types from the Haxe standard library.A for-loop which logs numbers in range 0 to 10 (exclusive) can be written as follows:for (i in 0...10) {trace(i);}The variable identifier i holds the individual value of elements in the iterating collection. This behaviour is similar to for-each in other languages.A for-loop which logs elements in an array can therefore be written as follows:for (char in ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']) {trace(char);}Try the example on .References•"For", Haxe manual•"Iterators", Haxe manualWhileWhile-loops execute a body expression as long as the loop condition evaluates to true.A while-loop which logs numbers in range 9 to 0 (inclusive) can be written as follows:var i = 10;while (i-- > 0) {trace(i);}Try the example on .References•"While", Haxe manualDo-whileDo-while-loops execute a body expression at least once, and then keep executing it as long as the loop condition evaluates to true.A do-while-loop which logs numbers in range 10 to 0 (inclusive) can be written as follows:var i = 10;do {trace(i);} while (i-- > 0);Try the example on .References•"Do-while", Haxe manualFlow controlThe flow or execution of a loop can be controlled by use of break and continue expressions. Breakbreak exits the current loop. In case the loop is nested inside another loop, the parent loop is unaffected.for (i in 0...10) {for (j in 0...10) {if (j == 5) break;trace(i, j);}}Try the example on .Continuecontinue skips the current iteration of the loop at the point of the expression. In case the loop is nested inside another loop, the parent loop is unaffected.for (i in 0...10) {for (j in 0...10) {if (j == 5) continue;trace(i, j);}}Try the example on .References•"Break", Haxe manual•"Continue", Haxe manualRead Loops online: https:///haxe/topic/4409/loopsChapter 6: Pattern matchingRemarksPattern matching is the process of branching depending on provided patterns. All pattern matching is done within a switch expression, and individual case expressions represent the patterns.The fundamental rules of pattern matching are:•patterns will always be matched from top to bottom;•the topmost pattern that matches the input value has its expression executed;•a _ pattern matches anything, so case _: is equal to default:.When all possible cases are handled, the catch-all _ pattern or default case is not required. ExamplesEnum matchingAssume the following enum:enum Operation {Multiply(left : Int, right : Int);}Enum matching can be performed as follows:var result = switch(Multiply(1, 3)) {case Multiply(_, 0):0;case Multiply(0, _):0;case Multiply(l, r):l * r;}References•"Enum matching", Haxe manualStructure matchingAssume the following structure:var dog = {name : "Woofer",age : 7};Enum matching can be performed as follows:var message = switch(dog) {case { name : "Woofer" }:"I know you, Woofer!";case _:"I don't know you, sorry!";}References"Structure matching", Haxe manual•Array matchingvar result = switch([1, 6]) {case [2, _]:"0";case [_, 6]:"1";case []:"2";case [_, _, _]:"3";case _:"4";}References•"Array matching", Haxe manualOr patternsThe | operator can be used anywhere within patterns to describe multiple accepted patterns. If there is a captured variable in an or-pattern, it must appear in both its sub-patterns.var match = switch(7) {case 4 | 1: "0";case 6 | 7: "1";case _: "2";}References•"Or patterns", Haxe manualGuardsIt is also possible to further restrict patterns with guards. These are defined by the case ...if(condition): syntax.var myArray = [7, 6];var s = switch(myArray) {case [a, b] if (b > a):b + ">" +a;case [a, b]:b + "<=" +a;case _: "found something else";}References•"Guards", Haxe manualExtractorsExtractors are identified by the extractorExpression => match expression. Extractors consist of two parts, which are separated by the => operator.1.The left side can be any expression, where all occurrences of underscore _ are replaced with the currently matched value.2.The right side is a pattern which is matched against the result of the evaluation of the leftside.Since the right side is a pattern, it can contain another extractor. The following example "chains" two extractors:static public function main() {switch(3) {case add(_, 1) => mul(_, 3) => a:trace(a); // mul(add(3 + 1), 3)}}static function add(i1:Int, i2:Int) {return i1 + i2;}static function mul(i1:Int, i2:Int) {return i1 * i2;}It is currently not possible to use extractors within or-patterns. However, it is possible to have or-patterns on the right side of an extractor.References"Extractors", Haxe manual•Read Pattern matching online: https:///haxe/topic/6436/pattern-matchingCredits。

C# 编程语言概述外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Barnett M. C# Programming Language Overview [J]Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 2016, 3(4):49-59.英文原文C# Programming Language OverviewBarnett M1. History of C, C++, C#The C# programming language is based on the spirit of the C and C++ programming languages. This account has powerful features and an easy-to-learn curve. It cannot be said that C# is the same as C and C++, but because C# is built on both, Microsoft has removed some features that have become more burdensome, such as pointers. This section looks at C and C++ and tracks their development in C#.The C programming language was originally defined in the UNIX operating system. In the past, we often wrote some UNIX applications, including a C compiler, and finally used to write UNIX itself. It is generally accepted that this academic competition extends to the world that contains this business. The original Windows API was defined to work with C using Windows code, and until now at least the core Windows operating system APIS maintains the C compiler.From a defined point of view, C lacks a single detail, like thelanguage Smalltalk does, and the concept of an object. Y ou will learn more about the contents of the object. In Chapter 8, "Write Object-Oriented Code," an object is collected as a data set and some operations are set. The code can be completed by C, but the concept of the object cannot be Forced to appear in this language. If you want to construct your code to make it like an object, that's fine. If you don't want to do this, C will really not mind. The object is not an intrinsic part. Many people in this language did not spend a lot of time in this program example. When the development of object-oriented perspectives began to gain acceptance, think about the code approach. C++ was developed to include this improvement. It is defined to be compatible with C (just as all C programs are also C++ programs and can be compiled by a C++ compiler) The main addition to the C++ language is to provide this new concept. C++ additionally provides a derivative of the class (object template) behavior.The C++ language is a modified version of the C language. Unfamiliar, infrequent languages such as VB, C, and C++ are very low-level and require a lot of coding to make your application run well. Reason and error checking. And C++ can be handled in some very powerful applications, the code works very smoothly. The goal is set to maintain compatibility with C. C++ cannot break the low-level features of C.Microsoft defined C# retains a lot of C and C++ statements. The code can also want to identify the code quickly. A big advantage for C# is that its designers did not make it compatible with C and C++. When this may seem like a wrong treatment, it is actually good news. C# eliminates something that makes C and C++ difficult to work with. Beginning with quirks and defects found in C. C# is starting a clean slate and does not have any compatibility requirements. So it can maintain the strengths of its predecessors and discard weaknesses that make C and C++ programs difficult to survive.2. Introduce C#C#, the new language introduced in the .NET system, is derived from C++. However, C# is a popular, object-oriented (from beginning to end) type-safe language.Language featuresThe following section provides a quick perspective on some of the features of the C# language. If some of them are unfamiliar to you, don't worry, everything will be explained in detail in the following sections. In C#, all code and data must be attached to a class. Y ou cannot define a variable outside the class, nor can you write any code that is not in the class. When a class object is created and run, the class is constructed. When the object of the class is released, the class is destroyed. The class provides single inheritance, and all the classes eventually get from thebase class is the object. Over time, C# provides versioned techniques to help with the formation of your classes to maintain code compatibility when you use code from your earlier classes.Let's look at an example of a class called Family. This class contains two static fields to hold the first and last names of family members. In the same way, there is a way to return the full name of a family member.Class Class1{Public string FirstName;Public string LastName;Public string FullName(){}Return FirstName + LastName;}Note: Single inheritance means that a C# class can only inherit from a base class.C# is a collection that you can package your class into a namespace called the namespace class. And you can help arrange collection of classes on logical aggregations. When you started learning C#, it was clear that all namespaces were related to .NET type systems. Microsoft also chose to include channels that assist in the compatibility of previouscode and APIs. These classes are also included in Microsoft's namespace.Type of dataC# lets you work with two types of data: value types and reference types. The value type holds the actual value. The reference type saves the actual value stored elsewhere in the memory. Raw data types, such as character, integer, float, enumeration, and structure types, are all value types. Objects and array types are treated as reference types. C# predefines reference types (objects and strings) New, Byte, Unsigned Short, Unsigned Integer, Unsigned Long, Float, Double-Float, Boolean, Character, and The value type and reference type of the decimal type will eventually be executed by a primitive type object. C# also allows you to convert a value or a type to another value or a type. Y ou can use an implicit conversion strategy or an explicit conversion strategy. Implicit conversion strategies are always successful and do not lose any information (for example, you can convert an integer to a long integer without losing any information because long integers are longer than integers) Some data is lost because long integers can hold more value than integers. Conversion occurs.Before and after referenceRefer to Chapter 3 "Working with V ariables" to find out more about explicit and implicit conversion strategies.Y ou can use single-dimensional and multidimensional arrays in C#at the same time. Multidimensional arrays can become a matrix. When this matrix has the same area size as a multidimensional array. Or jagged, when some arrays have different sizes.Classes and structures can have data members called attributes and fields. Y ou can define a structure called Employee. For example, there is a field called Name. If you define an Employee type variable called CurrenrEmployee, you can retrieve the employee's name by writing . What should happen after the code assignment? If the employee's name must be read by a database, for example, you can write a code "When some people ask for the value of the name attribute, read the name from the database and return the name with the string type".FunctionA function is a code that can be used at any time, code. An example of a function will appear earlier than the FullName function, in this chapter, in the Family class. A function is usually combined with some code that returns information, and a method usually does not return information. However, for us, we generally attribute them to functions.The function can have four parameters:•The input parameters have values passed into the function, but the function cannot change their values.•The output parameters have no value when they are passed to thefunction, but the function can give them a value and pass the value back to its caller. ,•The reference parameter passes another value by reference. They have a value into the function, and this value can be changed in the function.•The parameter parameter defines an array variable in the list.C# and CLR work together to provide automatic storage management. Or "Leave enough space for this object to use" code like this. The CLR monitors your memory usage and automatically retrieves it when you need it.C# provides a large number of operators that allow you to write a large number of mathematical and bitwise expressions. Many (but not all) of them can be redefined, and you can change the job of these operators.C# provides a long list of reports that you can define through a variety of processing paths through your code. Through the report's operations, using keywords like switch, while, for, break, and continue enables your code to be split into different paths depending on the value of the variable.Classes can contain code and data. Visibility of each member to other objects. C# provides such accessible ranges as public, protected, internal, protected internal, and private.V ariableV ariables can be defined as constants. The constant has a fixed value and cannot be changed during the execution of your code. The value of PI, for example, is a good example of a constant because her value will not be changed while your code is running. The enumeration type defines a specific name for the constant. For example, you can define an enumerated type of planet using Mercury V in your code. If you use a variable to represent the planet, using the names of this enum type can make your code easier to read.C# provides an embedded mechanism to define and handle some events. If you write a class that performs a long operation, you may want to call an event. When the event ends, the client can sign this time and grab the event in their own code, he can let them be notified When you have completed this long budget, this event handling mechanism uses delegates in C#, a variable that references a function.Note: Event processing is a program in your code that determines what action will take place when a time occurs.For example, the user clicks on a button. If your class holds a value, write some code called a protractor that your class can be accessed as if it were an array. Suppose you write a class called Rainbow. For example, it contains a set of colors in this rainbow. Visitors may want some MYRainbow to retrieve the first color in the rainbow. Y ou can write an indexer in your Rainbow class to define what will be returned when thevisitor accesses your class as if it were an array of values.InterfaceC# provides an interface that aggregates properties, methods, and events that describe a set of functions. The class of C# can execute the interface. It tells the user through the interface a set of function files provided by this class. What existing code can have as few compatibility issues as possible. Once there was an interface exposed, it could not be changed, but it could evolve through inheritance. C# classes can perform many interfaces, even if the class can only inherit from a base class.Let's look at an example of a very clear rule in the real world of C# that helps illustrate the interface. Many applications use the additions provided today. There is the ability to read additional items when executed. To do this, this added item must follow some rules. DLL add items must display a function called CEEntry. And you must use CEd as the beginning of the DLL file name. When we run our code, it scans the directories of all the DLLs that are starting with CEd. When it finds one, it is read. Then it uses GetProcAddress to find the CEEntry function in the DLL. This proves that it is necessary for you to obey all the rules to establish an addition. This kind of creating a read addition is necessary because it carries more unnecessary code responsibility. If we use an interface in this example, your DLL additions can be applied to an interface. This ensures that all necessary methods, properties, and eventsappear in the DLL and are specified as files.AttributesThe attribute declares additional information about your class for the CLR. In the past, if you wanted to describe your classes yourself, you would have to use a few decentralized ways to store them in external files, such as IDL or event HTML files. Through your efforts, the property solves this problem. The developer has constrained some information in the class and any kind of information, for example, in the class, defines how it acts when it is used. The possibilities are endless, which is why Microsoft will contain a lot of predefined attributes in the .NET framework.Compile C#Running your C# code generates two important types of information through the C# compiler: code and metadata. The next section describes these two topics and completes a binary review built on .NET code, which is assembly.Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL)The code output by the C# compiler is written in an intermediate language called Microsoft. MSIL is your code that is used to construct a detailed set of instructions to guide you on how to perform. It contains instructions for operations, such as initialization of variables, methods for evoking objects, error handling, and declaring something new. C# is notjust a language from the MSIL source code that changes during the writing process. All .NET-compatible languages, including and C++ management, generate MSIL when their source code is compiled. All .NET languages use the same runtime, so code from different languages and different compilers can easily work together.For physical CPUs, MISL is not a set of explicit instructions. It doesn't know anything about your machine's CPU, and your machine doesn't know anything about MSIL. Then, when your CPU can't read MSIL, explain the code. This sinking is called just enough to write, or JIT. The job of the JIT compiler is to translate your universal MSIL code to the machine so that the CPU can execute your code.Y ou may want to know what an extra step is in the process. When a compiler can immediately generate CPU-interpreted code for why MSIL was generated, the compiler does this later. There are many reasons for this. First, MSIL makes it easier for you to write code as it moves to a different piece of hardware. Suppose you have written some C# code and you want it to run on your desktop and handheld devices at the same time. It is very likely that these two devices have different CPUs. If you only have one C# compiler whose goal is a clear CPU, then you need two C# compilers: one with the desktop CPU and the other with the handheld device CPU. Y ou have to compile your code twice to ensure that your correct code is used on the right device. With MSIL, you only write once.The .NET Framework is installed on your desktop and it contains a JIT compiler that translates your MSIL-specific CPU code to your machine. The .NET Framework is installed on your handheld device and it contains a JIT compiler that translates the same MSIL-specific CPU-specific code to your handheld device. To run MSIL code base on any device that has a .NET JIT compiler. Y ou now have only one MSIL basic code that can run on any device that has a .NET JIT compiler. The JIT compiler on these devices can take care of your code and make them run smoothly.Another reason why the compiler uses MSIL is that the settings of the instruction can be easily read by an authenticated proximity. Part of the compiler's job is to verify your code to make it as clear as possible. When properly accessed, these checks ensure that your code does not execute any instructions that can cause your code to crash. The definition of MSIL directives makes this check process easier to understand. CPU-specific instruction settings are optimized for fast code execution. However, they make the code difficult to read and therefore difficult to check. Having a C# compiler that can output CPU-specific code at once can make code inspection difficult or even impossible. Allow the .NET Framework's JIT compiler to verify your code to ensure that your code accesses memory through a buggy path and that the variable types are used correctly.MetadataThe assembly process outputs the same amount of metadata. This is a very important part of the .NET code sharing story. Whether you use C# to build a client application or use C# to build a library that some people use for your application, you will want to take advantage of some compiled .NET code. That code may have been provided by Microsoft as part of the .NET framework, or it may be provided by some online users. The key to using a foreign code is to let the C# compiler know that the class and that variable are in another base code so that it can be found in the precompilation of your work and match the code you write with the source code.Look at the metadata for the directory for your compiled code. The number of bits of source code compiled by C# exists in the compiled code along with the generation of MSIL. The types of methods and variables are completely described in the metadata and are ready to be read by other applications. For example, can read metadata from a .NET library to provide intelligent sensing of all the methods that can be used effectively for a particular class.If you have already worked with COM, you may be familiar with type libraries. The goal of the type library is to provide the same directory functionality to COM objects. However, the type library is provided from a few limitations, and in fact not all data about the target can be put into the type library. Metadata in .NET does not have this disadvantage. Allthe code used to describe the class's information is placed in the metadata.memberSometimes you need to use C# to build a terminal application. These applications are packaged into an executable file and use .EXE as an extension. C# completely supports the creation of .EXE files. However, there are also times when you do not want to be used in other programs. Y ou may want to create some useful C# classes, such as a developer who wants to use your class in a application. In this case, you will not create an application, instead you will build a component. A component is a metadata package. As a unit to configure, these classes will share the same level of version control, security information, and dynamic requirements. Think of a component as a logical DLL. If you are familiar with Microsoft's translation services or COM+, then you can think of components as equivalent to .NET packages.There are two kinds of components: private components and global components. When you build your own component, you don't need to specify whether you want to create a global component or a private component. Y ou can only make your code accessible by a separate application. Y our component is a package similar to a DLL and is installed into the same directory when your application runs it. The application is only executable when it is in the same directory as yourcomponent.If you want to share your code, more global components in more applications. Global components can be used by any system's .NET application regardless of the directory in which it is installed. Microsoft installs components as part of the .NET structure, and each Microsoft component is installed as a global component. The Microsoft Architecture SDK contains the public functionality to install and remove artifacts from global widget storage.C# can be viewed to some extent as a programming language for the .NET Windows-oriented environment. In the past ten years, although VB and C++ have finally become very powerful languages, some of the content has come. For Visual Basic, its main advantage is that it is easy to understand. Many programming tasks are easy to accomplish and basically hide the connotations of the Windows API and the COM component structure. The downside is that Visual Basic has never implemented an early version of object-oriented, real-world (BASIC is primarily intended to make beginners easier to understand than to write large commercial applications), so it cannot really be structured or object-oriented. Programming language.On the other hand, C++ has its own root in the ANSI C++ language definition. It is not fully compatible with ANSI because Microsoft wrote the C++ compiler before the ANSI definition was standardized, but it isalready quite close. Unfortunately, this leads to two problems. First, ANSI C++ was developed under technical conditions more than a decade ago, so it does not support current concepts (such as Unicode strings and generating XML documents), and some of the older grammatical structures were designed for previous compilers ( For example, the declaration and definition of member functions are separate.) Second, Microsoft also tried to evolve C++ into a language for performing high-performance tasks on Windows - avoiding the addition of large numbers of Microsoft-specific keywords and libraries in the language. The result is that in Windows, the language becomes a very messy language. Let a C++ developer talk about how many strings are defined in this way: char*, LPTSTR, (MFC version), CString (WTL version), wchar_t*, OLECHAR*, and so on.Now entering the .NET era - a new environment, it has made new extensions to both languages. Microsoft added many Microsoft-specific keywords to C++ and evolved VB to , retaining some basic VB syntax, but it is completely different in design. From a practical application perspective, is a New language. Here, Visua l C# .NET. Microsoft describes C# as a simple, modern, object-oriented, type-safe, and C and C++-derived programming language. Most in dependent commentators are “derived from C, C++, and Java” from their claims. C# is very similar to C++ and Java. It uses parentheses ({})to mark blocks of code, and semicolons separate lines of statements. The first impression of C# code is that it is very similar to C++ or Java code. But after these seeming similarities, C# is much easier to learn than C++ but harder than Java. Its design and modern development tools are more adaptable than other languages. It also has Visua Basic's ease of use, high performance, and low memory accessibility of C++. C# includes the following features:●Full support for class and object-oriented programming, including interface and inheritance, virtual functions, and operator overloading.●Define a complete, consistent set of basic types.●Built-in support for automatically generating XML document descriptions.●Automatically clean dynamically allocated memory.●Classes or methods can be marked with user-defined properties. This can be used for documentation purposes and has a certain impact on compilation (for example, marking a method to compile only when debugging).●Full access to the .NET base class library and easy access to the Windows API.●Y ou can use pointers and direct memory access, but the C# language can access memory without them.●Supports attributes and events in VB style.●Changing compiler options, ActiveX controls (COM components) are called by other code in the same way. ●C# can be used to write dynamic Web pages and XML Web services.It should be noted that for most of these features, and Managed C++ are also available. But since C# used .NET from the beginning, support for .NET features was not only complete, but also provided a more suitable syntax than other languages. The C# language itself is very similar to Java, but there are some improvements because Java is not designed for use in a .NET environment. Before ending this topic, we must also point out two limitations of C#. One is that the language is not suitable for writing time-critical or very high-performance codes, such as a loop that runs 1000 or 1050 times, and immediately clears the resources they occupy when they are not needed. In this regard, C++ may still be the best of all low-level languages. The second is that C# lacks the key functions needed for very high-performance applications. The parcels guarantee inlining and destructor functions in specific areas of the code. However, such applications are very few.中文译文C# 编程语言概述作者：Barnett M1. C,C++,C#的历史C#程序语言是建立在C 和C++程序语言的精神上的。

Reference 书写格式和要求1 正文中引用的文献与文后的文献列表要完全一致。

文中引用的文献可以在正文后的文献列表中找到；文献列表的文献必须在正文中引用。

2 文献列表中的文献著录必须准确和完备。

3 文献列表的顺序文献列表按著者姓氏字母顺序排列；姓相同，按名的字母顺序排列；著者姓和名相同，按出版年排列。

相同著者，相同出版年的不同文献，需在出版年后面加a、b、c、d……来区分，按文题的字母顺序排列。

如：Wang, M. Y. (2008a). Emotional……Wang, M. Y. (2008b). Monitor……Wang, M. Y. (2008c). Weakness……4 缩写chap. chapter 章ed. edition 版Rev. ed. revised edition 修订版2nd ed. second edition 第2版Ed. (Eds.) Editor (Editors) 编Trans. Translator(s) 译n.d. No date 无日期p. (pp.) page (pages) 页Vol. Volume (as in Vol. 4) 卷vols. volumes (as in 4 vols.) 卷No. Number 第Pt. Part 部分Tech. Rep. Technical Report 技术报告Suppl. Supplement 增刊5 元分析报告中的文献引用元分析中用到的研究报告直接放在文献列表中，但要在文献前面加星号*。

并在文献列表的开头就注明*表示元分析用到的的文献。

正文中的文献引用标志在著者-出版年制中，文献引用的标志就是“著者”和“出版年”，主要有两种形式：（1）正文中的文献引用标志可以作为句子的一个成分，如：Dell（1986）基于语误分析的结果提出了音韵编码模型，……。

汉语词汇研究有庄捷和周晓林（2001）的研究。

（2）也可放在引用句尾的括号中，如：在语言学上，音节是语音结构的基本单位，也是人们自然感到的最小语音片段。

外贸英语函电课后习题参考答案外贸英语函电课后习题参考答案（For Reference Only）Chapter 1 Business LetterI.Answer the following questions.1.How many principal parts is a business letter composed of? What are they?Generally speaking, there are seven principal parts of a standard business letter. They are the letter head; the date; inside name and address; saluation; the body of a letter(message); the complimentary close and signature.2. What are the three main formats of a business letter used today? Which format do you like best?There are three main formats of a business letter in use at present: the conventional indented style; the modern block style and the modified block style. I like the modern block style, since it is simple and we can save much time.3. What is P.S.?It is postscript, refers to one or more remarks the writer may add to the core or body of the letter,usually hand-written side by side with or below the signature and enclosure parts, where there is often a large patch of blank space. A postscript can be a sentence or a brief paragraph.II.Choose the best answer1-5 A C A B D 6-10 B D C B A 11-15 B C C D D 16-20 D A C B BIII. Write a letter with the given particulars below, using necessary capitals and punctuation ( in modern block style)CZ Import & Export Corp. Ltd66 Minghuang, Wujin Discrict, Changzhou213164, P.R. ChinaJuly 3, 2007Mr. John MartinSales ManagerLake Circles Inc.56 Y ork Road, ChicagoIllinois, USADear Sir,Yours sincerely,IV. Arrange the following both in a blocked form and indented form as they should be set out in a letter. (ommitted) Chapter 2 Establishment of Business RelationsI.Answer the following questions.1. If you want to open up a market to maintain or expand business actiities what should you do first?If we want to open up a market to maintian or expand business activities, what we should do first is to conduct a market research,from which we shall know thoroughly about your product(s), your present and potential market(s) .2.Before you write letters with some new established firms what had you better do?We had better try to collect as much information as possible about the new established firms, especially about their creditinformation.3. Through what channels can one obtain the desired names and addresses of the companies to be dealt with?We can get the desired names and addresses of the companies through the following channels: Some b2b websites, such as /doc/90b4c9880622192e453610661ed9ad51f11d5403.html ; some governmental or oganizational websites, such as /doc/90b4c9880622192e453610661ed9ad51f11d5403.html ; some news papers or magazines; some yellowpages; some friends or your present customers; or you can get the imformation by using some serach engines such as google or yahoo.4. How to begin with the “First Letter” or circulars to the other party?It should be consisted of the three parts: first, you should say where you have got the information of your potential customer; second you should provide necessary information about yourself; third you should express your wish of writing the letter. 5. How can one create goodwill and leave a good impression on the readers?We should consider the eight “C”s in writing a business letter: clearness; conciseness; correctness; concreteness; cheerfulness; courtesy; consideration and completeness.II.multiple choices.1-5 D C A B A 6-10 C A C B CIII. Translate the following sentences into Chinese.1.我们愿意在平等互利的基础上和贵公司建⽴业务关系。

reference的用法和搭配reference主要有以下几种用法：一、说到或写到的事；提到；谈及；涉及例句：The book is full of references to growing up in India.这本书谈到许多在印度怎样长大成人的事。

二、参考；查询；查阅例句：Keep the list of numbers near the phone for easy reference.把电话号码表放在电话旁边，方便查找。

三、（帮忙或意见的）征求，征询例句：The emergency nurse can treat minor injuries without reference to a doctor.急求护士不必征求医生的意见就可处理轻伤。

四、（用方便查询所用的）标记，标识，编号例句：The map reference is Y4.地图编号为Y4。

五、推荐信；介绍信例句：We will take up references after the interview.我们在面试之后收推荐信。

六、推荐人；介绍人例句：My previous boss will act as a reference for me.我的前任上司将做我的推荐人。

七、参考书目例句：There is a list of references all the end of each chapter.每一章的后面都有一组参考书目。

八、参阅；参考；给（书等）附参考资料例句：Each chapter is referenced, citing literature up to 1999.每一章都附有参考资料，引用文献截止到1999年。

reference的常用搭配有：1.reference book参考书；工具书2.for reference以供参考；备案3.with/in reference to关于。

语言学练习Chapter 1 & 2I. Multiple Choices1. The study of language development at some point in time is generally termed as ___________linguistics.A. comparativeB. appliedC. synchronicD. diachronic2. N. Chomsky is a famous _____________ linguist.A. AmericanB. BritishC. GreekD. Swiss3. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar for it is mostly _________.A.prescriptiveB.descriptiveC. subjectiveD. Latin-based4. In the following sounds ___________ is a voiceless frictive.A. [d]B.[l]C. [f]D. [w]5. Which of the following sounds is a voiced bilabial stop?A. [p]B. [m]C. [b]D. [t]6.Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. bangB. photoC. typewriterD. rumble7. In English, “pill” and “bill” are ___________.A. a phonemic contrastB. complementary distributionC. assimilation D a minimal pair8. Which of the following is a minimal pair? ( )A./\'\'aiiSo/ /\'\'i:iSo/B. /pen/ /hen/C. /pet/ /bit/D./fi:l/ /li:v/II. Fill in the blanks1. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to bed__________.2. The description of a language as it changes through time is a d_________ study.3. Similar to Saussure’s distinc tion between langue and parole is the distinction betweenc________ and performance by the linguist N. Chomsky.4. Language is c________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of newsignals by its uses.5. The English sounds [m],[n] and [N] are called n_______ consonants.6. Language is a system of a ____________ vocal symbols used for human communication.7. According to the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure, p___________ refers to the realization oflanguage in actual use.8. The three branches of phonetics are labelled a____________ phonetics, auditory phoneticsand acoustic phonetics respectively.III. True or false1. Competence and performance mean, to N. Chomsky, much the same thing.2. The basic difference between a vowel and a consonant is that in the pronunciation of theformer it is characterized by the absence of obstruction of the airstream and it does not have a place of articulation in the same sense as a consonant.3. Phonology is a branch of linguistics which studies the sentence patterns of a language.4. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is calledbroad transcription.5. All the phones in complementary distribution are considered to be allophones of the samephoneme.6. Assimilation is often used synonymously with coarticulaton.7. The principal suprasegmental features are stress, tone, and intonation.Chapter 3：MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True orFalse:1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2. Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.7. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.8. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:1. M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language in grammar.2. The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a l____ meaning.3. B___________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.4. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d__________ affixes.5. D________ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.6. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.7. C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.8. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m___________ rules.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme2. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of__________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.3. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with othermorphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words4. _________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internalstructure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB.GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme5. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic6. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes.7. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of theoriginal word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes8. _________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by thelinguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences9. “-s” in the word “books” is _______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a rootChapter 4：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a sub-field of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including thecombination of morphemes into words.2. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another followinga simple arithmetic logic.4. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.5. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to thesame syntactic category.6. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.7. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.8. There are three tenses in English, i. e. present tense, past tense and future tense.9. The class of signs which are in paradigmatic relation aresometimes called structure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to forma complete statement, question or command.2. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.3. The relation between a sentence and its component elements, is generally referred to as the relation between a c________ and its c________, in which a very important notion is immediate constituent analysis.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in themind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical2. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional3. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.4. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical5. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infiniteChapter 5 SemanticsI. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.1. The relationship between “human/body” and “face/nose” is hyponymy.2. One merit of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words,it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.3. The British English word “autumn” and the American English word “fall” are called stylisticsynonyms.4. Conceptualists maintain that there is no direct link between linguistic form and what it refers to.This view can be seen by the Semantic triangle.5. The relation between the words “male” and “female” is gradable antonyms.6. Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of meaning. They are tworelated but different aspects of meaning.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning.2. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what itrefers to.3. R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with therelationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Words that are close in meaning are called s________.5. C_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between thetwo items.6. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided intomeaning components.7. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.8. The term a__________ is used for oppositeness of meaning.9. Sentence meaning is the combination of the meanings of the component words and the meaningof its s________.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaningcomponents, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis2. “alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above3. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic features4. The pair of words “let’ and “rent” is called ___________.A. relational oppositesB. gradable antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. co-hyponyms5. Which description of the meaning components of the word “woman” is right.A. [+human, +adult, +male]B. [-human, +adult, +male]C. [+human, +adult, -male]D. [+human, -adult,-male]6. The semantic relationship between carnation and rose is _______.A. hyponymsB. hyponymyC. co-hyponymsD. superordinate7. “John killed Bill but Bill didn’t die” is a (n) _______.A. entailmentB. presuppositionC. anomalyD. contradiction8. Which of the following two-term sets shows the feature of complementarity?A. hot/coldB. doctor/patientC. single/marriedD. husband /wifeChapter 6：PragmaticsI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Both semantics and pragmatics study how speakers of a language use sentences to effectsuccessful communication2. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.3. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of languageuse was left unconsidered.4. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaningthe context of use is considered.5. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.6. The meaning of an utterance is de-contexualized,therefore stable.7. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.8. Perlocutio nary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:1. P_________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successfulcommunication.2. What essentially distinguishes s_______ and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaningthe context of use is considered.3. The notion of c_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.4. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, itbecomes an u___________.5. The meaning of a sentence is a_______, and decontexualized.6. C________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.7. P________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were notverifiable.8. A l_________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literalmeaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.9. An i__________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed insaying something.10. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______, the maximof quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can bestcomplete the statement:1. _________ does not study meaning in isolation, but in context.A. PragmaticsB. SemanticsC. Sense relationD. Concept2. The meaning of language was considered as something _______ in traditional semantics.A. contextualB. behaviouristicC. intrinsicD. logical3. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context4. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual5. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a(n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive6. Which of the following is true?A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.7. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act8. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle9. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesKeysChapter 1 &2I. C A B C C B D BII. 1.descriptive 2. dychronic 3. competence 4. creativity 5. nasal6.arbitrary7. parole8. articulatoryIII. F T F F F T FChapter 3I.T F T T T T F TII. 1. morpheme 2. lexical 3. bound 4.derivational 5. derivational6. compound7. morphologicalIII. D B B D C D A B CChapter 4I. F T F T T T F F FII. 1. sentence 2. subject 3. construction, constituentsIII. D A D D CChapter 5I.T T T T F TII. 1.Semantics 2. direct 3.Reference 4. synonyms 5. converse6. componential7. selection8. antonymy9. structureIII. B C A A C B D CChapter 8I. F F T T F F T FII. 1. Pragmatics 2. semantics 3. context 4. utterance 5. abstract6. Constatives7. Performativs8. locutionary9. illocutionary 10. quantity III. A C D B C B D A D。

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文档下载后可定制修改，请根据实际需要进行调整和使用，谢谢!并且，本店铺为大家提供各种类型的经典范文，如英语单词、英语语法、英语听力、英语知识点、语文知识点、文言文、数学公式、数学知识点、作文大全、其他资料等等，想了解不同范文格式和写法，敬请关注!Download tips: This document is carefully compiled by this editor.I hope that after you download it, it can help you solve practical problems. The document can be customized and modified after downloading, please adjust and use it according to actual needs, thank you!In addition, this shop provides various types of classic sample essays, such as English words, English grammar, English listening, English knowledge points, Chinese knowledge points, classical Chinese, mathematical formulas, mathematics knowledge points, composition books, other materials, etc. Learn about the different formats and writing styles of sample essays, so stay tuned!reference的用法总结大全reference的意思n. 参考；参考书；提及，涉及；证明人，介绍人v. 引用；参照；reference的用法用作名词(n.)The play is full of references to the political events of those days.这剧本涉及当时的许多政治事件。

reference的用法Reference是英语单词“参考”的意思。

在英语里面，reference有很多用法，而且在不同情况下它所表示的含义也会有所不同。

在这篇文章中，我们将详细探讨reference在不同场合下的用法及其含义。

1. 参考资料Reference最常见的用法便是指“参考资料”或“参考书目”。

例如，如果你正在写一篇学术论文，你需要注明你所参考的书籍、文献以及其他资料的出处。

这些出处便被称为“参考资料”或“参考书目”，在英文中可以用reference一词来表示。

在这种情况下，reference通常出现在论文的“参考文献”一节中。

2. 参照，引用Reference还可以表示“参照”或“引用”。

在这种情况下，reference通常出现在一段文字中，用于引用其他文章或书籍的内容。

例如，“As referenced in Smith’s study, the results show that…”（正如在史密斯的研究中提到的那样，结果显示…）。

3. 推荐，介绍Reference还可以表示“推荐”或“介绍”。

这种用法比较常见于求职或推荐信的写作中。

当你写一封推荐信时，你可以用reference来表示你所推荐的人的优秀之处。

例如，“I would like to reference John for his excellent communication skills and ability to work well in a team e nvironment”（我想提供John在沟通技能和能够在团队环境中良好工作的卓越表现）。

4. 求证，证明Reference还可以表示“求证”或“证明”。

在这种情况下，reference通常出现在科学实验报告或法律文件中。

例如，在一项科学实验中，如果研究人员需要证明实验结果的有效性，他们可能会引用之前的实验结果作为参考。

在这种情况下，reference可以表示“证明”。