论新兴市场国家企业的资源依存型战略
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新兴市场的形成及其意义新兴市场(Emerged Markets),是一个相对概念,泛指相对成熟或发达市场而言目前正处于发展中的国家、地区或某一经济体,如被称为“金砖四国”的中国、印度、俄罗斯、巴西以及后来兴起的南非、越南、土耳其等等。
新兴市场通常具有劳动力成本低,天然资源丰富的特征。
一方面,发达国家和地区一般都会将生产线移至新兴市场,凭借低廉劳动力成本增强竞争力。
另一方面,发达国家和地区也会向天然资源丰富的新兴市场国家和地区买入廉价原材料。
新兴市场亦可借此获得先进生产技术,改善收入,提高消费能力,并带动经济发展。
发展历史从一般意义上讲,新兴市场的出现,并不是什么新现象。
自从人类社会进入资本主义社会,特别是在英国率先发生产业革命后的150年间,先是美、法、德相继崛起,继而日、俄等国追赶上来。
这些国家,在当时,对老牌帝国英国来说,都是新兴市场国家。
二战后,广大发展中国家在探索发展道路、致力于改变落后贫困面貌的艰难过程中,前进步伐的快慢大不相同。
其中位于东亚的韩国、新加坡和中国的台湾和香港地区,从上世纪60年代初开始起飞,其经济高速增长,仅仅用了大约20年时间,到80年代基本上完成工业化,被称为新兴工业经济体。
当今所说的新兴市场国家,是继历史上曾出现过的新兴市场国家之后的又一批新兴国家。
它们是在上世纪八九十年代后兴起的,这些新兴市场国家的兴起与过去历次相比,大不相同。
此轮兴起的新兴市场数目众多不像过去一定时期只有一两个或少数几个,此轮兴起的新兴市场成为一个群体。
1993年9月,美国前总统克林顿推出“国家出口战略”时曾提到美国将以经济增长最快、市场潜力最大的10个新兴市场为主要贸易对象,它们是:墨西哥、阿根廷、巴西、南非、波兰、土耳其、中国、印度、印尼、韩国。
进如21世纪,西方媒体和经济学家论及新兴市场时,所提到的国家就更多了。
几个大国受到特别重视不论新兴经济体数目有多少,特别重视的仅其中几个大国,即中国、印度、巴西、俄罗斯、墨西哥及南非等。
新兴市场市场进入策略汇报中的挑战与对策在当今全球化的商业环境中,新兴市场以其巨大的潜力和增长机会吸引着众多企业的目光。
然而,进入新兴市场并非一帆风顺,企业在制定和执行市场进入策略时往往面临着诸多挑战。
本文将深入探讨这些挑战,并提出相应的对策,以期为企业成功进入新兴市场提供有益的参考。
一、新兴市场的特点与机遇新兴市场通常具有以下显著特点:经济增长迅速、消费需求不断上升、市场规模庞大但尚未充分开发。
例如,一些亚洲和拉丁美洲国家在过去几十年中经历了高速的经济发展,中产阶级迅速崛起,对各类商品和服务的需求持续增加。
同时,新兴市场也带来了丰富的机遇。
较低的市场饱和度意味着企业有更多的空间来推广新产品和服务,抢先占据市场份额。
此外,新兴市场的消费者对于创新和个性化的产品往往表现出较高的接受度,为企业提供了创新和差异化的机会。
二、市场进入策略汇报中的挑战(一)市场调研困难在新兴市场进行有效的市场调研是一大挑战。
由于市场数据的不完整性和不确定性,企业很难准确了解消费者的需求、偏好、购买行为以及竞争对手的情况。
这可能导致企业对市场的误判,进而影响市场进入策略的制定。
(二)法律法规和政策环境复杂新兴市场的法律法规和政策环境往往不够完善和稳定,且在不同地区可能存在较大差异。
企业需要花费大量的时间和精力来研究和适应这些法规政策,否则可能面临法律风险和经营障碍。
(三)文化和社会差异不同的新兴市场有着独特的文化、价值观和社会习俗。
如果企业不能充分理解和尊重这些差异,可能会在产品定位、营销策略等方面出现失误,导致消费者的不认可和抵制。
(四)基础设施不完善新兴市场的基础设施,如交通、通信、物流等,可能相对薄弱。
这会增加企业的运营成本和供应链管理的难度,影响产品的配送和服务的提供。
(五)人才短缺在新兴市场,企业可能面临专业人才短缺的问题,尤其是在市场营销、管理、技术等领域。
缺乏高素质的本地人才会影响企业在当地的运营和发展。
(六)资金压力进入新兴市场通常需要大量的资金投入,包括市场开发、品牌推广、渠道建设等。
《世界经济学》期末试题(含答案)一、单项选择题(将正确答案代码字母填在括号内;每题1分,共20分)1.在工业革命之前,形成了以(A)为中心的商品国际化。
A.西欧B.北美C.东亚D.地中海沿岸2.第二次科技革命将世界生产力推向新水平,为资本国际化奠定了技术基础。
第二次科技革命兴起的时间是(C)。
A.18世纪60年代B.19世纪30年代C.19世纪后30年D.20世纪50年代3.(C)作为对外直接投资的主角和生产国际化的载体,已成为推动当代世界经济全球化的主要承担者和体现者。
A.国际经济组织B.非政府组织C.跨国公司D.各国消费者4.产业转移从动态的角度反映了由科技革命所带来的先进国家在技术上的主导地位,技术上的主导地位又使(D)在国际分工中占据主导地位。
A.新兴工业化国家B.经济转轨国家C.欠发达国家D.先进国家5.世界经济区别于一般国民经济的根本原因是(B)。
A.经济活动主体多B.国民价值增值机制C.经济调控手段差异D.经济边界长6.国际贸易流向中的主要部分是(C)。
A.南北贸易B.东西方贸易C.北北贸易D.南南贸易7.发达国家间的贸易主要是产业内贸易,可以解释的主要理论是(C)。
A.比较优势理论B.要素禀赋理论C.产业内贸易理论D.产品生命周期理论8.(A)是推动企业进行国际生产的所有权优势的核心。
A.创新和研发B.品牌C.资本D.专利9.国际生产折衷理论是当代最有影响的跨国公司和国际直接投资理论,它的代表人物是(C)。
A.海默B.卡森C.邓宁D.斯蒂芬斯10.20世纪90年代以来,跨国并购风起云涌,从地区分类看,主要发生在(A)之间。
A.发达国家B.发展中国家C.新兴市场经济体D.转轨国家11.发展中国家越来越多地参与国际生产网络之中,参与全球生产网络的发展中国家集中在(A)。
A.东亚地区B.拉美地区C.中东地区D.中东欧地区12.通过贸易壁垒扶持本国弱小工业的成长,提高其竞争力以使之最终能与先进国家进行自由竞争,这是(B)的核心内容。
未来的全球经济:探索新兴市场和跨国合作的机遇与挑战引言全球经济正处于飞速发展的时代,信息技术和全球化的浪潮正推动着各国经济的增长和变革。
未来,随着新兴市场的崛起和跨国合作的加深,全球经济将迎来更多机遇和挑战。
本文将探讨未来的全球经济,重点关注新兴市场和跨国合作,分析其中的机遇和挑战,并展望未来的发展趋势。
新兴市场的崛起新兴市场的定义新兴市场指的是经济规模较小、但具有较高发展潜力的国家或地区。
这些市场通常具有较低的劳动力成本、丰富的自然资源和庞大的消费市场。
如中国、印度、巴西等国家,在过去几十年中取得了巨大的经济增长和发展。
新兴市场的机遇新兴市场的崛起为全球经济带来了巨大的机遇。
首先,这些市场拥有庞大的消费市场,可以为世界各地的企业带来巨大的商机。
例如,中国和印度的消费者人口众多,对日用品、汽车、电子产品等消费品的需求不断增长。
这为全球企业提供了一个广阔的发展空间。
其次,新兴市场的发展也推动了全球贸易的增长。
这些市场国家大量进口商品和技术,以满足国内市场的需求。
这促进了全球贸易的繁荣和发展,为各国的经济增长提供了更多机会。
第三,新兴市场还为全球企业提供了更多的投资机会。
这些市场国家的经济增长速度快,政府也鼓励外资进入。
全球企业可以在这些市场投资,获得更高的回报率。
例如,中国的制造业和科技行业吸引了众多外国投资者,成为全球企业扩大业务的重要目的地。
新兴市场的挑战然而,新兴市场的崛起也带来了一些挑战。
首先,这些市场国家的发展不平衡,存在着经济和社会差距。
一些地区仍然面临贫困、落后和不稳定的问题,这可能对全球经济的稳定性产生负面影响。
其次,新兴市场国家的政治和经济环境复杂多变。
政府的政策和法规可能受到不同利益集团的影响,随时发生变化。
这给企业在这些市场的运营带来了一定的风险和不确定性。
最后,新兴市场国家的竞争力不断提升,对全球企业形成了一定的威胁。
这些市场国家的企业不断壮大,具有较低的成本和高度的竞争力。
新兴市场的崛起与全球经济格局变化近几十年来,随着全球化的推进和信息技术的发展,新兴市场的崛起引起了全球经济格局的深刻变化。
这些新兴市场国家的经济实力不断增强,对全球经济的影响力也日益增强。
本文将探讨新兴市场的崛起对全球经济格局的重塑和变化所带来的影响。
一、新兴市场经济体的崛起新兴市场经济体是指那些具有较高经济增长率、工业化程度不断提高的发展中国家。
其中,主要包括中国、印度、巴西、俄罗斯等国家。
这些国家自上世纪70年代以来,通过采取一系列的改革开放政策,实现了经济的快速发展。
首先,新兴市场国家改革开放,吸引了大量的外商投资。
外资的持续流入推动了新兴市场国家的产业升级和技术创新,提高了其在全球供应链中的地位。
中国作为全球最大的制造业大国,吸引了众多跨国公司设立生产基地,成为全球制造业链的重要一环。
其次,新兴市场国家积极推动国内市场的发展。
中国、印度等国经济体量庞大,国内市场潜力巨大。
这些国家通过扩大国内需求,增加消费和投资,有效推动了经济的持续增长。
与此同时,新兴市场国家还加强了与其他新兴市场国家的经济合作,推动地区内贸易的发展,形成了规模庞大的市场。
最后,新兴市场国家加大了科技创新的投资力度。
中国在人工智能、电子商务等领域具有全球领先的技术实力,印度在软件开发和信息技术服务方面具有竞争优势,巴西和俄罗斯在生物技术和能源领域具有独特的技术能力。
这些国家的技术创新不断推动了经济结构的升级,增强了全球竞争力。
二、新兴市场崛起对全球经济格局的影响1. 全球产业重心的转移新兴市场国家崛起的一个显著特点是其制造业和服务业在全球产业链中的地位不断提升。
中国作为全球制造业的中心,吸引了大量的跨国公司投资,成为全球最大的制造业大国。
同时,印度在软件开发和信息技术服务方面具有优势,在全球服务业中发挥重要作用。
这些新兴市场国家的崛起导致全球产业重心逐渐向亚洲转移,使亚洲成为全球经济增长的重要引擎。
2. 全球市场规模的扩大新兴市场国家的崛起带动了全球市场规模的扩大。
新兴市场企业国际化动因、路径与绩效新兴市场企业国际化已经成为国际商务领域的一个新兴研究前沿,来自于新兴市场的跨国企业的海外投资活动的大量增加,引起了学术界与实务界的广泛关注。
来自于新兴市场的企业在国际化过程中并没有完全按照传统的跨国公司的国际化道路行径,而是在没有绝对优势的情况采取的激进的国际化扩张行为,如对发达国家企业的海外并购,传统的跨国企业理论不能解释新兴市场企业国际化扩张行为,现有的关于新兴市场的理论多以传统的发达国家的垄断优势理论为出发点,理论相对分散系统性不强;有些关于新兴市场的研究也多从经济学的角度研究新兴市场的对外直接投资,从新兴市场企业的微观层面来研究的还不多见。
因此为了丰富现有的理论,本文以新兴市场企业国际化动因、路径与绩效为研究对象,构建了整合分析框架,研究新兴市场企业国际化的市场、资源与技术动因对国际化绩效的影响,将新兴市场企业国际化路径作为调节变量引入新兴市场企业国际化动因与绩效关系中,具有开创性意义。
本文研究内容分为六部分:第一部分是绪论,介绍了论文的研究背景与研究概述,对研究涉及的关键概念进行界定,说明研究方法和资料来源,提出研究的总体思路、技术路线和可能的创新之处,确定本文的章节安排;第二部分是企业国际化的理论综述部分:总结归纳了传统的国际贸易与国际分工理论、对外直接投资理论和发展中国家及新兴市场企业国际化理论,综述了国内外学者有关企业国际化理论以及新兴市场企业国际化理论研究,为第四部分研究框架建立奠定理论基础;第三部分是新兴市场企业国际化经营的现状与特征的描述,包括新兴市场企业国际化发展概述、新兴市场企业国际化发展阶段以及中国企业国际化经营,这部分为研究框架的得出提供了现实基础;第四部分是理论模型与假设,提出了本研究的理论分析框架,采用大样本数据对理论模型进行实证分析,本章从资源基础观视角,分析了国际化动因、路径与绩效的关系,构建了一个整合的理论分析框架,并提出相应的理论假设,本章还讨论了本文实证研究的方法,确立了采用问卷调查的方式来研究新兴市场企业国际化路径在国际化动因与企业绩效关系中的调节作用,然后,对实证研究的设计过程进行了详细的描述,包括理论模型中各建构的度量、调查问卷的设计、样本的选择、数据的收集和分析方法。
第三章战略选择第四节国际化经营战略四、新兴市场的企业战略(★★)(六)“抗衡者”战略:在全球范围内对抗尽管在全球竞争中发达国家跨国公司具备诸多优势,但新兴市场的企业也可以羽翼渐丰,最后成长为跨国公司。
这种新兴市场中的“抗衡者”的数量正在稳步上升,不少公司已经成长为世界上大名鼎鼎的品牌企业了。
1.不要拘泥于成本上竞争,而应该比照行业中的领先公司来衡量自己的实力。
大部分“抗衡者”来自日用品生产产业,这些产业具有丰富的自然资源和人力资源,可以给企业带来低成本的优势。
但是,“抗衡者”不应该仅仅满足于资源优势,而应该比照行业中的领先公司来衡量自己的实力。
很多企业会发现自己在产品质量和生产水平上存在明显不足,或者是在服务、运送和包装上存在严重缺陷。
这样一来,它们的成本优势就被其他方面劣势抵消了。
如果在生产力、产品质量和服务水平上不断追赶来自发达国家的竞争者,新兴市场的本土企业就可以为在长期的竞争中取得成功打下坚实的基础。
2.找到一个定位明确又易于防守的市场(即如何确定企业自身在全球化产业链中的位置,积极主动地参与国际分工,可以通过发挥比较优势实现资源配置效率的提高,拓展海外市场,提高企业的竞争力)。
对于那些可能成为“抗衡者”却又无法获得关键资源的企业来说,找一个定位明确又易于防守的市场缝隙至关重要。
一个日益普遍的方法是加入一个发达国家跨国公司主导的战略联盟,专注于自己产业价值链中的某些特定环节来打造规模和专门技术。
3.在一个全球化的产业中找到一个合适的突破口(即全球化背景下的产业转型升级,中国企业可以利用国外的技术或在外国产品的技术基础上进行创新,建立和发展高新技术产业,实现经济的跨越式发展)。
新兴市场中的企业要想在一个全球化的产业中找到一个合适的突破口,通常必须进行大范围的重组。
许多企业可能会将那些由于全球化而难以为继的业务剥离,将原先内部生产的零部件外包出去,并投资于新产品和新流程,这是“抗衡者”成为一个专业化和全球化生产商的关键。
中美贸易战下企业的应对策略自2018年3月美国针对中国钢铁、铝等商品加征关税以来,中美贸易战早已打响。
此后,两国频繁互加关税,谈判也屡次中断,贸易壁垒持续加强,使得企业们面临了前所未有的挑战。
这个时候,企业需要在外部环境变化的同时,进行内部改革和调整,才能在市场竞争中获得更好的发展。
本文将从企业内部和外部两方面阐述中美贸易战下企业应对策略。
一、企业内部应对策略1. 开展商品多元化战略中美贸易战的核心在于关税,而关税往往会导致商品价格上涨、利润下降等因素。
因此,企业应该将其目光放在拓展商品多元化上。
例如,服装企业可以瞄准国内市场或亚洲市场,增加非美国进口商品的份额;化妆品企业可以考虑调整产品配方和包装,扩大“中国制造”的认知度。
做到商品多元化,不仅可以在中美贸易战中降低关税带来的影响,而且在市场竞争中更有利于公司强劲的发展。
2. 提高科技水平,研发自主品牌由于医疗、化工、电子等产业技术含量较高,因此中美贸易战下重点放在了这些高科技产品的关税上。
所以,企业可以通过提高技术水平、增强核心技术研发能力来应对贸易战。
比如,汽车企业可以提高燃油效率、引入更节能、更环保的新能源车型;高科技公司可以突破核心技术,推进自主知识产权的研发、创新设计。
这样一来,企业具有了自主品牌和核心技术,在贸易战中就有了更多的优势。
3. 活化文化建设,增强企业凝聚力企业要想在贸易战中确保一定程度的稳定发展,还要建立高度凝聚力的文化。
通过组织企业文化活动、制定完善的人事制度、提高员工福利水平等措施,能够进一步加强企业内部的凝聚力和自我调整能力,协调内部关系,营造良好的企业氛围。
在破坏性的贸易战中,企业需要在强大的企业文化的支撑下,在外部环境变化中保持整体稳定。
二、企业外部应对策略1. 调整生产运营,做到快速反应中美贸易战的不确定性持续增加,企业必须具备能够快速反应的生产运营机制。
在风险加剧和市场变化加速的时刻,企业反应迅速会更有优势。
新兴市场的崛起在全球化的背景下,新兴市场日益崛起成为全球经济发展的重要引擎。
随着全球产业转移和经济实力的提升,新兴市场国家在全球舞台上发挥着越来越重要的作用。
本文将探讨新兴市场的崛起原因、特点以及对全球经济格局的影响。
一、新兴市场的崛起原因1.经济结构转型:新兴市场国家在过去几十年中积极推动经济结构转型,加大对科技创新、人力资源和基础设施的投资。
这种转型使得新兴市场国家从传统农业经济向现代工业和服务业转型,提高了经济竞争力。
2.人口红利:新兴市场国家拥有庞大的劳动力资源,年轻且富有活力。
相对于发达国家,新兴市场国家具有更低廉的人力成本,吸引了大量外资进入,进一步推动了经济增长。
3.资源优势:许多新兴市场国家拥有丰富的自然资源,如石油、煤炭等。
这些资源的开发利用为新兴市场国家提供了巨大的发展机遇,并加强了它们在全球市场上的竞争力。
二、新兴市场的特点1.高速经济增长:相比于发达国家,新兴市场国家的经济增速通常更快。
这主要由于他们在经济结构调整期间实施了一系列改革和政策,以促进投资和消费,推动经济增长。
2.市场潜力巨大:新兴市场国家拥有众多庞大且不断增长的中产阶级消费者,市场潜力巨大。
由于人口数量庞大,相对较低的物价水平,新兴市场国家成为了跨国公司开拓市场的重要目标。
3.创新驱动:新兴市场国家的创新能力逐渐提升,不再只是生产廉价商品的代工工厂。
它们逐渐成为全球创新中心,积极投资研发,推动科技创新,培养高素质的技术人才。
三、新兴市场的影响1.全球经济增长引擎:新兴市场国家的崛起推动了全球经济的快速增长,成为全球市场需求的重要来源。
它们在国际贸易和投资中扮演着重要的角色,为全球经济注入了新的活力。
2.增强市场多元化:新兴市场国家的崛起带来了全球市场格局的多元化。
传统的经济强国不再是唯一的决定性力量,新兴市场国家在全球贸易和投资中获得越来越大的话语权。
3.促进全球合作与共赢:新兴市场国家的崛起促使国际合作与共赢成为全球发展的主要目标。
1 Introductionforeign direct investment (FDI) outflows and the remarkable rise of multinational enterprises (MNEs) from emerging economies. FDI outflows from emerging economies reached a record level of $553 billion in 2014, accounting for 39% of global FDI outflows compared with only 12% at the beginning of the 2000s . Emerging market multinational enterprises (EMNEs), as vehicles of FDI outflows from emerging economies, are expanding overseas at an increasingly large scale and at an ever-accelerating speed. In 2014 there were 123 MNEs from the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) on the Fortune Global 500 list, as compared with about 20 companies from these countries a decade ago.The evolution of EMNEs has gained attention of scholars in international business (IB) and strategic management, prompting them to rethink and develop models and theories relating to the internationalization of firms. Although there was some interest in emerging market multinationals since the early 1980s , attention to this topic became an import research in international business in the 2000s, because emerging-market firms are quickly catching up and internationalizing in recent years. Scholars are starting to take stock of what is actually known about EMNEs and what is speculation .Particularly, the rise of emerging economies such as China and India has generated a number of EMNEs, providing an opportunity for scholars to review the theories of MNEs’ internationalization in contemporary context. For example, Paul and Mas examined the common factors that had contributed to the emergence of Chinese and Indian multinationals in the global market including their focus on exports, manufacturing growth, science and technology, etc. One of the evolving research entails adopting both strategic view and international business studies, a pilot study of which derived from case studies of Indian companies proposes the generic strategies for EMNEs as they embark on an international expansion.In this research, the major question is raised as what are the generic strategies of the internationalization of Chinese firms? What are the strategic directions including the targeted countries, value chain movement, branding, and mode of entry that Chinese firms are executing in their overseas expansion? How do the choices and combination of strategic directions ultimately lead to the distinct path of Chinese internationalization? What are the firm-specific factors that have influence on the generic strategies of Chinese internationalization?We consider these questions through examination of the strategies of Chinese EMNEs as they propel increasing FDI outflows world widely. We argue that the models explaining the generic strategies of Indian multinationals can be extended and modified to the study of Chinese multinationals. We begin by selecting and describing cases of Chinese EMNEs in typical manufacturing industries. We then examine the strategic directions for each of these Chinese EMNEs in its internationalization, which include a multinational’s targeted countries, value chain activities in host country, choice of original equipment manufacturer (OEM) versus own branded manufacturer (OBM), and themode of entry. On the basis of this analysis, we identify and discuss the generic internationalization strategy that can be illustrated from Chinese EMNEs. Further discussions on several firm-specific factors e.g. the industry a multinational is concerned of, the experience of its overseas operations, R&D intensity as indicator of firm-specific advantage are used to develop practical and theoretical insights from the internationalization of Chinese EMNEs. We conclude the paper by offering a few directions for future studies of the internationalization strategies of emerging-market multinationals. We believe this study will be helpful for deepening our understanding of the internationalization of EMNEs by bringing the analysis of multinational’s generic strategy into the focus.2.Literature ReviewInternational business studies are emerged from investigations of developed economies in North America and Europe. Consequently, mainstream IB theories on internationalization have been developed based on studies of developed-country multinational enterprises (DMNEs). Such theories, for example, monopolistic advantage theory , product life cycle theory , the eclectic or ownership-internalization-location (OLI) paradigm, and the internationalization process model , have provided a strong foundation for explaining the presence of MNEs. Some scholars thus argue that the emergence of EMNCs can also be explained with these theories. For example, Dunning et al. relies on OLI framework to explain the existence of EMNEs, which have become multinationals despite their limited firm-specific advantages. Rugman argues that EMNEs do not have firm-specific advantages, and their internationalization depends on the country-specific advantages in low-cost labor, finance, economies of scale, and natural resources.On the other side, a widely accepted taxonomy of strategies such as multi-domestic, transnational, and global strategies of DMNEs exists , few schemes have described the strategies of EMNEs in building up their global presence . Researchers suggest that the multinationals fromemerging markets have pursued distinctive approaches to internationalization and they enjoy different specific advantages than multinationals from developed countries. At this point, the resource-based view of firms originated from strategic management has enriched IB studies in explaining the behavior of EMNEs , since the traditional strategic management approach has not yet yielded substantive knowledge within research on internationalization as a strategic process adopted by MNEs . Mathews introduces the linkage, leverage, learning (LLL) framework, which is consistent with the extended resource-based perspective, to provide the explanations of the rapid appearance of EMNCs. Luo and Tung describe that EMNEs use international expansion as a springboard to obtain new resources and capabilities via the alliances or acquisition of firms to upgrade capabilities at home and catch up to DMNCs.The rise of new multinationals from emerging markets provides researchers an opportunity with extension and modification of the models and theories of internationalization [34]. Buckley et al. [35] find strong support for the argument that aspects of the special theory e.g. the institutional factors influencing outward direct investment help to explain the behavior of Chinese MNEs, since Chinese internationalization has both a conventional and an idiosyncratic dimension. Yiu et al. studies the international venture of Chinese companies and highlights the importance of incorporating the institutional component of a multinational including networking with domestic institutions and entrepreneurial organizational transformation into existing theories of the MNEs. Goldstein argues that as emerging market multinationals are embedded in their political, social, and ethnic networks, their internationalization of business offers valuable lessons for practical and theoretical implications. Guillen and Garcia-Canal note the decline of American model of the MNEs and to what extent we need a new theory to explain the growth of EMNEs, with analysis of the distinctive internationalization of EMNEs with regard to the competitive advantages, political capabilities, expansion paths, preference of entry mode, and organizational adaptability. The study of EMNEs can thus bring context more explicitly and comprehensively into theory and deepen our understanding of how firms internationalize.Ramamurti indicates that multinationals from emerging markets follow particular paths of international expansion, which modifies some of the predictions of existing theories of MNEs. EMNEs internationalize differently since the global environment facilitates speed-up internationalization, the industry characteristics lead to different patterns, the companies exploit differences rather than similarities in foreign expansion, and they have ownership advantages that are different from DMNEs. Consequen tly, he suggests the generic strategies for EMNEs’internationalization, each of these generic strategies, for example the vertical integrator, local optimizer, low-cost partner, global consolidator, and global first-mover have resulted in distinct internationalization paths of EMNEs . Each generic strategy leverages different country-specific advantages and firm-specific advantages and results in distinct internationalization path of emerging market multinationals. Ramamurti proposes a framework of generic internationalization strategy as a common platform for the analysis of EMNEs’ internationalization and explains how the research of EMNCs can help better understand the MNEs’ internationalization process, the contextual factors, and firm-specific and location-specific ownership advantages.However, the framework is developed from the case study of Indian multinationals, which requires more rigorous empirical studies aimed at gathering and analyzing large sample data at the firm level . Generic strategies are notunique to the internationalization of Indian EMNEs, they are also relevant to other EMNEs, with distinct aspects of each emerging economy resulting in some generic strategies being more viable than others . Williamson and Zeng , who analyzed four of the biggest Chinese multinationals, namely Hisense, Wanxiang, CIMC, and Huawei, and argued that several strategies of Indian multinationals could also be observed from the internationalization of Chinese firms. Further research on a number of Chinese firms is needed for developing alternative configurations of generic strategies that contribute more explanatory power regarding the internationalization of EMNEs.The core of the analysis of generic strategies of EMNEs’ internationalization is a company’s str ategic direction in its international expansion. In the incremental internationalization model, Johanson and Vahlne explain the selection among countries and regions in which to enter, which is also analyzed in Ramamurti’s framework of EMNEs. The incremen tal internationalization model also explains a firm’s selection of its operation in the host country e.g. production base, sales subsidiaries, procurement center, which in the generic strategy is described as the movement and relocation of value chain activities. Besides, in the linkage-leverage-learning model, Bonaglia et al. discuss the implications for OEM firms originated from emerging countries that aim to upgrade to OBM status to compete on the basis of global brand rather than just on their manufacturing capabilities. The choice of OEM versus OBM direction is probably one of the most challenges for Chinese companies while they are seeking foreign markets for international growth. Finally, the rapid expansion of Chinese companies in the 2000s through merges and acquisitions of brands and production operationsother than greenfield investment has been widely discussed in several research. All of these directions e.g. targeted country, value chain movement, OEM or OBM products, and the mode of entry are analyzed in this research in consideration about the generic internationalization strategies of Chinese EMNEs.3.Research MethodologyIn this research, we analyze the strategies of Chinese EMNEs’ internationalization through multiple case study method. Firstly, we defined the multinational enterprises (MNEs) operationally and screened out a number of multinational enterprises from typical Chinese manufacturing industries. We subsequently examine the strategic directions toward internationalization for each of these cases to find any results and make further discussions about the strategies of Chinese internationalization. Since the scope of this study is focused on the more surprising and interesting Chinese manufacturing firms, companies in service and resource sector are excluded. A number of typical Chinese manufacturers are included as telecommunication equipment manufacturers, computers and peripherals manufacturers, semiconductor manufacturers, home appliances manufacturers, consumer electronics manufacturers, automobiles and motorcycles manufacturers, and auto parts manufacturers. The Global Industry Classification Standard and Hang Seng Industry Classification System are followed here. The above industries can be categorized into high-tech industries, medium-tech industries, and medium-low-tech industries according to the OECD classification .4.Insights from Case Study: Strategic DirectionsTable 1 illustrates each of the strategic directions of Chinese EMNEs’ internationalization. The target countries are the locations of FDI activities conducted by an EMNE, which is classified into south–south or south–north paradigm in this study. South–south FDIs originate in emerging economies and flow into other emerging economies. By contrast, the destinations of south–north FDIs are developed countries. “North” is broadly defined as developed countries, including North America, Europe (excluding Eastern Europe), Australia, New Zealand, and Japan. “South” comprises emerging economies in South America, Eastern Eur ope, and Asia, and includes developing and transition economies, as defined by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNTCAD). At the firm level, south–south FDI occurs when an EMNE establishes its overseas subsidiaries in emerging economies, while south–north FDI occurs when an EMNE’s overseas subsidiaries are located in developed countries. Our analysis of each of the 50 Chinese manufacturing EMNEs showed that 5 firms are only engaged in south–south FDI, 25firms in south–north FDI, and 20 firms in both south–south and south–north FDI. There were more overseas subsidiaries of Chinese EMNEs located in developed countries than in emerging economies, which reflected that south-north FDI is the major path of Chinese internationalization. Among the developed countries, the United States and Western European countries such as Germany, France, and Netherlands were the primary FDI destinations of Chinese manufacturing EMNEs.5.Insights from Case Study: Generic Internationalization StrategiesBas ed on the above analysis of Chinese multinational’s strategic directions toward internationalization, we examined and identified the generic strategy for each of the companies (as summarized in Table 1). As in the following section, each of the generic strategy illustrated from Chinese cases targets south-south or south-north expansion, moves up or down the value chain activities, provide OEM or OBM products in international markets, enter foreign countries through greenfield investment or M&A. A multinatio nal’s preference in combination with these strategic directions thus results in distinct strategies for Chinese EMNEs including local optimizer, low-cost supplier, advanced-market seeker, and global consolidator. To be noted in the case study, few firms may pursue one strategy in pure form or do so to the exclusion of other strategies, however it is conceptually useful to specify each of the strategies and its properties. We illustrate each generic strategy with cases that have come closest to pursuing that strategy. Particularly, the identification of which generic strategy a firm had pursued was based on the analysis of its major business segment. In case of Chinese automobile and motorcycle manufacturers, it was found that a firm pursued an internationalization strategy in its small business segment is different from the strategy while internationalizing its major business.1介绍新兴经济体的外国直接投资(FDI)外流和跨国企业(MNEs)的显著增长。