英语本科语言学复习资料.docx

1.classification of words(1)variable and invariable wordsvariable words may have inflective changes. Such as follow –follows-followed-following. Invariable words do not have inflective changes. Such as since, when, seldom, through, etc.(2)grammatical words and lexical wordsgrammatical words are those that mainly work for constructing group, phase, clause, clause complex, or even text. Such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. Lexical words are mainly work for referring to substance, action, and quality.(3)Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, and conjunctions. Open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as auxiliary verbs.(4)Word classA few more word classes have been introduced into grammar, such as particles, auxiliaries, pro-form and determiners.2.Sense relations(1)Synonymy: it is the technical name for the sameness relation. Eg. Buy and purchase, world and universe.(2)Antonymy: it is the name for oppositeness relation. Three are three types: gradable antonymy , complementary antonymy and converse antonymy.(3)Hyponymy: it is of recent creation, is a matter of class membership.3.How many types of morphemes are there in the English language?(1)Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes are those that may occur alone, which may make up words by themselves; bound morphemes are those that cannot occur alone, which must appear with at least one different morpheme.(2)Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning; an affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme; a stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes(3)4.what are the design features of human language?(1)arbitrariness (2)duality (3)creativity (4)displacement2、how do you understand the distinction?The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a Diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.3、what are the major distinctions?(1) langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. (2) langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (3)langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events.(4)langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.4、how do you understandChomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his langua ge. This internalized set of rules enables the language users to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambigous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performance may have mistakes because of social and phychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence. Which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.5、what are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; how they are produced, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication..6、how many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they? There are 3 types of morphemes.(1)free morpheme and bound morpheme(2)root, affix and stem(3)inflectional affix and derivational affix7、what are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound, is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meaning of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.8、what are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constitunents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type. 9、distinguish the two possible meaning of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysisMore beautiful flowers; the IC analysis is a way to dismantle a grammatical construction.10、what are the three kinds of antonym?(1)complementary pairs are antonyms in which the presence of one quality or state signifies the absence of the other and vice versa. Single/married, not pregment/pregnant. There are no intermediate states.(2)gradable pairs are antonyms which allow for a natural, gradual transition between two poles;good/bad, hot/cold. It is possible to be a little cold or very cold, etc. (3)relational opposites are antonyms which share the same semantic features, only the focus, or direction, is reversed; tie/untie, buy/sell, give/receive, teacher/pupil, father/son.11、do you think B is cooperative in the following dialogue? Support your argument with cooperative principle.A: when is the bus coming? B: there has been an accident. Further up the road. Yes, B is cooperative. On the face of it, B’s statement is not an answer to A’s question. B doesn’t say “when”. However, A will immediately interpret the statement as meaning “ I don’t know “ or” I am not sure.” Just assume that B is being “ relevant” and “informative”. Given that B’s answer contains relevant information. Acan work out that “an accident further up the road” conventionally involves “ traffic jams”, and “traffic jam” preludes “bus coming”. Thus, B’s answer is not simply a statement of “when the bus com es”; it contains an implicature concerning “ when the bus comes”.1、arbitrariness：it refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.2、duality：it is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of element of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3、displacement：t means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.4、linguistics：it is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language.5、phonetics: it is the scientific study of speech sounds. It studies how the speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.6、phonology it is the study of speech sounds that the human voice capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning .7、morphology形态学It is the study of the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.8、syntax句法It refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language or simply,the study of the formation of sentences 9semantics语义学 it is the study of the meaning of words phrases and sentences 10 pragmatics 语用学it is study of meaning in context 11Psycholinguistics 心理语言学 it investigates the interrelation of language and mind , in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition foe example.12socillinguistics 社会语言学 it is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society,including the social function of language and the social characteristics of its users 13language 语言系统 it is a social bond that constitutes language14parole言语 it is a storehouse filled by the members of a given community through their active use of speaking.10competence it is the ideal user|s knowledge of the rules of his language16performance it is the actual use of language in concrete situations 17phonemes it is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language 18 minimal pairs it is two words that differ in only one sound it can be used to find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.19allophones it is a phenomenon of variation in the pronuciation of phonemes in different positions 20Allomorph it is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.21closed-class word it is a word whose membership is fixed or limited 22syntax it refers to rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply the study of the formation of sentences 23IC analysis immediately constituent analysis ic analysis for short,refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents-word groups ,which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience. 26concord (agreement) it is the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another ,shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category27entailment it is basically a semantic relation or logical implication 28 proposition it is the result of the abstraction of sentences, which are descriptions of states of affairs and which some writers see as a basic element of sentence meaning . 29 Componential analysis 词的成分分析it define the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantics features 30reference it is what a linguistics form refers to in the real world it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality.31morpheme it is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between soundingand meaning , a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning。

《英语语言学》复习重点Chapter I Invitation to linguistics1. What is language and linguistics?●Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To give the barestdefinition, language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental, social and conventional.●Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language.It concerns with the systematic study of language or, a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.2. What are the design features of language? The definition of these design features: arbitrariness, duality, creativity, and displacement●Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animalsystem of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, etc..●Arbitrariness refers to forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaningLanguage is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, even with onomatopoeic words●Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure. The units of the primary level are composedof elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.●Creativity refers to Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood bypeople who have never come across that usage before.●Displacement refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things which are present ornot present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3. Jakobson’s classification of functions of language.1).Referential function 所指功能2).Poetic function诗学功能3).Emotive function感情功能4).Conative function意动功能5).Phatic function交感功能6).Metalingual元语言功能Hu Zhuanglin’ classification of functions of language and use some examples to illustrate them.1).Informative function 信息功能2).Interpersonal function 人际功能3).Performative function 施为功能4).Emotive function 感情功能5).Phatic communion 交感性谈话6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能7).Metalingual function 元语言功能4. The definitions of important distinctions in lingustics: Who distinguished them?descriptive VS. presriptive;Descriptive(描写式):a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.eg: American don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”Prescriptive(规定式): a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use.eg: Don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”synchronic VS. diachronic;Synchronic study(共时性) --- description of a language at some point of timeDiachronic study(历时性) --- description of a language through the course of its history (historical development of language over a period of time)langue & parole;Langue: (说话者的语言能力.)the linguistic competence of the speaker.Parole: (语言的实际现象或语料.) the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).competence and performance.Competence:(一个语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解.)a language user’s underlyin g knowledge about the system of rules.Performance:(指在具体场景中语言的真实使用.)the actual use of language in concrete situations.The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.5.What is the major differences between Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole and Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?①Saussure's language is social product, a set of conversations for a speech community.②Chomsky regards competence as property of the mind of each individual.③Saussure studies language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky studies it more from a psychological point of view.Chapter 2 Speech soundsPhonetics4. Basic information about the IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet (Otto Jesperson France)IPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996 and 2005.5. Three parameters to identify a consonant:①place of articulation: place in the mouth where obstruction occurs②manners of articulation: ways in which articulation can be accomplished③state of vocal cords: voiced VS. voiceless6.the categories of consonants according to the manner of articulation and the place of aritucatio7. English vowels can be divided into two large categories:Monophthongs or pure/single vowels 单元音Diphthongs or gliding vowels 双元音8. Four criteria (parameters) of vowel description1. the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low);2. the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);3. the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short), and4. lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).Phonology9. definition:1) Co-articulation: Simultaneous/overlapping articulation because of the influence of the neighbor sound(s)2) broad /narrow transcription: When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription; The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.3)Phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)4) Phoneme: a sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)5)allophone phonic: variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.6)Minimal pairs:Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs: 1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different;3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.E.g. a minimal pair: pat-fat; lit-lip; phone-toneMinimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc7)Suprasegmental features: features that involve more than single sound segment, such as stress（重音），length （音程）, rhythm（节奏），tone（音调），intonation（语调）juncture（音渡）．8) syllable:10.Exemplify the relationship between phone, phoneme and allophone..Phone（音素): the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)i) phonetic unit ii) not necessarily distinctive of meaningiii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ].Phoneme （音位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaningiii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /..allophone (音位变体) : phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.e.g.:p ot, s p ot, cu p: [ph] vs. [p] vs. [ p¬ ] (unreleased)11. What are the differences between Phonetics and Phonology?Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and received. It is concerned with the actual physical articulation, transmission and perception of speech sounds.Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. It is concerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in languageChapter 3 Morphology12. Three senses of “word”(1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pause or blank.(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term.(3) A grammatical unit.13.The classification of word. Using some examples to explain these classifications.Words can be classified in terms of:★(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)★(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (语法词/词汇词)★(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words(封闭词/开放词)★(4) word class(词类)(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)the former refers to words having inflective changes（屈折变化）while the latter refers to words having no such endings.Variable words: follow; follows; following; followedInvariable words: since; when; seldom; through; hello(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (function words and content words.语法词/词汇词).The former refers to those words expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions(连词), prepositions（介词）, articles(冠词), and pronouns（代词）;.the latter refers to words having lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action etc. such as n., v., adj., and adv.(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词).the former refers to words whose membership is fixed or limited; e.g. pron., prep., conj., article..the latter of which the membership is infinite or unlimited. e.g.: n., v., adj., adv.(4) word class (词类)14. definition:1) Morphology:Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rulesby which words are formed.2) Morpheme: the smallest unit of meaning, which can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves．Bound morphemes:morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form wordsInflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes, added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.3) Affix: is the term for the type of form that can be used to add to another morpheme (root or stem) to form word. It can’t be used freely in sentence.prefix: change meaning eg: dis-; un-; mis-suffix: change part of speech eg: -ly; -ness; -tioninfix: some languages also have infixes, affix morphemes that are inserted into root or stem morphemes to divide them into two parts.4) Inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as tense, number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.5) word-formation①Compound: referring to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a new word. ②Derivation: the way to form words with a combination of roots and affixes.15. examples of Lexical change proper★(1) Invention 新造词Nylon★(2) Blending 混合词smoke + fog→ smog★(3) Abbreviation 缩合词TV → television★(4) Acronym 首字母缩略词NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)★(5) back-formation 逆构词editor edit★(6) analogical creation 类比造词p76★(7) Borrowing 借词、外来词Kong FuChapter 4 Syntax16. Definition:Syntax: is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.paradigmatic Relations:Syntagmatic Relations:Endocentric Constructions:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Exocentric Constructions:refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, ther e is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group Category: refers to the defining properties of these general units:Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice17.three kinds of syntactic relations:relations of position位置关系Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.relations of substitutability 可替代性关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.relations of co-occurrence 同现关系It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.18. Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)Immediate constituent analysis is a form of linguistic review that breaks down longer phrases or sentences into their constituent parts, usually into single words. This kind of analysis is sometimes abbreviated as IC analysis, and gets used extensively by a wide range of language experts.19. Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordination and subordination•Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .•Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.20. Characteristics of subjectsA) Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statementB) Pro-forms(代词形式) : The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subjectC) Agreement with the verb: In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbD) Content questions (实意问句): If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchangedE) Tag question (反意问句): A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.Chapter 5 Semantics21. Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:Conceptual meaning: Also called ‘denotative’ or ‘cognitive’ meaning.Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. English word“river” →“江”and“河”Connotative meaning: The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. It is the intensional meaning which a word suggests or implies. home: family, friends, warmth, cozy, comfortable, safety, love, free, convenience Social meaning:What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use. Affective meaning: --Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.Reflected and meaning:--Arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.Collocative meaning: --The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.Thematic meaning:--What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes themessage, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.22. Explain the semantic triangle by using some examples.23. Use some examples to explain three sense relations:Synonymy; Antonymy; HyponymySynonymy 同义buy/purchase thrifty/economical/stingy autumn/fall flat/apartment tube/undergroundAntonymy 反义Gradable antonymy 渐次对立关系good ------------- bad long --------------- short big ---------------- smallComplementary antonymy 互补反义关系alive : dead male : female present : absent innocent : guilty odd : even pass : failboy : girlhit : missConverse antonymy 逆向反义关系buy : sell lend : borrow give : receive parent : child husband : wife teacher : student above : belowbefore : afterhost : guestemployer : employeeHyponymy 上下义Superordinate （上义词）: the more general termHyponym （下义词）: the more specific termCo-hyponyms （同义词）: members of the same class24. Componential relations （成分分析）“Componential analysis”---- defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.Componential analysis refers to an approach adopted by structural semanticists in describing the meaning of words or phrases. This approach is based on the belief that the total meaning of a word can be analyzed in terms of a number of distinct elements or meaning components25. Sense relations between sentences1 A entails B ( A is an entailment of B ) 蕴含2 A Presupposes B (A presupposes B) 预设3 A is inconsistent with B 不一致4 A is synonymous with B 同义5 A is a contradiction 自相矛盾6 A is semantically anomalous 反常26. Explain the difference between sense and reference from the following four aspects:1) A word having reference must have sense;2) A word having sense might not have reference;3) A certain sense can be realized by more than one reference; 4) A certain reference can be expressed by morethan one senseThe distinction between “sense” and “reference” is comparable to that between “connotation” and “denotation”. The former refers to some abstract properties, while the latter refers to some concrete entities.Firstly, to some extent, we can say that every word has a sense, i.e., some conceptual content; otherwise we would not be able to use it or understand it. Secondly, but not every word has a reference. There are linguistic expressions which can never be used to refer to anything, for example, the words so, very, maybe, if, not, and all. These words do of course contribute meaning to the sentences in which they occur and thus help sentences denote, but they themselves do not identify entities in the world. They are intrinsically non-referring terms. And words like ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. Thirdly, some expressions will have the same reference across a range of utterances, e.g., the Eiffel Tower or the Pacific Ocean. Such expressions are sometimes described as having constant reference. Others have their references totally dependent on context. Expressions like I, you, she, etc. are said to have variable references. Lastly, sometimes a reference may be expressed by more than one sense. For instance, both ‘evening star’ and ‘morning star’(晚星，启明星), though they differ in sense, refer to Venus. Chapter 6 Psychology and cognitive lingusitics27. What are the differences between metaphor & metonymy? Give some examples.Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another（从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain. The reference point activates the target.1.Metaphor is used for substitution, while metonymy is used for association.2.Metaphor can mean condensation and metonymy can mean displacement.3.A metonymy acts by combining ideas while metaphor acts by suppressing ideas.4.In a metaphor, the comparison is based on the similarities, while in metonymy the comparison is based on contiguity.--For example, the sentence ‘he is a tiger in class’ is a metaphor. Here the word tiger is used in substitution for displaying an attribute of charact er of the person. The sentence ‘the tiger called his students to the meeting room’ is a metonymy. Here there is no substitution; instead the person is associated with a tiger for his nature..Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us..Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another （从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy（换喻，转喻）.It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain.Chapter 7 Language, culture and society28. the relationship between language and thought?29. What’s Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Give your comment on it.Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages mayprobably express speakers’unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic relativity: a. Similarity between language is relative; b. the greater their structuraldifferentiation is, the diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.30. What is the importance of culture in classroom teaching?Standard language.Chapter 8 Pragmatics31. Speech act theory32.What’s your understanding of conversational implicature? Using one or two examples to discuss the voilationof its maxims.People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication.Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated.Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.1. Make your contribution as informative as is required.A: 昨天上街买了些什么?B: 就买了些东西。

第一章绪论1.1什么是语言1.2语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。

（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。

这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。

1.3语言的起源1.4语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。

将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。

法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。

汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。

1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。

汉语是典型的孤立语。

（2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。

在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。

日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。

（3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。

英语是不太典型的屈折语。

（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。

因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。

根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等1.5语言的功能1.5.1 一般功能1.5.2元功能（metafunction）1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）1.7语言学中的重要区分（1）语言（langue）和言语（parole/langage）索绪尔对语言和言语作出了区分。

第一部分选择题nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human__.Ca. writingb. speakingc. communicationd. reading2. The study of language as a whole is ofen called__. Ba. applied linguisticsb. general linguisticsc.3. Saussure is a___ lingusit. Ca. Americanb. Russianc. Swiss4. It is generally believed that the beginning of morden lingusitics marked by the publication of the book?course in general linguistics5. Which of the following is not a major branch of lingusitic? Ba. syntaxb.speechc. phonologyd. pragmatics6. __ deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced? Ba. pragmaticsb. psycholinguisticsc. Anthropological linguistics7. Design features are proposed by the American linguist? Ca. Bloomfieldb. Hallc. Hockettd. Harris8. ___is not a design feature of human language? Da. Arbitrarinessb. displacementc. Dualityd. Diachronicity9. Among the following words, __ ends with a voiceless sound? Ca. bangb. thudc. crashd. wham10. Among the following words, __does not ends with a voiceless voiced?Aa. splatb. kinc. telld. bridge11. All the initial sounds of the following words are stops(爆破音) except? Ca. Billyb. crazyc. happyd. dizzy12. All the initial sounds of the following words are fricatives(摩擦音) except? Ba. fineb.writec. shyd. think13. All the initial sounds of the following words are bilabials(双唇音,如b p m) except? Ba. bellyb. calfc. playd. medicine14. All the following pair words would be treated minimal pairs(最小分别) except? Aa. meal—heatb. heat—healc. meal—heald. bell—bet15. The word glorification has entered the language by? Aa. derivational processb. add of inflectionsc. coinaged. functional shift16. The word gym is formed by ? Aa. clippingb. coinagec. borrowing17.UNESCO belongs to ? Da. clipped wordsb. borrowed wordsc. blendd. acronyms18. Syntax is the study of ? Ba. language functionsb. sentence structuresc. textual organization19. The word “lcid, child, offspring” are examples of ? Ba. dialectal synonymsb. stylistic synonymsc. emotive synonymsd. collocational synonyms20. All the following pairs of words contain the lexical relation of hyponymy(从属关系) except? Ca. automobile vehicleb. father , parentc. magazine, dictionaryd. fish, shark21. All the following pairs of words contain the lexical relation of hyponymy except? Aa. water , watemelonb. hurricane, stormc. ceremony , weddingd. captain, officer22. The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called? Da. hyponymyb. synonymyc. polysemyd. homonymy(同形异义)23. All the following pairs of words contain the lexical relation of hyponymy except? Da. emotion , loveb. move, runc. occupation, teachingd. rose, tree24. ___ are a pair of complementary antonyms(互补反义关系)? Ba. doctor, patientb. absent, presentc. old, youngd. hot, cold25. ___ are a pair of gradable antonyms(等级关系)? Ca. alive, deadb. male, femalec. wide, narrowd. vacant, occupied26. ___ are a pair of relational antonyms? Aa. let, rentb. single, marriedc. fail, passd. appear, diasppear27. __ is best described as polysemy? Ca. The bookstores has some new titles in linguistics.b. Yes, I love those. I ate a whole box on Sunday.c. I had to park on the shoulder of the road.28. Leila: whoa! Has us boss gone crazy?Mary: Let’s go get some coffee.In the conversation, the maxim of ___ has been flouted(违背什么原则)? C(1) a. quantity b. quality c. relation d. mannerIn the utterance “Business is business.” The maxim of ___ has been flouted? A(2) a. quantity b. quality c. relation d. manner29. Charlence: I hope you brought the bread and cheese.Dether: Ah. I brought the bread.”In the conversation, the maxim of ___ has been flouted? Aa. quantityb. qualityc. relationd. manner30. In the utterance, “ John runs as fast as a deer.”The maxim of ___ has been flouted? Ba. quantityb. qualityc. relationd. manner第二部分T or F1 In ancient China, a famous philosopher named XUN ZI reasoned that a name was accepted, through public agreement, and the appropriateness of naming a thing laying convention. T2 Aristotle held that there was a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man to follow in expressing his ideas. F (Plato)3 A diachronic statement is one about a language at one point in time, whereas a synchronic statement is one about a change or changes that took place over a period of time. F (弄反了)4 Language study today is descriptive rather prescriptive. T5 Auditory phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds, the way sounds travel from the speaker to the hearer. FArticulatory phonetics (production)Acoustic phonetics (transmission)6 Place of articulation English speech sounds can be divided into voiceless and voiced sounds. F ( manner of articulation)7 Phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. T (Phoneme is the focus of Phonetics)8 Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme, which can be substituted for another without bringing about a change of meaning. T9 Language of the world can be classified morphologically into 2 types: isolating&inflecting. F( 还有 agglutinating)10 Today’s English is more similar to an isolating language. T11 Words can have 2 kinds of meanings: denotative(字面) and connotative. Connotative meaning includes all the feelings, associations and emotions that a word touches off in different type. T12 According to Austin, illocutionary act refers to the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by particular words and structures which the utterance contains. F (locutionary)13 The cooperative principle holds that people in conversation normally cooperate with one another, and that they assume that the others are cooperating to a maximum extent. T14 The uss of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation is calledconversational implicative. T第三部分1 what determines whether a string of words in language is language is a sentence or simply a string of un related words----syntax (句子如何组成合法句)2 how do people use language within a context --pragmatics3 what are words like? –morphology4what are speech sounds? What is their physical nature?—phonetics (孤立研究詞,句意義)5 how do sounds behave in languages? –phonology6 why does one set of words mean one thing and a similar set mean something very different?—semeics 語義學,特定語境下的意義7 when do two different sentences mean the same thing? How can one sentence mean more than one thing? --pragmatics 語境(同距在不同地方有不同意義)8 How similar are the process of listening and reading ?—Psycholinguistics (comprehension production , mental process through 語言習得acquisition)9 What are the major feature of the English language as it is used by women native speakers?—sociolinguistics10 How do we decide what is a dialect or accent and what is a language?—sociolinguistics11 (comprehension)What mechanisms operate during speech production to ensure that all the words come out in the right order and with the right intonation? –Psycholinguistics12 How do speakers signal their identity in the language they use, and why do people who live in specific communities sometimes speak in a similar way?—sociolinguistics13 How to teach a foreign language?—applied linguistics14 To what extent do children vary in their language acquisition and usage? And why?—Psycholinguistics15 Examine the text of a play for evidence of implicit messages, and consider what the playwright is deliberately conveying about the attitudes and personality of the characters?—applied linguistics把語言學運用到文學研究/statistics大题考下面三个. Key wordsContext 語境Speech act theory first, second language acquisition。