English Lexicology chapter1 (2)

1.give the definition of the lexicology.2. give the definition of the word3. what are the main three types of word formation and the main features of the three types?4. what are they characteristics of the English idioms?5. what do you think of the course: English lexicology.第一题Lexicology is a branch of linguistics inquiring into the origins and meanings of words. (WNWD)English lexicology is a subbranch of linguistics. But it embraces other academic disciplines, such as morphology, semantics, etymology, stylistics, lexicography. Morphology: the branch of grammar, studies the structure or form of words, primarily through the use of morpheme construct.Etymology: traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words.Semantics: the study of meanings of different linguistics levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc.Stylistics: the study of style, concerned with the user’s choices of linguistic elements in a particular context for special effects.Lexicography: record the language as it is used so as to present the genuine picture of words to the reader, providing authoritative reference. (Edit a dictionary).第二题The definition of a word comprises the following points:(1) a minimal free form of a language;(2) a sound unity;(3) a unit of meaning;(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.第三题The most productive word formations are affixations, compounding and conversion. The rest of new words come from shortening including clipping and acronymy, together with words born out of blending and other means. While applying the rules, we should remember that there are always exceptions.1. AffixationAffixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation, the words formed in this way are called derivations.1.1 Prefixation. It is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. The majority of prefixes are characterized by their non-class-changing nature.Negative prefixes: a-, dis-, in- (il-, ir-, im-), non-, un-.Reversative prefixes: de-, dis-, un-.Pejorative prefixes: mal-, mis-, pseudo-.Prefixes of degree or size: arch-, extra-, hyper-, macro-, micro-,mini-, out-, over-, sub-, super-, sur-, ultra-, under-.Prefixes of orientation and attitude: anti-, contra-, counter-, pro-.Locative prefixes: extra-, fore-, inter-, intra-, tele-, trans-.Prefixes of time and order: ex-, fore-, post-, pre-, re-.Number prefixes: bi-, multi- (poly-), semi- (hemi-), tri-, uni- (mono-). Miscellaneous prefixes: auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.1.2 SuffixationIt is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. They mainly change the word class.Noun suffixes:a. Denominal nouns: Concrete: -eer, -er, -ess, -ette, - let; Abstract: -age, -dom, -ery, -ery (-ry), -hood, -ing, -sim, -ship.b. Deverbal nouns:To create nouns denoting people: -ant, -ee, -ent, -er (-or).To produce abstract nouns, denoting action, result, process, state, etc.: -age, -al, -ance, -ation (-ition, -tion, -sion, -ion), -ence, -ing, -ment.c. De-adjective nouns: -ity, -ness.d. Noun and adjective suffixes: can be used both as nouns and adjectives: -ese, -an, -ist.Adjective suffixes:a. Denominal suffixes: -ed, -ful, -ish, -less, -like, -ly, -y; -al (-ial, -ical), -esque, -ic, -ous (-eous, -ious).(Both –ic and –ical can be affixed to the same stem in some cases, but differ in meaning.)b. Deverbal suffixes: –able (-ible), -ive (-ative, -sive).Adverb suffixes: -ly, -ward(s), -wise.Verb suffixes: -ate, -en, - (i)fy, -ize (-ise).Some seemingly productive vogue affixes like –nik are still considered slang.2. CompoundingIt is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems, also called composition. Words formed in this way are called compounds.A compound is a ‘lexicology unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word’. They can be written solid, hyphenated and open.2.1 Characteristics of CompoundsOpen compounds are the same in form as free phrases. The difference:Phonetic features: In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element. Semantic features: Every compound should express a single idea just as one word. Grammatical features: A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence.2.2 Formation of CompoundsThe three major classes of compounds:Noun compounds: n+n; n+v; v+n; a+n; n+v-ing; v-ing+n; n+v-er; adv+v; v+adv; v-ing+adv; adv+v-ing.All of these patterns are more or less productive except the last two.Adjective compounds: n+v-ing; a+v-ing; n+a; a+a; n+v-ed; a (adv) +v-ed; n (a) +n-ed; num+n; num+n-ed; adv+v-ing; v-ed+adv.Very productive: n+v-ing, n+a, n+v-ed.Verb compounds.The limited number of verbs are created either through conversion or backformation.3. ConversionIt is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. This process is also known as functional shift.Conversion to NounVerb to noun: Almost all monomorphemic verbs can be used as nouns, which are semantically related to the original verbs in various ways according to Quirk et al: State (of mind or sensation); Event or activity; Result of the action; Doer of the action; Tool or instrument to do the action with; Place of action.Many simple nouns converted from verbs can be used with have, take, make, give etc. to form phrases to replace the verb or denote a brief action.Adjective to noun: Not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Words fully converted: They can be: common adjectives, participles and others. Words partially converted: This class generally refer to a group of the kind. Miscellaneous conversion: This covers nouns converted from conjunctions, models, finite verbs, prepositions, etc.Conversion to verbsA noun can be converted to a verb without any change. This is both economical and vivid.Noun to verb: ways: to put in or on N; to give N r to provide with N; to remove N from; to do with N; to be or act as N; to make or change into N; to send or go by N. Verbs of this type are all transitive except the last one.Adjective to verb: This is not as productive as that of nouns. They can be used either transitively to mean ‘to make…adjective’ or intransitively ‘to become adjective’. Verbs restricted to transitive use are still, forward, free, bare, blind and so on. Miscellaneous conversionIn some cases, conversion is accompanied by certain change: which affect pronunciation or spelling or stress distribution. The most common changes are: V oiceless to voiced consonant; Initial to end stress.第四题Idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms: Semantic Unity and Structured StabilitySemantic Unity: Being phrases or sentences, Idioms each consist of more than one word, but each is a semantic unity, e.g. keep in mind, take off. The semantic unity ofidioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning and the meaning of the idiom. For example, ‘How do you do’ does not mean ‘In what way do you do things’.Structural Stability: The structure of an idiom is to a large extent unchangeable: the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced; the word order cannot be inverted or changed; the constituents of an idiom cannot be deleted or added to; many idioms are grammatically unanalysable.第五题English lexicology is a theoretically-oriented course. It is chiefly concerned with the basic theories of words in general and of English words in particular. However, it is a practical course as well, for in the discussion, we shall inevitably deal with copious stocks of words and idioms, and study many usage examples. Naturally, there will be a large quantity of practice involved.Lexicology embraces other academic disciplines, such as morphology(形态学), semantics（语义学）, etymology（词源学）, stylistics（文体论）, lexicography（词典编撰）.Aims of the course1)Give a systematic description of the English vocabulary.2)Offer an insight into the origin and development of the English vocabulary.3)Discuss the problems of word-structure and word-formation4)Study the use of English words , their meanings and changes in meaning, theirsense relations.The significance of the course1)Develop your personal vocabulary and consciously increase your word power(active vocabulary).2)Understand word-meaning and organize, classify and store words moreeffectively.3)Raise your awareness of meaning and usages, use words more accurately andappropriately.4)Develop your skills and habits of analyzing and generalizing linguisticphenomena in your learning experiences.5)Ultimately improve your receptive and productive skills in language processingas well as language production.。

Chapter 1 Introduction1. Linguistic and English LinguisticLinguistic 的目的 aims at developing a theorygeneral linguistic 一般语言学 descriptive linguistic 描述性语言学general linguistic (一般语言学 ) 为 descriptive linguistic (描述性语言学) 提供了framework(框架), 这也就是为什么 general linguistic 能够被分析和被描述.General linguistic and descriptive linguistic are complementary to each other (相互补充).English linguistic is a kind of descriptive linguistics.2.The nature of languages (语言的本质) 1. language is a system 2. language is symbolic3. language is a system of vocal symbolsThe system of language is called langue 1.language is a systemthe speaker ’s speech is called paroleCompetence is the speaker-hearer’s knowledge of his language Performance is the actual use of language in concrete situation2. language is symbolic ( 语言是象征意义的)3. language is a system of vocal symbols ( 语言是一种声音符号)语言学侧重研究的是 speech 不是 written formReason1. Biologically (生物上来讲) 儿童学习说比学习读写早得多.2. Functionally (功能上来讲) 日常生活中口语使用比书面语频繁的多.3. Historically ( 历史而言) 口头语使用在书面语之前,当今世界有许多语言并没有留 下 文 字 记录Language is arbitrary Language is creativeLanguage is double-structured Language is changeableLanguage is arbitrarya linguistic symbol is composed of two things speechsound( form)形式and the idea( meaning) 意义Language is creativeLanguage is double-structuredgrammatically-meaningful and sound-meaningless语法上的有意义,声音上的无意义.Language is changeableWhat is the nature of human language?In a short , it is a system of arbitrary vocal symbolsThe unique features like creativity(创造力)duality of structure (结构的双重性)changeability(易变性)3.Scientific method (科学方法)1. collecting data ( 收集数据)2.forming a hypothesis (提出假设)3.testing the hypothesis (验证假设)4.drawing conclusions (得出结论)An important principle of the scientific method Objectivity 客观性Three biases 三种偏见1.some languages are primitive and some languages are advanced有的语言是原始的有的语言是先进的.2.only the standard variety is the pure form of a language只有标准的语体才是纯正的语言3.change is not natural for living language and such a change is a sign ofcorruption and decay语言变化是不自然的变化,变化是衰败的现象.Sources of data 资料的来源Collecting data 是研究的首要工作. 假如这语言学家不懂那门语言,他可以找一个informant ( 为语言学调查提供资料的当地人)Rules construction语言描述的首要工作是construct rules ( draw conclusion) 得出结论How does a linguist construct a rule?书本p15页中4.The goal of linguistics 语言学的目的establish a model of a native speaker’s competence建立一种本族语言的模式literal model 具体模式physical modelmodeltheoretical model 理论模式conceptual modelEg. Which types does a model of the competence of a native speaker belong to?---- theoretical model / conceptual model 理论模式两个特性explicitness 明确性the rules of the langue the model contains are clearlydefined某一门语言的规则定义非常明确generative 生成性use a finite set of rules to generate an infinite numberof sentences用有限的规则创造无限的句子四种研究的方向Phonological 音位知识Morphological 词法知识Syntactic 句法知识Semantic 语义知识Phonological 音位知识sound and sound patterns of his language研究语音和语音模式Morphological 词法知识how a word is formed如何构词的模式Syntactic 句法知识whether a sentence is true or not句子是否符合语法Semantic 语义知识meaning of a language 语言的意义5.Sub-branch of linguistics 语言学的分支6.The father of modern linguistics—Saussure现代语言学之父(瑞士人come from Swiss)现代语言学开始于20世纪,但是发展迅速,有两大流派(two schools) Structure linguistics 结构语言学Transformational-generative Grammar 转换生成语法TG-grammar为什么说Saussure是现代语言学的奠基人呢?1.’’ A Course in General Linguistics” is the first real essay on linguistic theory<<普通语言学>>是第一本真正意义上的语言学专著.2. The distinctions between synchronic and diachronic, syntagmatic andparadigmatic,langue and parole. Show us a brief explanation of these basic and significant distinctions.书中关于共时研究和历时研究, 横向关系和纵向关系, langue 和parole的阐述很明了.4. A few theoretical distinctions introduced have become foundations of linguisticstudy and exerted great influence on the latter development of linguistics.其中的一些理论成为语言学的基础对后来的语言学发展影响很大.Chapter 2 phonetics 语音学定义phonetics is known as the science that studies speech sounds of all human languageThree sub-branches 三个分支articulatory phonetics 发音语音学acoustic phonetic 声学语言学auditory phonetic 听觉语言学发音器官articulatorsWhat is vocal tract?-- The speech organs above the larynx from the vocal tract 喉以上的器官称之为vocal tractConsonants and vowels 辅音和元音Consonant : is a speech sound where the airstream from the lungs is either completely blocked or partially blocked or where the opening is so narrow that theair escapes with audible friction气流完全封闭或部分封闭，或开口小并且有摩檫V owels ：is a speech sound that the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat, and which is usually pronounced withvibration of the vocal cords.气流不受阻碍，发音时声带一定振动。

English lexicology英语词汇学Chapter1 basic concepts of words and vocabularyClassification of wordsChapter2 the development of the english vocabularyModes of vocabulary development 1150Chapter 3 word formationMorphemes , allomorphsChapter 4 word formation21.Affixation, prefixation suffixation ,pounding (characteristics formation )3.Conversion , blending , clipping , acronymy4.Initialisms , acronyms5.Back-formation , words from proper namesChapter5 word meaning1.The meanings of ‘meaning’2.Reference ,concept ,sense3.Motivation(onomatopoeic,morphological ,semantic , etymological)4.Types of meaning < grammatical , lexical , conceptual , associative> Chapter 6 sense relations and semantic fieldPolysemy , homonymy , synonymy , antonymyChapter 7 changes in word meaningExtension , narrowing , elevation , degradationChapter 8 meaning and context1.Types of context (extra-linguistic, linguistic)2.Role of contexta.elimination of ambiguityb.indication of referencec.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaningChapter9 english idioms1.Classification of idioms(nominal , adjectival , verbal , adverbial )2.sentence and useChapter 10 english DictionariesTypes of dictionary , three good Dictionarya.Longman dictionary of contemporaryb.Collins COBUILD english Dictionaryc. A Chinese-english DictionaryUnit 1Methods of study ,there are generally two approaches to the study of words ,namely synchronic and diachronicAims and significance of the courseLanguage study involves the study of speech sounds ,grammar and vocabulary .vocabulary has proved particularly important and certainly the most difficult .Willkins asserts ‘without grammar very little can beconveyed ,without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed’ A good knowledge of morphological structure of english words and rules of word-formation will help learners develope their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power.V ocabularyAll the words in a language make up its vocabulary .The term vocabulary is used in different senses1.It can refers to the total number of the words in a language2.It can stands for all the words used in a particular historical period3.Also used to all the words of a given dialectClassification of wordsWords may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency ,into content words and function words by notion ,and into native words and borrowed words by originBasic word stock have characteristics1.All national character2.Stability3.Productivity4.Polysemy5.Collocability6 Neutral in style7 Frequent in useWords void (lack)of the stated characters ,do not belong to the common core of the language ,they include the following:Terminology 术语，专有名词JargonSlang 俚语，黑话ArgotDialectal wordsArchaismsNeologismsContent words(=notional words) and function words (=empty words) Native words and borrowed wordsApart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock ,in contrast to borrowed words ,native words have two other features Neutral in styleFrequent in useBorrowing words :words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words and loan words or borrowings in simple terms Loan words under four classesDenizens 同化词Aliens 异化词Translation-loans 译借词Semantic-loans 借意词The Indo-European language familyWhich can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar ,theIndo-Europe is one of them .it is thought to be a highly inflected language They accordingly fall into eight principle groups ,which can be grouped into an Eastern set : Balto-slavic, Indo-Iranian, American and Albanian; a Western set; Celtic , Italic, Hellenic,GermanicA historical overview of the english vocabularyThe first people known to inhabit the land were CeltsThe second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions450- < old > -1150-（Middle）-1500- <modern>-NOWModes of vocabulary developmentWe can concluded that modern english vocabulary develops through three channels < > creation , semantic change , borrowing Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials namely roots ,affixes and other elementsSemantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new needBorrowing has palyed a vital role in the development ofvocabulary ,particularly in earlier timesMorphemes :minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes,in other words ,the morphemes is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words ’Chapter 5Word meaningWords are but symbols , many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference .1.reference is the relationship between language and the word .The reference a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary <随意的>and conventional <传统的>2.Concept<概念>=notionIn many cases meaning is used in the sense of ‘concept ’meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical3.Sense :generally speaking ,the meaning of ‘meaning’is perhaps what is termed ‘sense’ . ‘sense’denotes the relationships inside the language.Motivation <理据>Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaningOnomatopoeic motivation 拟声的理据<ha ha>Morphological motivation 形态的理据<one can figure out>Semantic motivation 语义<联想>的理据<mouth of river>Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a wordEtymological motivation 词源的理据The meaning if many words often related directly to their origins, Types of meaninga.Grammatical meaning an Lexical meaning语法和词汇意义b.Conceptual meaning and associative meaning 概念和联想意义Chapter 6The subjects that have long held the interest and attention ofsemanticists are ,polysemy 多义的, homonymy , synonymy ,antonymy , and hyponymyTwo approaches to polysemyDiachronic approach and synchronic approachThe meanings were acquired by extension ,narrowing ,analogy ,transfer The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses,traditionally known as radiation and concatenation Homonymy <different meaning but same sound and spelling>Based on the degree of similarity ,homonyms fall into threeclasses:perfect homonyms ,homographs and homophones1.Perfect homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling but different meaning .Bank n. The edge of the river ,lakeBank n . An establishment for money businessBear n. A large heavy animalBear v. To put up withDate n. A kind of fruitDate n. A boy or a girl friend2.Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaningBow n. Bending the head as a greetingBow n. The device used for shooting arrowsSow v. To scatter seedsSow n. Female adult pig3.Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaningDear n. A loved personDeer n.a kind of animalRight a. correctWrite v.to put down on paper with a penRite n. Ceremonial procedureSon n. A male child of someoneSun n. The heavenly body from which the earth gets warmth and light Of three types ,homophones constitute the largest number and are most commonOrigins of homonymsChange in sound and spellingBorrowingShortingAs homonyms are identical in sound or spelling ,particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns<双关>for desired effect of ,say, humor,sarcasm or ridicule<嘲弄>On Sunday they pray for you and on Monday they prey <折磨>on you So-called pious<虔诚的>gentleman and ladies 善男信女The sardonic tone is unmistakable 讽刺的语气是不言而喻的SynonymySynonymy is one of the characteristic features of vocabulary of natural languagesTypes of synonyms1. Absolute synonyms also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects,both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning ,including conceptual and associative meanings2. Relative synonymy also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation,but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of given quality.For example .to change a thing is to put another thing in its place ;to altera thing is to alter it in different manner and at different times .’A man change his habits ,alters his conduct ,and varies his manner of speaking’Look at stagger /reel/totter.stagger implies unsteady movement characters by a loss of balance and failure to maintain a fixed course . Stagger under a heavy load ;reel suggests a swaying or lurching so as to appear on the verge of falling .Silent沉默的，无言的，寂静的/ tacit , shine闪耀，发光/ glitter华丽夺目，炫耀/sparkle闪耀，活跃，焕发活力和才智/glare强光，瞪眼，炫耀, different/ various, idle空闲的，懒惰的，无意义的/lazy/indolent , strange奇怪的/odd 古怪的/ queer,古怪的，可疑的large / huge庞大的/tremendous极大的，巨大的，惊人的，极好的/colossal Sources of synonyms1.BorrowingAs a result of the borrowing ,words of native origin form many couplets and triplets with those from other language2.Dialects and regional english3.Figurative an euphemistic4.Coincidence with idiomatic expressionsDiscrimination of synonymsThe differences between synonyms boil down to three areas: denotation , connotation ,and application1.Difference in denotation .‘I did not comprehend his arguments ,although i understood the language , and all the sentences’A lump of sugar一块糖, a slice of meat一片肉, a chunk of wood , a sheet of paper A cake of soapTypes of antonyms1.Contradictory termsThe assertion of one is the denial of the otherAnother distinctive feature of this category <类型>is that such antonyms are non-gradable2.Contrary terms3.Relative termsHolds water <站得住脚的>Characters of antonyms1.Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.words denoting nature, quality or state of things have many antonyms2.A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3.Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion .pairs of antonyms are seen as marked and unmarked terms respectively4.Contrary terms are gradable antonymsDestitute / opulent dull / livelyHyponymyHyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.That is the meaning of more specific word word is included in that of another more general word .For instance ,tulip and rose are hyponyms of flowerSuperordinate termsHammer , saw , screwdriver ,spanner, plaice, cod , herring ,sole Semantic field <领域>The massive word store of a language like english an be conceived of as composed around a number of meaning areas.An integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense 语义相互关联It is general belief that.....Personal address system 个人称呼KinshipTypes of changesWord-meaning changes by modes ofExtension< 扩展>,narrowing<缩小> ,degradation< 降格>,elevation< 升格>,and transferCauses of changes: it is in response to some needExtra-linguistic factors1.Historical reason2.Class reason3.Psychological 心理学的，精神上的reasonThe role of context <语境>1.Elimination of ambiguity <消除歧义>2.Indication of referents <限定所指>3.Provision of clues for inferring word -meaning <为猜测词义提供线索>①Definition②Explanation③Example④Synonymy⑤Antonymy⑥Hyponymy⑦Relevant details⑧Word structureChapter 9Idioms consists of set phrases and short sentences ,which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas .therefore, idioms are colorful ,forcible and thought-provoking.For example ,fly off the handle (become excessively angry) and put up with ( tolerate)In a board sense ,idioms may included colloquialisms ,slang experience, proverbs .Character of Idioms1.Semantic unityBeing phases or sentences ,idioms each consist of more than one word ,but each is a semantic unity. Idiom have their respective literal meanings .for instance, till the cows come homeKeep in mind <remember> take off <imitate模仿>to no avail <useless> like a breeze <easily>2.Structural stability 结构稳定First the constituents of idioms cannot be replacedLip service <support only in words ,not in fact > is not to be changed into mouth service . Kick the bucket <die> bury the hatchet <come to friendly or peaceful terms>Secondly ,the word order cannot be inverted or changed ,for example ,by twos and threes and tit for tat are not to be turned into by threes and twos and tat for titThe lion share is ....最大的，份额Thirdly,the constituents of an idioms cannot be deleted or added too . Not even an articleFinally many idioms are grammatically unanalysable for exampel ,diamond cut diamond <two parties are equally matched > Sure as eggs is eggs <quite certainly>It should be pointed out that the idiomaticity of idioms is gradableand may best be thought in terms of a scaleHis promotion stepped up <improve or enhance>The boy playing in the river in the raw <naked>Turn over a new leaf <begin a new life>, as cool as a cucumber泰然自若draw the certain <end or conceal>Idioms nominal in natureIdioms of this class have a noun as the key word in each and function as a noun in sentencesWhite elephant<a+n>something useless and unwanted but big and costly 华而不实的东西Pink elephantThe Elephant in the roomBrain trust <n+n>智囊团An appel of discord <n+prep+n>祸根Jack of all trades<n+prep+det+n>万事通，三脚猫Fly in the ointment<n+prep+n>something that spoils the perfection of somethingFlesh and blood 亲情Idioms adjective in natureCut and dried <a+a>already settled and unlikely to be changedAs poor as a church mouse<as+a+as+n>having ,orearning ,barely enough money for one’s needsWide of the mark <not at all suitable ,correct>Beyond the pale <beyond the limit of proper behaviour> Up in the air <uncertain>Idioms verbal in natureThis is the largest group of all .subdivided into phrasal verbs短语动词and other verb phrases动词短语Look into <investigate>调查，研究go on <continue>Put off <discourage ...from ; cause....to ;dislike .Delay .make excuses in order to avoid a duty>Turn on 兴趣盎然get away with <get something wrong without being punished>Put down to 把.....归因于Mak it 赶上了follow one’s nose 朝相同地方走Fall flat <fail completely in its intended or expected effect> Give sb the bag 炒鱿鱼Sing a different tune <change one’s opinion or attitude> Call it a day <decide or agree to stop either temporary or for good>Chop and change 变化无常Swim against the stream 不随波逐流Come back to earth 脚踏实地Make ends meet 收支平衡Keep the pot boiling 量入为出，维持生计Let the dog see the rabbit 好狗不挡道Bite the hand that feeds one恩将仇报Tooth and nail 全力以赴Through thick and thin 同舟共济In clover or in the clover 生活安逸Sentence idiomsThey are mainly proverbs and sayings ,including colloquialisms and catchphrase ,as far as sentence types are concerned,they embracedeclarative ,interrogative , imperative, and exclamative sentences. In terms of complexity they can be further divided into simple compound and complex sentenceNever do things by halves 不要半途而废That’s the time of day <exclamative,simple>Let the sleeping dog die 别多管闲事A leopard cannot change its spotsBehind the mountains there are people to be found Upon my word 正如所言，的确Art is long , life is short ,生命短暂，艺术无涯Pepper and salt 花白的头发Bag and baggage 所有家当High and low 高低贵贱Use of idiomsWe need aware of the rhetoric characteristics of idioms such as stylistic , features , rhetoric features and their occasional variationsIn deep water 陷入困境，tide over克服Take the helm 掌权If you run after two hares , you will catch neither 脚踩两只船Have all one’s eggs in one basket 孤注一掷New brooms sweep clean 新官上任三把火Wash one’s dirty linen in public 家丑不可外扬Keep the pot boiling 维持生计Boil down 压缩Jump the bait 上钩了Hit below the belt 玩阴的play fair 公平竞争Come to pass <take place ,happen >Be it that <even though >即使，尽管In the wake of <right after, following>紧接着Give the lie to <all sb a lair >称某人是骗子Of note <notable , well-know>著名的Mishandle, mess up , 搞砸了Variations of idioms1.Replacement2.Addition or deletion3.Position-shifting4.Shortening5.Dismembering。

English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each other（2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary词汇Vocabulary: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary词语分类Classification of English Words：1.By use frequency: basic word stock & non basic vocabulary基本词汇的特征:1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability3)Productivity（多产性） 4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的词:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words (6)Archaisms（古语） (7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms2.By notion: content words实词 & functional words虚词3.By origin: native words & borrowed wordsNative words（本族语词）: Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)1) denizens(同化词，融入英语): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词，可以看出源头）: kowtow3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see / tofu4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed withreference to the form,but their meanings are borrowed pioneer本指开拓者，先引申为先锋。

Introduction 绪论0.1 The nature and Domain of English lexicology 英语词汇学的定义及研究范围Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words. 词汇学是语言学的一个分支，研究词汇的起源和意义。

English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages. 英语词汇学研究英语词汇的形态结构、词的对应及其语义结构、词义关系、词的历史演变、词的构成及词的用法等。

English lexicology is a theoretically-oriented course. 英语词汇学是一门理论性课程。

It is chiefly concerned with the basic theories of words in general and of English words in particular. 该课程主要论述词汇学的基本理论，特别是英语词汇的理论知识。

However, it is a practical course as well, for in the discussion, we shall inevitably deal with copious stocks of words and idioms, and study a great many usage examples. 但是，英语词汇学也是一门实践性课程，在该书的论述中，我们将遇到大量的词汇和习语，学习大量词汇用法实例。