Speech 1The _1____Greek word___________for “man” is “anthropos” and the word_2______anthropology___________has been in the English language_3_for centuries_______. Butjust what does the word mean? Literally anthropology means“__4_the study of man_______” However, as British_ 5_philosopher_______AlfredNorth Whitehead_6__noted__________, “It is a well founded historicalgeneralization that _7_the last thing to be discovered___in any science is whatscience is really about” And as Paul Bohannan, _8_renowned anthropologist____________, pointedout a number of years ago, “Each science that deal s with people has its own_9__definitions_____of human. An_10__economist__________, “he explains,” defines ahuman as a_11 _choice-making_____________animal. Philosophers _12_define__________manas a _13__rationalizing_________animal…” Anthropology___14 ___attempts______to beall-inclusive-the study of human _15__behavior_________in all places and throughouttime. It_16_specializes________in the _17_describtion______of_18____humanistic, scientific, biological, historical, psychological, and social views of humans._____________________.Now, to _19_paraphrase_________Barbara Miller’s statement in her textbook, culturalanthropology , the popular impression of anthropology is _20_based mainly___onmovies and television shows that _21__anticipated_______anthropologists asadventurers and heroes. Some do have adventures and discover treasures inEgyptian _22__tombs____________and elsewhere, but_23_mostly________, their work isless _24_glamourous_______and involves _25__repetitive___and _26_tedious___activities.Until around the middle of the nineteenth century, anthropology was a termused for all humanists._27__My lecture today explains the fields and branches of anthropology_____. We’re going to_28_begin by____stating that anthropology is the study ofhuman behavior in all places and at all times.Western_29 __civilizations_ takes credit for the development of anthropology,which, _30____as a matter of fact___, was a relatively late science. Earlier Greek andRoman philosophers were more interested in _31__speculating____about the idealsociety _32___rather than_____describing those known to them.After the__33 _onset____of the Age of Exploration, which included thediscovery of the Americas, as well as travel to other distant places, the study ofnon-western people began in earnest. In modern day, anthropology is arecognized _34__social science____with two__35 __broad fields__andseveral_36__branches or sub-fields____.The two broad fields are _37_physical_________anthropology and_38__cultural_anthropology. Let me give you a _39___brief description__ofeach. Physical anthropology is concerned with the development of man asa_40__mammal__. Related subjects are_41__anatomy___, biology, andpaleontology. Physical anthropologists study the _42_evolution__of thehuman_43__species__. One way they do this is by the comparativeanalysis of fossils-preserved _44__remanence____of once-living creatures andliving_45_primates___, which include human beings or Homo sapiens. Common_46__fossils__are shells, bones, and molds or imprints. These are foundburied in the earth or_47__permanently frozen in glaciers_____. Living primatesare analyzed in order to study the mechanics of evolution and_48_genetic_differences among human populations.Next let’s talk about cultural anthropology. This field is the study of learnedbehavior in human societies. Most cultural anthropologists limit themselves toa few_49_geographic areas___, _50__for example___, Margaret Mead in Samoaand New Guinea, and Clyde Kluckhohn with the Navajo Indians in thesouthwestern United States. I should mention that Kluckhohn’s work Mirror forMan is considered_51_one of the best introductions to anthropology______. Cultural anthropology and the _52__scientific_______study of human culture will be discussedin more detail in our next lecture. The subfields of cultural anthropologyare_53___archeology, linguistics and ethnography. _.Archaeology is the study of different cultures through material sources ratherthan direct _54___interviews or observations____of the group under study. _55_one example__of a famous archaeological site discovered in the past century was King Tut’sTomb near Luxor, Egypt, in 1922.Linguistics, as you probably know, is the study of language as_56__communication_____among humans. Culture is learned and_57_transmitted__primarily through language.Ethnography is the systematic description of human societies,58 _mostly_____basedon firsthand fieldwork. Based on ethnographies, anthropologists provideethnologies or explanations of the behavior of different peoples. A secondsubfield of ethnography is social anthropology. Social anthropology is_59_concerned with people_____as social beings. A related subject is, of course,sociology.Let me also mention briefly psychological anthropology, which deals withhuman_60_personality and feelings_____________. These are gr eatly influenced by an individual’s biological and_61 __mental________characteristics, as well as physicalsurroundings and personal_62_experiences____. Related subjects are psychologyand psychiatry.It is important to note that there are several _63_univesals__________common amongall societies;_64_for example__________, the basic similarities in human biology and the existence of two sexes. Another of these is education either formal or informalor both. Education is necessary to provide the young with the_65__skills and attitudes___needed to carry on as_66_adults_______.So, you might ask, what are the practical applications for such a broad field?The answer is that anthropology helps us _67_plan the field____and helps us contribute to the _68_solutions__________of human problems. This newest area of the study of man is applied anthropology._69_a formally___, anthropology waslimited to the academic field. Anthropologists were teachers or museumcurators. But for the past several _70_decades________large numbers of “anthro” graduates have been employed in fields such as _71__urban__planning and administration, _72__health care____, and international development. Most important is that although anthropologists have taken up the task ofdocumenting the _73_processes and changes____of cultures past and present, they also provide the necessary insight into_74_where the human species is hiding___.Speech 2Let me begin the lecture today by asking, _1_what exactly is culture_Thisquestion has been _2_approached_____by anthropologists in many different ways. Murdock, _3_for example__, in outline of world cultures, produced what manyhave called the _4_the ultimate laundry list ___of things cultural, by naming 900-odd _____of human behavior. I won’t _6_attempt____to go into these at this time.wr ote, “culture is that _8_complex_____whole which includes knowledge,_9_belief, art, morals ____, custom, and any other_10_capabilities__and habitsacquired by man as a member of society.” But another _11_definition___ofculture that many find useful is, “the_12_totality___ of learned, sociallytransmitted behavior.” Obviously this definition leaves out much if we feel_13_obligated__to include all the ways of life that have been evolved by peoplein every society.A particular culture, then, would mean the total shared way of life of a givengroup. This would include their ways of thinking, acting, and feeling asreflected in their_14_religion__, law, language, art, and customs, as well asconcrete things such as_15_houses, clothing and tools__. Cultural anthropology isthe study of cultures-living and dead. In its totality, it includes linguistics, thestudy of speech forms, _16__archaeology____( the study of dead cultures),and_17__ethnology__, which is the study of living cultures or those that can beobserved directly.Why study cultural anthropology? One reason noted by Ruth Benedict,another well-known anthropologist, is that the story of humanity from the StoneAge to the present is such a fascinating one of cultural growth. Interestingly,every society has gone through three _18_stages_or steps of cultural growth.These are savagery, barbarism, and finally, civilization. The last is, of course,to varying degrees.We are often reminded of another _19_compelling___reason to learn aboutdifferent cultures-to learn and use a foreign language effectively. Most of usrealize that just knowing the language of another culture is not enoughfor_20__meaningful communication__. You can ask anyone who has tried touse their high school Spanish inside a Spanish-speaking country.Ned Seelye, in his 1993 book Teaching Culture, lists six _21_skills__to nurtureand support intercultural communication:Number 1: Cultivate_22_curiosity__ about another culture and empathy towardits members.Number 2: Recognize that different roles and other social variables such asage, sex, social class, religion, ethnicity, and _23_place of residence___affect the way people speak and behave.Number3: Realize that effective communication requires discovering theculturally _24__conditioned images of people___when they think, act, and react to the world around them.Number4: Recognize that situational _25_variables and conventions __shapepeople’s behavior in important ways.Number5: Understand that people generally act the way they do because theyare _26_excising the options__their society allows for satisfying basicphysical and psychological needs.And, finally, number6: Develop the ability to evaluate the truth of ageneralization about the target culture and to _27_locate___and organizeinformation about the target culture from books, mass media, people, andpersonal observations.Culture and society must coexist. Without living together people cannot createa culture or a way of life. If a_28_group or society is small, isolated_____,and_29_stable__, it might also share a single culture. For example, thinkof the Tasaday, allegedly a Stone Age people in the Philippine rain forest, whowere discovered by anthropologists back in 1971. A side note is that due totheir supposed_30_isolation__, they had no weapons or known words intheir language for “enemy” or “war” In your reading after the lecture, you’ll learnmore about the Tasaday and the controversy surrounding them up to thepresent time.It is important to remember, however, that_31_large societies____, such as thosein Canada, the United States, India, or Egypt, are multicultural or “pluralist”societies. They also tend to have many subcultures. In the long history ofhuman life, multiculturalism is a fairly_32_recent phenomenon___. Those of us in multicultural environments must remember that discovering_33__similarities___among people from different cultures is as important asidentifying differences. For example, in classrooms on just about everyuniversity campus in the world, we find students from manydifferent_34_social and ethnic backgrounds___. What are some of the “universals”that you and other international students have all experienced inyour_35_earlier educational life_____?One common universal is that all cultures use _36_rewards or punishments____to encourage_37_correct behavior__. Another__38 __example__is that societieswithhold certain information from the young. This might include faults in ourleaders or sexual taboos. A third universal is the _39_effort by the controlling group___in a culture to educate the young to _40_strengthen and secure____its dominant position. Inthe majority of contemporary societies this control is reached through politicalmeans__41_and in contrast to military actions of ealier times__,__42 _such as_the Roman Conquests and the Morrish invasions._43__In closing this lecture on societies and culture___, let me _44_remind_you not to forget the contributions of thoughts and actions of the _45_individual person__in a group. Note the observation of Edward Sapir, another famous anthropologist: “it is always theindividual that really thinks and acts and dreams andrevolts.”_46_Now, obviously the concept of culture will be argued by anthropologists for years to come.Speech 3To many people throughout the world, some of the _1_most remarkable _and_2__puzzling monuments_______________ of ancient times are the pyramids of ancient Egypt. You know, almost nothing at all _3_remains__________of the great cities of the kingsof Egypt, the pharaohs. _4_Time and weather________________have been really hard on ancient Egypt’s cities and towns, but several of the_5_temples, statues_____________, and, most important of all, the pyramids have _6_survived______________. Even thoughmany of the pyramids are in_7__ruins__________, they still give us some idea ofthe _8_magnificence ___of ancient Egypt’s civilization-a civilization that, after all,lasted for more than 3000 years. Remember, when we’re talking about_9_ancient____Egypt, we’re talking about at least thirty consecutive_10_dynasties____.A dynasty is a series of kings or queens of the same _11_royal_____family-somethinglike the Romanovs of Europe, the Ming dynasty of China, or the Al-Sauds ofSaudi Arabia.As many of you probably already know, the pyramids were constructed astombs or _12_burial______places for the Egyptian kings and their family members.You see, the ancient Egyptians _13__passionately__________believed in life after death.In fact, their entire culture _14__revolved________around that belief. The kings,queens, and state officials often_15_spend an entire life time___ preparingfor their life after death. They did this by_16_collecting possessions____ or “grave goods,” by__17__building tombs____________, and so forth. The Egyptiansbelieved that they could be assured of an afterlife only if their bodies could bepreserved from_18_decay or destruction____. So when a person died, and_19__especially______________when a pharaoh died, in order to ensure his_20__eternal_________life, he had his body embalmed or mummified. In other words,he had his corpse _21__dried out_________and wrapped in linen to preserve if fromdecay. Then he had his mummy_22_hidden___________. This whole idea mayseem quite strange today, but the ancient Egyptians really believed that ifone’s mummy was destroyed, then his or her_23_soul would be destroyed____,and if, on the other hand, the mummy-the dead body-was preserved, the soulwould be_24_immortal_____. Let me repeat that. If one’s mummy waspreserved, the soul would_25__go on living_________.For another thing, the ancient Egyptians believed that the dead person couldtake his or her earthly possession along to the next world-this is just theopposite of the Western idea that “_26_You can’t take it with you when you go___.” Anyway, the dead person was provided with_27_food, clothing, furniture, weapons__,and even_28_servants________. It was not at all unusual for the pharaoh’s slaves tobe put to death so that they could serve him in his afterlife.So you can see why the pharaohs wanted to have their bodies and theirpossessions hidden to protect them from_29_grave robbers_____. Before they died,they had special tombs built for this purpose-to hide their bodies andtheir_30_treasures_________. In the early years of ancient Egypt, these tombs werethe pyramids-the vast burial chambers that were built to fool the grave robbers. Unfortunately, the grave robbers almost always outsmarted even the_31_most powerful and the most careful ___of pharaohs. They broke intomost of the pyramids or tombs and _32_stole the food and other treasures______they found. They even desecrated and destroyed the mummies of the dead.Needless to say, they would not bother a poor person’s grave. These graverobbers even banded together into_33_organizations or brotherhoods_____. Just imagine, a grave rob bers’ union!Now, as for the actual construction of the mighty pyramids, it was during theFirst and Second Dynasties that the _34_kings and nobles_______of Egypt began to construct the type of tomb called the “mastaba.” The First and SecondDynasties lasted from about 3100 until about 2665 B.C.E. Mastaba, by the way,comes from an Arabic word meaning _35_bench or long seat_____A mastabalooked like a low, flat-topped rectangle-something like a low bench or ashoebox._36_essentially____________, the pointed pyramid was no more than an extension upward of the flat-topped mastaba.The first _37_typical______________pyramid (or, at least what most peoplegenerally think a pyramid looks like) was built during the third Dynasty (whichlasted roughly from about 2664 until 2615 B.C.E.) this pyramid was for KingZoser (that’s spelled Z-o-s-e-r) in about 2650 B.C.E. It was built by an_38_architect________named Imhotep (I-m-h-o-t-e-p). This pyramid was constructedas a series of_39__giant steps or stairs_____. It, along with others of its type, iscalled the Step Pyramid. It was really simply a pile of mastabas, each stepsmaller and higher than the one before. The Step Pyramid of King Zoser was_40__different from___the later pyramids _41__because___________it was never covered with stone to give it a smooth surface.Actually, it was not until the Fourth Dynasty that the_42_most famous___pyramids were built. The three great pyramids of Giza belong to the FourthDynasty pyramids. (The Fourth Dynasty covered the period from 2614 to 2503B.C.E.) They are located near the town of Giza, _43_on the west bank___ofthe Nile River, just outside the _44_capital city_________of Egypt-Cairo. TheGreat Pyramids are really the very __45_best reserved____of all the Egyptian pyramids. The _46_largest_________of these pyramids of is known as the Great Pyramid. And great it is! It was built for King Khufu (that’s K-h-u-f-u). (Khufuwas called Cheops[C-h-e-o-p-s] by the Greeks, and so the pyramid issometimes called the pyramid of Cheops.) It has been _47_estimated__that 2.3million blocks of limestone were used to build the Great Pyramid. The blocksaveraged 2500 kilograms each. The largest stone block_48_weights__________about 15000 kilos. The base of the pyramid covers 5.3hectares-an area large enough to hold ten_49__football fields___________. There’s a story that the conqueror Napoleon once sat in the _50_shadow_______of the Greatpyramid and _51_calculated___________that the mass of stone in the pyramid couldbe used to build a wall _52__3 meters high______________by 0.3 meters thick around the entire country of France. In terms of height, the pyramid was originally 147meters high, but today the top 10 meters are missing, and the_53__entire outer____limestone covering has been stripped away. Itseems that local builders and conquerors found it _54_convenient_ to stripoff the limestone from the pyramids and use it to build with.The Great Pyramid of Khufu is considered a wonder of_55_ ancient architecture_. When you look at it, you _56_will immediately__wonder how on earth the ancient Egyptians ever managed to build such a _57_structure____with only basic mathematics, with no modern machinery (such as cranes, bulldozers, and soforth), and with _58__no iron__tools they had to cut the big limestoneblocks with tools made of_59_coper___, which is a rather soft metal. Butthey managed to do it. The ancient Greek_60__historian___, Herodotus(that’s H-e-r-o-d-o-t-u-s)-Herodotus said that 400000 men worked for twentyyears to build the Great Pyramid. _61_archaeologists___today doubt these figures, but, of course, the true _62__statistics_________cannot ever really be determined. It is thought, though, that at least 100000 people worked to build any singlepyramid._63_Most of these works were slaves_. They worked on thetombs during times when the Nile River overflowed its banks and covered thefields. The Nile’s flooding made farming impossible and made_64_transportation________of the stone to the pyramid site_65_easier_______.The Second and Third Pyramids of Giza were built by Khufu’s successors. Thetomb of Khafre is the Second Pyramid of Giza (Khafre is spelled K-h-a-f-r-e.) Itwas originally three meters_66_lower______ the Great Pyramid; however,today it is only 0.8 meters lower. Its present height is 136.2 meters. The third pyramid, built for Menkaure, covers_67_half the area_____ occupied by theGreat pyramid, and it is only 62.5 meters high. (Menkaure is spelledM-e-n-k-a-u-r-e.)None of the later pyramids that were built during the next thirteen or fourteen centuries were nearly as large or as magnificent as the pyramids of Giza. Andeven though pyramid building continued right up into the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties (that was up through about 1786 B.C.E.), it was becomingincreasingly clear to the pharaohs and the nobles of Egypt that the pyramidmethod of burial _68_provided very little or no protection_____at all for theirroyal corpses. The pyramids were, of course, _69_impressive and lasting monuments__, but they were all too_70_visible____________. They invited grave robbers to try to break into them. And so_71_eventually____________, one of the pharaohs, King Thutmose І, decided to _72_sacrifice publicity_for safety in the construction of his House of Eternity. I don’t need to spell Thutmose for you, do I? Instead ofordering the construction of a pyramid, Thutmose had his tomb dug out of therock of a valley far from the Nile River and far from Cairo. The _73_spot______he chose was some eleven kilometers from the river on its west bank. The area isnow known as the Valley of the Kings. Many pharaohs followed Thutmose’s example. After him, most of the pharaohs_74__abandoned_____ above-ground pyramid construction in favor of underground hiding places as the burial placesfor their_75_precious royal bones__. And yet, what is so _76_ironic____is thateven these tombs did not _77_escape the attack_____of the graverobbers-persistent devils that they were!I’ll end this discussion by pointing out that, when the ancient Greeks first sawthe Great Pyramids of Egypt, the pyramids were already 2000 years old. TheGreeks called them one of the Seven Wonders of the World._78_almost nothing remains____of the other six Wonders-the HangingGardens of Babylon, the Temple of Diana, and so on –but the three mightyPyramids of Giza, as well as thirty-two other _79__recognizable____pyramids,still stand. These pyramids of Egypt are monuments to a great and ancientcivilization and to people’s_80__endless search for eternal recognition and eternal life_.Speech 4The fields of _1_history and archaeology_ go hand in hand. Let me explain what Imean. History is often the story of a _2_particular____person, a person like theEmperor Napoleon. Or, history is the story of a_3__nation___, _4_such as _thecountry of France. _5_On the other hand_____archaeology is the study of thepeople, the_6_customs___, and the life of ancient times. Archaeologists find outabout these ancient times by studying the_7_ruins of cities__________, monuments ortombs, or any written _8_records_____that remain.In today’s lecture I’m going to _9_talk about__a little_10_particular person in ancient Chinese history__, and I’m going to talk about _11_one of the greatest archaeological discoveries_______ofthe late twentieth century. The history part of my talk will be about QinShihuang, who was the founder of the _12_first unified empires__in China. He livedbetween 259 B.C.E and 210 B.C.E., and he is often called the first emperor ofChina. Just as the exploits of the Emperor Napoleon still _13_facinate___manypeople and scholars today, so does the story of Qin Shihuang and his house ofetern ity. Today, I’m also going to be talking about what has been found, to date,in the area of Qin Shihuang’s tombs. We don’t know what _14_additional_____treasuresof Chinese history and culture will be found in the tomb area (or tomb mound)in the future, but what has been discovered so far is an _15_incredible_______find forancient Chinese history and archaeology.To set the historical context for the _16_exhibition_____of Qin Shihuang’s House ofEternity, I’d like to first talk a little bit about_17_the man himself__. His name wasYing Zheng. And before he unified the empire in 221 B.C.E., China had beentorn apart by wars between seven regional kingdoms. Under the leadership ofYing Zheng, one of these regional kingdoms., the Kingdom of Qin,eventually_18_defeated______ the other six kingdoms. Ying Zheng’sdefeat of the other six kingdoms _19_accomplished_______two things: First, itended the power of these other six kingdoms. Second, the _20_unification_________ofthe seven kingdoms started a centralized imperial system that lasted morethan 2000 years.When he became Emperor, Qin Shihuang did a number of things to unify andprotect his_21__empire________. First, he standardized _22_the system for writing__Chinese characters. Prior to his unification of the empire, the writing of Chinesecharacters _23_varied______in the different kingdoms. When Qin Shihuang becameEmperor, he decreed that a standardized system of Chinese characters was tobe used throughout the empire. Next, he decreed that there would be just onesystem of_24_weights and measures_____, and one system of currency, rather than manydifferent systems, as had been the case before unification.To protect his new empire from the barbarian tribes to the north, he ordered theconstruction of the Great Wall of China._25_Now_________, there were alreadysmall walls scattered across the northwest frontier of the empire, but QinShihuang had these walls _26_join together to creat_____1500 miles of__27_fortification______and protection for his empire. Qin Shihuang alsobegan an _28_enormous________road-building project. In the second year afterunification, construction of three major imperial highways was begun. These highways eventually _29_stretched____________6800 kilometers (or 4225 miles) throughout the empire. Just in_30_comparison___________, by the year 150 C.E. the Roman Empire’s road system was about 5984 kilometers or 3718 miles. TheRoman Empire’s system stretched all the way from Scotland to Rome and thento Jerusalem.Qin Shihuang also began another large construction project- the building of histomb or mausoleum. It seems that as soon as the Emperor_31_gain power___, he became preoccupied with death, and with constructing a magnificent House ofEte rnity for his afterlife. At this point, I’m going to segue from talking about the biography of Qin Shihuang to talking about the archaeology part of my lecture.Let’s see. OK. As I mentioned, when Qin Shihuang became emperor, he_32_immediately begin contruction ___of his House of Eternity.And what an incredible House of Eternity it was! Archaeologists believe that700000 laborers were forced to work on the tomb for about eleven years. Theentire area of the tomb covers approximately 56.25 square kilometers. It isbelieved that the tomb was intended to be a microcosmic replica of the Qincapital around the years 221 to 210 B.C.E. Archaeologists also believe thatQin Shihuang’s tomb contained imperial _33_palaces_____filled with raregems and other treasures, and that it also contained_34_gradens and temples_____. It is even believed that the _35_chemcial mercury_____was pumped through the tombto create the image of _36_flowing rivers_____in the tomb area. Can you imagine rivers of mercury in a tomb? A 12000-square-meter area at the site of the tombhas a very high mercury content-in fact, ten times higher than that of thesurrounding area so archaeologists think that it is very likely that the MercuryRivers did, indeed, flow through the tomb area.Without a doubt, _37__the most striking features____of the Emperor Qin’s House of Eternity are the terracotta warriors and horses found in the tomb area. In 1975, Chinese _38_authorities___________built a museum on the excavation site to preserve these terracotta warriors and horses, and the other incredible treasures thatwere being uncovered. Today, the museum covers an area of 16300 squaremeters. That means the area is more than two football fields long! The areais_39__divided into 3 sections_____, or what are called pits: No.1 Pit,No2 Pit, and No.3 Pit. No.1 Pit is the_40__largest______ of the three pits; it’s approximately 960 square meters in size. It first opened to the public onChina’s National Day in 1979. in No.1 Pit, there are columns of soldiers at thefront, followed by war chariots at the back. It is _41_estimated___that there are3210 terracotta foot soldiers in this pit, alone. Two rears later, in 1976, No.2 Pitwas unearthed. It contained nearly a thousand warriors and ninety woodenchariots. This pit was opened to the public in 1994, and today visitors from allover the world go to see Qin Shihuang’s House of Eternity, and to see histerracotta army that was to protect his tomb. Altogether more than 7000terracotta soldiers, horses, chariots, and even _42_weapons_________have beenfound in these three pits, and more will likely be found in the future as。
