工业园区产业集群和区域品牌效应毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献

中英文资料外文翻译外文翻译The mercerized and internationalized backgroundAt present，under the mercerized and internationalized background，how to strengthen the independent development ability of our country’s auto industry has become the urgent problem to be solved．This article，by referring to the experience of developed countries of automobile industry in implementing the industrial policy and comparing the two regulations made in 1994 and 2OO4 about independent intellectual property right in the industrial policy，has put forward policy recommendations of supporting independent development of our country’s auto industry．A brand based on market is promises for a product's capability, quality and service. Up to now, well-known automobile brands are accounting for two percent of two hundred far famed brands in all country. Meanwhile, after going into WTO, a great set of foreign automobile enterprises possessing good quality, favorable capability, knight service will enter into our country and bring a fire-new idea of brand for our domestic consumers. No doubt, that will not only greatly impact on our domestic automobile enterprises, which don't have the capability of independent exploitation and the consciousness of brand cultivation, but also affect development of automobile industry. So, during the crucial period, our country needs urgently brands of great competitive power, which can drive and prompt development of automobile industry.The paper, starting with the analysis of brand and combining with the theory of strategy management, regarding carmakers as object, depicts development panorama of domestic automobile industry and provides some simple thoughts about breeding and developing automobile brand in our country, through studying studying problems relating to automobile brand. It is the primary studying intention that upgrades core competency Of domestic automobile enterprises and impels development of automobile industry, recurring to putting forward some related tactics of breeding and developing automobile brand in our country. The paper's meaning consists two points: the first, it makes enterprises attach importance to automobile brand in consciousness and know it afresh;the second, it advances some operational tactics by demonstration analysis, which can be used for reference by enterprises and industry.Research methods used in the paper are primarily demonstration analysis and comparison analysis. Anticipative research fruits of the paper involve: (1) seedtime and actuality analysis of automobile brand in our country; (2) mode-comparison of automobile brand in different countries;(America, German, Japan, Korea); (3) key factors of affecting our automobile brand development;(4) tactics and countermeasures of cultivating automobile brand. Innovations of the paper rest with: (1) research content, i.e. havinga all-around research of breeding automobile brand and coming into being strategy system;(2) research purpose, i.e studying how to forge competitive automobile brand can drive industry development; (3) research angle, i.e. knowing and analyzing automobile industry in virtue of brand.Referred to the main indexes about evaluating national competitive ability, which is the commonly used method in the international society, this thesis aims at analyzing and evaluating the international competitive ability of Chinese automobile industry in a scientific and objective way. Compared with those industries in some developed countries, domestic automobile industry is relatively frail and has a very long way to go. This thesis illustrates the history of Chinese automobile industry ever since the foundation of new China, analyzes in detail its important role in national economy, and the opportunities and threats it meets after china entrance WTO. This thesis draws a whole picture about domestic automobile industry from three aspects: products, corporations and industries. Considering the history and actuality of domestic automobile industry, this thesis collects and analyzes groups of data about automobile industry both from domestic and international. A lot of work was made in quantitative and qualitative analysis from all sides. Based on this, this thesis drew a conclusion about evaluating the international competitive ability of Chinese automobile industry, found out the advantages and disadvantages about this industry. In the end of this thesis, some ideas and advice are put forward.Welfare Evaluation of Trade Protection--The automobile industry of post world war 2 in JapanSocial welfare is one of the key standards in evaluating the effects of government policies for both economists and government. In this thesis, having compared and analyzed trade protectionists, i.e. quota, tariff and other non-tariff barriers in their effects on social welfare, specific evaluation and suggestion are given in the case of the autoindustry protection in post World War 2 Japan, so to shed light on the auto protection policies should be taken in China today. Here, consumer’ surplus and Ohyama Welfare Standard are selected in evaluating social welfare.The automobile industry in Post World War 2 in Japan is picked for two reasons. Firstly, the auto industry in China today is in a very similar situation as that of Japan used to be while Japan was a new member of GATT. Secondly, regarded as one of the most successfully developed industries under protection, the auto industry in Japan has some precious experiences worth studying.The article has four chapters. In chapter1,the definition of social welfare is given, and the necessary and sufficient condition for Pareto optimality, the Mashallian Consumer Surplus, Hicksian consumer surplus and Ohyama Social Welfare Standard are discussed in detail the auto industry. In Chapter 2, according the scale and protection on Japan from 1945-1979 is divided into four periods: government domination period, Quota Period and low-tariff Periods: government domination period, Quota Period, High-tariff Period and low-tariff Period, where the protect policies are evaluated respectively by their effects on social welfare. Chapter 3 explores the US-Japan trade friction in auto industry in 1980s and sheds light on the choice of various protectionists from the perspective of Political Economics. Chapter 4 concludes the whole thesis discussing some specific protection policies of Japan and drawing suggestion for China to effectively protect its own auto industry.Mini-car industry development in China is a successful example in the condition of Chinese market economy, it's always one of the important factor that propel the steady increase of auto market of China. Through about two decade development, the total amount of mini-car increased from 0.06% to 26.4% of total amount of auto all over the country now and the amount of produce and sale are up to 540,000 units. According to the challenge principle of "who is the best who is the winner" in the market, the number of the mini-car manufacturer decreased from early over one hundred to recent five.In this article，base on extensive data collecting and investigation, the mini-car developing and competing status of China, as well as the developing status (including enterprise, production ,market ,product, etc.) of Liuzhou Wuling Motors which is one of the five mini-car manufacturer are deeply analysed and studied .This article also discussed the competing environment that Liuzhou Wuling Motors faced, then provided the developing strategies.Since the later part of 1990, the economic benefits of CITIC Zhongyuan AutomobileCompany have been declining rapidly and the production management has also been on a sticky wicket, showing difference with an overall upward tendency to the corresponding period of the National Automobile Industry, which impelled this writer to make deeply careful researches on the strategy of development for the company.By reviewing the past of CITIC Zhongyuan Automobile Company, analyzing the influences on international & domestic external environments ever since China' s enter into WTO, analyzing the markets of the main products and the competitive opponents and analyzing the internal conditions such as the main problems faced by the company, this writer has separately made researches and probed into the strategies of development for CITIC Zhongyuan Automobile Company and the subordinate companies-Zhengzhou Nissan Automobile Co.，Ltd and Zhengzhou Light Truck Factory invested by CITIC Zhongyuan Automobile Company so as to try to find a feasible road which enables the cc叩any to break away from the disadvantageous situation and develop continuously as soon asPossible.With the entrance of 90th century, the international situation of automobile industry changed greatly. Due to the production surplus of international automobile industry, different countries competed fiercely to obtain the automobile market. Many companies adjust their developing strategy and speed the course of globalization to realize the scale-economy and get the new market. Merging and recombining become the symbol of automobile industry globalization.China, the biggest automobile consuming market in the world, has become the main field of many countries contesting. The Chinese automobile industry has developed for half century. Although china has get great achievements, as for scale or technique, China still drop behind. So how to improve the international situation and realize the modernization of China automobile industry is a basic mission.With the entrance of WTO, Chinese automobile industry faces three challenges: the first, after China entrances WTO, the government trade protection will be canceled. The second, with the economic development and standard of living improved, how to enlarge the consumer demanding? The third, with the automobile industry globalization, how to compete or cooperate with the MNC and build our effective developing strategy? And then we can develop our own auto industry and realize modernization. In the three challenges, the former two is normal and we can get many experiences from other countries. But the third is a real challenge. Other automobile developed countries have not faced this kind of situation. Expect for exactly estimation, we still need great innovation spirit.In the situation of entrance of WTO and globalization of automobile industrial competition, we try to analysis the Chinese automobile industry status quo, including the analysis of industrial structure, market analysis. Through the analysis we try to find out the questions in development strategy, government decision and enterprise management. Then we will analysis the questions and give the reasons. At the same time, we will the introduce the typical representatives of automobile developed countries and new developing countries about their developing strategy, including America, Japan, South Korea, and Mexico. We will conclude the advantages and experiences of above countries. On the base of that, we will combine the situation of Chinese automobile industry and the effecting analyzing of Chinese entrance of WTO. Then we will give out the advantages and potential advantages of Chinese automobile industry and bring forward the basic strategy of Chinese automobile industrial development. At last, we will give some advises about the developing strategy of Chinese automobile industry. These tactics include industrial policy improving, technique improving, competitive improving and cluster developing of Chinese automobile industry and technique innovation. This dissertation just discusses the Chinese automobile from a few tangles. It is not perfect, so I hope teachers can give me advice.Automobile industry is a traditional pillar industry in our country. Having developed 50 years, now the industry is still backward in products in comparison with that of western developed countries. Facing to economy globalization, someone has suggested that China should give up automobile industry and import the products from other countries directly, which can avoid wasting resources. This kind of viewpoint is lack of foresight. Automobile industry belongs to high and new-technology industries. Meanwhile, China has its large automobile market. Developing automobile industry will not only improve engineering level, but also drive other relevant industries. In addition, after China joining WTO (World Trade Organization), the automobile market will become a part of international market step by step. Basing on domestic market, we will develop our own intellectual property. At the same time, aiming at the demands of some developing countries, we will develop overseas markets. In this way, domestic automobile industry will be growing fast.In order to develop the automobile industry, we should find its disadvantages, get over influence of various disadvantages, seize every good chance, and exert our advantages. In this thesis, first, we stress on the impacts of economy globalization and WTO on Chinese automobile industry. Second, the thesis discusses many influence factors for developing Chinese automobile industry. Finally, the thesis analyzesopportunity, challenge and strategy of Chinese automobile industry.The course of the development of the automobile industry all over the world indicates that the automobile industry is very important to the national economy. The increasing proportion of distribution cost to sale price on the international automobile market shows that marketing plays an increasing role in raising the competitiveness of automakers. The trend of the international automobile market demonstrates thatAsia-especially china-will be the fastest growing market in the world. Although the national automobile industry has developed greatly in the past 50 years, it is still far behind the foreign competitors, especially in marketing after longtime ignoring marketing, domestic automarkers are lack of direct selling experience.In this thesis, the author analysed the 4P of marketing of the Chinese and foreign automarkers as well as the advantages and disadvantages of Chinese automobile industry and made some suggestions on how to improve the competitiveness of automobile enterprises after studied the management and administration of them.In order to convey the opinion systematically so that it may become more practicable, the construction of the thesis is arranged like this:Chapter One: Introduction. In this part, the author introduced the background, the focal point and the aim of writing the paper. The author also emphasized the importance of automobile industry to the national economy and the importance of marketing to automobile enterprises.Chapter Two: The author described the present automobile industry and the market all over the world through some examples. The influence on the national automobile industry after China joined WTO and the strategy for the development of the industry are given in this part as wellChapter Three: Close analysis and explanations of the strategy for price, products, patens and channels of distribution, and sales promotion are given after introduced the marketing strategy of automobile enterprises in both China and foreign countries.Chapter Four: The problems that exist in management and administration of national automobile industry are researched and the disparities in competitiveness between Chinese and foreign automobile industry are revealed. Reasons of these problems and disparities are also applied.Chapter Five: Conclusion proposals were put forward for improving the management and administration of automobile enterprises in China: adjust the concept of management, emphasize the importance of market segmentation and the study of consumer psychologyand consumer’s behavior, sensitiveness the reaction to market and extend the scope of service. Great importance is attached to the foundation and management of customer relationship.China's automotive industry has passed almost half a century and has evolved many basic circumstances and features of its own which will be the starting point or base for its further development. Full understanding of those circumstance and features is the prerequisite for us to analyze and study.In order to develop our automotive industry under new situation, we not only must roundly and objectively analyze the problems in us, but also must fully and correctly understand our actual and potential strengths. We should clearly recognize that although our automotive industry, which has experienced nearly fifty years of development including twenty years of reform and opening, has a long way to go comparing with the world level, it possesses many rare giant actual and potential strengths.After entering WTO our automotive industry has entered upon a new phase to cooperate and compete with multi-nationals under the background of globalization, and it will have to join the integration tide of global economy gradually. The trends of world automotive industry and the strategies of multi-nationals in China certainly will directly influence the strategic pattern of our automotive industry, and therefore they are the important part of the external environment of our automotive industry needed special attention. Great changes have taken place in the development conditions of our automotive industry since we entered WTO. At the end of protection interim period to automotive industry, the comprehensive effects of WTO including tariff concession, quota cancel, service trade opening and foreign capital policy regulation will display. The medium and high-class car and key components will come under obvious attack depends on not only the reduction of the protection degree, but also the increase of our international competitive power.Japan and Korea are all latecoming developed countries of automotive industry. After entering GATT, they persevered in adopting the vigorous policies to foster and train the self-developing capability and enhance the international competitive power. Then their automotive industry received unprecedented fast development and drove the whole national economy to be powerful and prosperous to a miracle. Although the international environment has been totally different and different countries differ greatly in their conditions, the experiences of Japan and Korea automotive industry during that period and driving effects of their automotive industry to their national economy will stillbe special historic significance to our automotive industry.Entering WTO let us enter upon a new e to cooperate and compete with multi-nationals featuring foreign companies but national treatment and domestic market but international competition. That is a severe challenge as well as a rare opportunity to our automotive industry. The great country and its big market are the most important strength of us. To take full advantage of the strength of great country and big market under the opening and competition environment should be the starting point for the development train of thought of our automotive industry under new economic background.Economic globalization droved by trade liberalization, investment liberalization and finance liberalization has been international background of our lives. Trade liberalization provides a more open and more liberal environment for the development of international trade. It is not only one of subject of modern international economic development, but also the trend of China's adjustment of her trade policy. Under economic globalization, advantage gained by a country depends on the magnitude of her international competitive power of industry. As China as concerned, the influence factors and basic status of her international competitive power of industry have their own characteristics.This paper analyses the international competitive power of China's industry under the background of trade liberalization. Firstly, it explains the historical and current background of the subject, presents the thinking way, the analysis methods, the frame and the innovation of this paper. Secondly, the theories about trade liberalization and international competitive power of industry are presented, the author simply describes the process and the achievements of trade liberalization and introduces something about trade liberalization in China, illustrates mainly the concept, the meaning, the correlative theoretical basis and the measure methods of the international competitive power of industry. Then, in the fourth chapter, Taking example for China's automobile industry, the paper analyses the international competitive power of automobile industry under the background of trade liberalization, It carries out some quantitative analysis by using some indexes based on the imports and exports data, assesses the economic benefits since 1992 by means of the model of the maximizing deviations method. Analyses the structure of automobile industry from the perspectives of industry concentration, etc. Lastly the author makes a conclusion that the international competitive power of auto-industry basically presents an increasing trend along with the trade。

制药园区介绍英文作文英文：Pharmaceutical industrial park, also known as pharmaceutical park, is a specialized industrial park for the development and production of pharmaceuticals. It is an important part of the pharmaceutical industry chain and plays a vital role in promoting the development of the pharmaceutical industry.The pharmaceutical industrial park is usually locatedin a designated area, with a complete infrastructure and a favorable investment environment. It provides a one-stop service for pharmaceutical companies from project approval, land use, construction, to production and sales. The park also has a sound supporting system, including logistics, warehousing, testing, research and development, and talent training.The pharmaceutical industrial park not only provides aplatform for the development of pharmaceutical companies, but also promotes the integration of the upstream and downstream industries of the pharmaceutical industry chain, and enhances the overall competitiveness of the industry.It also promotes the transformation and upgrading of the pharmaceutical industry, and promotes the innovation and development of the industry.In China, the development of pharmaceutical industrial parks has been highly valued by the government, and a number of pharmaceutical industrial parks have been established in various regions. For example, the Chengdu High-tech Zone Pharmaceutical Industrial Park in Sichuan Province, the Shanghai Zhangjiang Biomedical Industry Base, and the Hangzhou Binjiang Pharmaceutical Industrial Park in Zhejiang Province.中文：制药园区，也称为制药工业园区，是专门为制药开发和生产而设立的专业化工业园区。

英文文献资料（一）Clusters and the New Economics of CompetitionMichael E. Porter（Harvard university）Why Clusters Are Critical to CompetitionModern competition depends on productivity, not on access to inputs or the scale of individual enterprises.Productivity rests on how companies compete,not on the particular fields they compete panies can be highly productive in any industry–shoes, agriculture, or semiconductors – if they employ sophisticated methods, use advanced technology,and offer unique products and services. All industries can employ advanced technology; all industries can be knowledge intensive.The sophistication with which companies compete in a particular location, however, is strongly influenced by the quality of the local business environment.1 Companies cannot employ advanced logistical techniques, for example, without a high quality transportation infrastructure. Nor can companies effectively compete on sophisticated service without well-educated employees. Businesses cannot operate efficiently under onerous regulatory red tape or under a court system that fails to resolve disputes quickly and fairly. Some aspects of the business environment, such as the legal system, for example, or corporate tax rates, affect all industries. In advanced economies, however, the more decisive aspects of the business environment are often cluster specific; these constitute some of the most important microeconomic foundations for competition.Clusters affect competition in three broad ways:first, by increasing the productivity of companies based in the area; second, by driving the direction and pace of innovation, which underpins future productivity growth; and third, by stimulating the formation of new businesses, which expands and strengthens the cluster itself. A cluster allows each member to benefit as if it had greater scale or as if it had joined with others formally – without requiring it to sacrifice its flexibility.Clusters and Productivity. Being part of a cluster allows companies to operate more productively in sourcing inputs; accessing information, technology,and needed institutions; coordinating with related companies; and measuring and motivating improvement.Better Access to Employees and Suppliers. Companies in vibrant clusters can tap into an existing pool of specialized and experienced employees, thereby lowering their search and transaction costs in recruiting. Because a cluster signals opportunity and reduces the risk of relocation for employees, it can also be easier to attract talented people from other locations, a decisive advantage in some industries.A well-developed cluster also provides an efficient means of obtaining other important inputs.Such a cluster offers a deep and specialized supplier base. Sourcing locally instead of from distant suppliers lowers transaction costs. It minimizes the need for inventory, eliminates importing costs and delays, and –because local reputation is important –lowers the risk that suppliers will overprice or renege on commitments. Proximity improves communications and makes it easier for suppliers to provide ancillary or support services such as installation and debugging. Other things being equal, then, local outsourcing is a better solution than distantoutsourcing, especially for advanced and specialized inputs involving embedded technology, information, and service content.Formal alliances with distant suppliers can mitigate some of the disadvantages of distant outsourcing. But all formal alliances involve their own complex bargaining and governance problems and can inhibit a company’s flexibility. The close, informal relationships possible among companies in a cluster are often a superior Arrangement.In many cases, clusters are also a better alternative to vertical pared with in-house units, outside specialists are often more cost effective and responsive, not only in component production but also in services such as training. Although extensive vertical integration may have once been the norm, a fast-changing environment can render vertical integration inefficient, ineffective, and inflexible.Even when some inputs are best sourced from a distance, clusters offer advantages. Suppliers trying to penetrate a large, concentrated market will price more aggressively, knowing that as they do so they can realize efficiencies in marketing and in service.Working against a cluster’s advantages in assembling resources is the possibility that competition will render them more expensive and scarce. But companies do have the alternative of outsourcing many inputs from other locations, which tends to limit potential cost penalties. More important, clusters increase not only the demand for specialized inputs but also their supply.Access to Specialized Information. Extensive market, technical, and competitive information accumulates within a cluster, and members have preferred access to it. In addition, personal relationships and community ties foster trust and facilitate the flow of information. These conditions make information more transferable.Complementarities. A host of linkages among cluster members results in a whole greater than the sum of its parts. In a typical tourism cluster, for example, the quality of a visitor’s experience depends not only on the appeal of the primary attraction but also on the quality and efficiency of complementary businesses such as hotels, restaurants, shopping outlets, and transportation facilities. Because members of the cluster are mutually dependent, good performance by one can boost the success of the others.Complementarities come in many forms. The most obvious is when products complement one another in meeting customers’ needs, as the tourism example illustrates. Another form is the coordination of activities across companies to optimize their collective productivity. In wood products, for instance, the efficiency of sawmills depends on a reliable supply of high-quality timber and the ability to put all the timber to use – in furniture (highest quality), pallets and boxes (lower quality), or wood chips (lowest quality). In the early 1990s, Portuguese sawmills suffered from poor timber quality because local landowners did not invest in timber management. Hence most timber was processed for use in pallets and boxes, a lower-value use that limited the price paid to landowners. Substantial improvement in productivity was possible, but only if several parts of the cluster changed simultaneously.Logging operations, for example, had to modify cutting and sorting procedures, while sawmills had to develop the capacity to process wood in more sophisticated ways. Coordination to develop standard wood classifications and measures was an important enabling step. Geographically dispersed companies are less likely to recognize and capture such linkages.Other complementarities arise in marketing. A cluster frequently enhances the reputation of a location in a particular field, making it more likely that buyers will turn to a vendor based there.Italy’s strong reputation for fashion and design, for example, benefits companies involved in leather goods, footwear, apparel, and accessories. Beyond reputation, cluster members often profit from a variety of joint marketing mechanisms, such as company referrals, trade fairs, trade magazines, and marketing delegations.Finally, complementarities can make buying from a cluster more attractive for customers. Visiting buyers can see many vendors in a single trip. They also may perceive their buying risk to be lower because one location provides alternative suppliers. That allows them to multisource or to switch vendors if the need arises. Hong Kong thrives as a source of fashion apparel in part for this reason.Access to Institutions and Public Goods. Investments made by government or other public institutions– such as public spending for specialized infrastructure or educational programs – can enhance a company’s productivity. The ability to recruit employees trained at local programs, for example, lowers the cost of internal training. Other quasi-public goods, such as the cluster’s information and technology pools and its reputation, arise as natural by-products of competition.It is not just governments that create public goods that enhance productivity in the private sector. Investments by companies –in training programs, infrastructure, quality centers, testing laboratories, and so on – also contribute to increased productivity. Such private investments are often made collectively because cluster participants recognize the potential for collective benefits.Better Motivation and Measurement. Local rivalry is highly motivating. Peer pressure amplifies competitive pressure within a cluster,even among noncompeting or indirectly competing companies. Pride and the desire to look good in the local community spur executives to attempt to outdo one another.Clusters also often make it easier to measure and compare performances because local rivals share general circumstances – for example, labor costs and local market access – and they perform similar activities. Companies within clusters typically have intimate knowledge of their suppliers’ costs. Managers are able to compare costs and employees’performance with other local companies. Additionally, financial institutions can accumulate knowledge about the cluster that can be used to monitor performance.Clusters and Innovation. In addition to enhancing productivity, clusters play a vital role in a company’s ongoing ability to innovate. Some of the same characteristics that enhance current productivity have an even more dramatic effect on innovation and productivity growth.Because sophisticated buyers are often part of a cluster, companies inside clusters usually have a better window on the market than isolated competitors do. Computer companies based in Silicon Valley and Austin, Texas, for example, plug into customer needs and trends with a speed difficult to match by companies located elsewhere. The ongoing relationships with other entities within the cluster also help companies to learn early about evolving technology, component and machinery availability, service and marketing concepts, and so on. Such learning is facilitated by the ease of making site visits and frequent face-to-face contact.Clusters do more than make opportunities for innovation more visible. They also provide the capacity and the flexibility to act rapidly. A company within a cluster often can source what it needs to implement innovations more quickly. Local suppliers and partners can and do get closely involved in the innovation process, thus ensuring a better match with customers’ requirements.Companies within a cluster can experiment at lower cost and can delay large commitments until they are more assured that a given innovation will pan out. In contrast, a company relying ondistant suppliers faces greater challenges in every activity it coordinates with other organizations –in contracting, for example, or securing delivery or obtaining associated technical and service support. Innovation can be even harder in vertically integrated companies, especially in those that face difficult trade-offs if the innovation erodes the value of in-house assets or if current products or processes must be maintained while new ones are developed.Reinforcing the other advantages for innovation is the sheer pressure – competitive pressure, peer pressure, constant comparison – that occurs in a cluster. Executives vie with one another to set their companies apart. For all these reasons, clusters can remain centers of innovation for decades.Clusters and New Business Formation.It is not surprising, then, that many new companies grow up within an existing cluster rather than at isolated locations. New suppliers, for example, proliferate within a cluster because a concentrated customer base lowers their risks and makes it easier for them to spot market opportunities. Moreover, because developed clusters comprise related industries that normally draw on common or very similar inputs, suppliers enjoy expanded opportunities.Clusters are conducive to new business formation for a variety of reasons. Individuals working within a cluster can more easily perceive gaps in products or services around which they can build businesses. Beyond that, barriers to entry are lower than elsewhere. Needed assets, skills, inputs, and staff are often readily available at the cluster location, waiting to be assembled into a new enterprise.Local financial institutions and investors, already familiar with the cluster, may require a lower risk premium on capital. In addition, the cluster often presents a significant local market, and an entrepreneur may benefit from established relationships. All of these factors reduce the perceived risks of entry – and of exit, should the enterprise fail.The formation of new businesses within a cluster is part of a positive feedback loop. An expanded cluster amplifies all the benefits I have described – it increases the collective pool of competitive resources, which benefits a ll the cluster’s members. The net result is that companies in the cluster advance relative to rivals at other locations.英文文献中文翻译（二）来源：哈佛商业评论Vol.76第6期 1998年作者：迈克·E. 波特出版时间：1998簇群与新竞争经济学(美）迈克·E. 波特为什么簇群对竞争至关重要?现代竞争取决于生产力, 而非取决于投入或单个企业的规模。

英文论文（外文文献）翻译成中文的格式与方法英文论文（外文文献）翻译成中文的格式与方法本文关键词：外文，英文，中文，翻译成，文献英文论文（外文文献）翻译成中文的格式与方法本文简介：在撰写毕业设计（论文）或科研论文时，需要参考一些相关外文文献，了解国外的最新研究进展，这就需要我们找到最新最具代表性的外文文献，进行翻译整理，以备论文写作时参考，外文文献中英文文献占绝大多数，因此英文论文准确的翻译成中文就显得尤为重要！一、外文文献从哪里下载1、从知网国际文献总库中找英文论文（外文文献）翻译成中文的格式与方法本文内容：在撰写毕业设计（论文）或科研论文时，需要参考一些相关外文文献，了解国外的最新研究进展，这就需要我们找到最新最具代表性的外文文献，进行翻译整理，以备论文写作时参考，外文文献中英文文献占绝大多数，因此英文论文准确的翻译成中文就显得尤为重要！一、外文文献从哪里下载1、从知网国际文献总库中找，该数据库中包含14,000多家国外出版社的文献，囊括所有专业的英文文献资料。

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参考文献不必翻译，直接使用原文的（字体，字号，标点符号等与毕业论文中的参考文献要求同），参考文献的序号应标注在译文中相应的地方。

毕业论⽂和外⽂翻译要求内容沈阳农业⼤学本科⽣毕业论⽂（设计）撰写要求与格式规范（2008年7⽉修订）毕业论⽂（设计）是培养学⽣综合运⽤所学知识，分析和解决实际问题，提⾼实践能⼒和创造能⼒的重要教学环节，是记录科学研究成果的重要⽂献，也是学⽣申请学位的基本依据。

为保证本科⽣毕业论⽂（设计）质量，促进国内外学术交流，特制定《沈阳农业⼤学本科⽣毕业论⽂（设计）撰写要求与格式规范》。

⼀、毕业论⽂（设计）的基本结构毕业论⽂（设计）的基本结构是：1.前置部分：包括封⾯、任务书、选题审批表、指导记录、考核表、中（外）⽂摘要、关键词和⽬录等。

2.主体部分：包括前⾔、正⽂、参考⽂献、附录和致谢等。

⼆、毕业论⽂（设计）的内容要求（⼀）前置部分1．封⾯由学校统⼀设计。

2．毕业论⽂（设计）任务书毕业论⽂（设计）任务由各教学单位负责安排，并根据已确定的论⽂（设计）课题下达给学⽣，作为学⽣和指导教师共同从事毕业论⽂（设计）⼯作的依据。

毕业论⽂（设计）任务书的内容包括课题名称、学⽣姓名、下发⽇期、论⽂（设计）的主要内容与要求、毕业论⽂（设计）的⼯作进度和起⽌时间等。

3．论⽂（设计）选题审批表4．论⽂（设计）指导记录5．毕业论⽂（设计）考核表指导教师评语、评阅⼈评审意见分别由指导教师和评阅⼈填写，答辩委员会意见、评定成绩以及是否授予学⼠学位的建议等材料应由答辩委员会填写。

6．中（外）⽂摘要摘要是毕业论⽂（设计）研究内容及结论的简明概述，具有独⽴性和⾃含性。

其内容包括论⽂（设计）的主要内容、试（实）验⽅法、结果、结论和意义等。

中⽂摘要不少于400字；英⽂摘要必须⽤第三⼈称，采⽤现在时态编写。

7．关键词关键词均应为专业名词（或词组），注意专业术语的通⽤性，数量⼀般为3－5个；外⽂关键词与中⽂关键词⼀⼀对应。

8．⽬录⽬录由论⽂（设计）的章、节、附录等序号、名称和页码组成。

（⼆）主体部分1.前⾔（引⾔或序⾔）简要说明本项研究课题的提出及其研究意义（学术、实⽤价值），本项研究的前⼈⼯作基础及其欲深⼊研究的⽅向和思路、⽅法以及要解决的主要问题等。

附件1（毕业设计一）材料科学与工程学院毕业实习环节外文翻译要求一、翻译论文的选择：1、与自己毕业设计相关的外文参考文献2、该译文可以作为设计论文中文献综述中的部分内容；3、原则上选取的英语原文不超过5页。

二、译文结构内容1、作者，英文原文题目，期刊名称，卷期号，年份，起止页码，2、文章题目，作者（保持英文，不需翻译），作者单位（英文不变）3、摘要，关键词4、正文部分：引言，试验过程，结果与讨论，结论，参考文献（保持原文状态）5、译文中的图标需要翻译，图可以复印后粘贴或扫描插入三、译文和原文统一装订在一起，独立与毕业论文一起上交四、几点附属说明1 文章所在期刊的期刊名及相关信息不要翻译。

2 文章的作者，作者的单位，地址，下注的通讯作者的情况，参考文献不要翻译。

3文章的题目，摘要，关键词，及正文都要按照原文的顺序来翻译。

4文章中图表翻译示例如下：此为翻译前的表格：此为翻译后的表格：表1 微波和常规方法加工的粉体金属样品的性能Table 1 Properties of microwave and conventionally processedpowdered metal samplesMW 代表微波烧结；conv代表常规方法。

大部分微波烧结的样品的断裂模量比常规方法烧结的要高。

许多微波烧结的样品的密度也是高于常规方法烧成的样品。

MW, microwave processed; conv., conventionally processed. Themodulus of rupture(MOR) of most microwave-processed samples ishigher than that of the conventional samples. The densities of manymicrowave-processed samples are also higher than those ofconventional samples.即表头和注释中英文都要。

品牌营销策略中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)翻译:品牌消费把品牌看作产品的一个重要组成部分，品牌可以增加产品的价值。

例如大多数消费者会认为一瓶鸦片香水是高品质，价格昂贵的产品。

但是同样样的香水放在不知名的瓶子中可能会被视为质量较低，即使香味是相同的。

品牌已成为产品战略的一个核心问题。

一方面，发展品牌产品，需要一个大量的长期的营销投资，尤其是对广告，促销和包装。

制造商往往会发现自己仅仅做产品更容易，更便宜，而让别人做品牌建设。

例如，台湾厂商已采取这种方法。

他们做出了大量世界服装，电子消费和电脑，但是这些产品却不采用台湾的品牌名称进行销售。

另一方面，多数厂家最终了解到公司的核心竞争了在于掌握品牌。

例如，名牌服装，电子和计算机公司可以用马来西亚和其他地方的便宜资源可以取代台湾制造厂家。

台湾生产者对于更廉价的供应商而导致的销售额减少无能为力- 消费者忠诚的是品牌，而不是生产者。

然而，过去日本和韩国企业，没有犯这样的错误。

他们花巨资为他们的产品建立，如索尼，松下，JVC，现代，金星和三星这些品牌。

即使这些公司没有能力在自己的本土上制造他们的产品，他们的品牌名称继续指挥顾客的忠诚度。

强大的品牌拥有消费者的专营权–那就是，他们能够指挥消费者的忠诚度。

这意味着大量的客户需要这些品牌和拒绝替代品，即使这些替代品以某种低价供应。

那些具有较强消费专营品牌的公司能够抵抗竞争对手的促销策略。

因此，它使供应商投入巨资建立强大的国内甚至全球的认同和偏好的品牌变得有意义。

什么使品牌？也许，专业营销人员最突出的技能是他们创建，维护，保护，巩固和提升品牌的能力。

品牌是一种名称，术语，标志，符号，设计或它们的组合，这是用来确定某种商品或服务的卖家，把他们从竞争对手中区别开来。

因此，一个品牌标识产品的制造商或供应商。

例如可乐- 任何制造商可以生产可乐，但只有可口可乐公司生产可口可乐。

品牌是不是一个新现象。

在过去的一百年中，它的使用已有了相当大的发展。

外文翻译原文Industry Cluster Literature ReviewMaterial Source: Plan 261: Urban and Regional Development ,March 1998 Author:Jessica LeVeenI n d u s t r y C l u s t e r D e f i n i t i o nT h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n i n d u s t r y c l u s t e r s i s f o c u s e d o n t h e a c t u a l d e f i n i t i o n o f a c l u s t e r.T h e v e r y b a s i c d e f i n i t i o n o f a n i n d u s t r y c l u s t e r i s “g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f i n d u s t r i e s t h a t g a i n p e r f o r m a n c e a d v a n t a g e s t h r o u g h c o-l o c a t i o n(D o e r i n g e r a n d T e r k l a1995,p g.225).”T h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f c l u s t e r s i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f a g g l o m e r a t i o n e c o n o m i e s,b u t i n f a c t,i t i s w i t h i n i n d u s t r y c l u s t e r s t h a t a g g l o m e r a t i o n e c o n o m i e s a r e l i k e l y t o b e o b s e r v e d.B e y o n d t h e b a s i c d e f i n i t i o n,h o w e v e r,t h e r e i s l i t t l e c o n s e n s u s o n h o w t o d e f i n e a n i n d u s t r y c l u s t e r.M i c h a e l P o r t e r p o p u l a r i z e d t h e c o n c e p t o f i n d u s t r y c l u s t e r s i s h i s b o o k T h e C o m p e t i t i v e A d v a n t a g e o f N a t i o n s(1990).P o r t e r d e v e l o p e d t h e“D i a m o n d o f A d v a n t a g e,”w h i c h i s f o u r f a c t o r s h e d e t e r m i n e d c r e a t e a c o m p e t i t i v e a d v a n t a g e f o r f i r m s.T h e f o u r c o r n e r s o f t h e d i a m o n d i n c l u d e f a c t o r c o n d i t i o n s,d e m a n d c o n d i t i o n s,i n d u s t r y s t r a t e g y/r i v a l r y,a n d r e l a t e d a n d s u p p o r t i n g i n d u s t r i e s.P o r t e r u s e d t h i s d i a m o n d t o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h f i r m s a n d i n d u s t r i e s h a d c o m p e t i t i v e a d v a n t a g e s,a n d h i s e m p h a s i s o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f r e l a t e d a n d s u p p o r t i n g i n d u s t r i e s e n c o u r a g e d i n t e r e s t i n c l u s t e r s.W h i l e h i s o r i g i n a l t h e s i s w a s a p p l i e d t o n a t i o n s a s a w h o l e,P o r t e r r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y t a k e s p l a c e a t t h e r e g i o n a l l e v e l.T h u s,h i s i d e a s a r e c o m m o n l y a p p l i e d t o c i t i e s a n d r e g i o n s.T h e b u l k o f P o r t e r’s t h e s i s d e a l s w i t h t h e c o m p e t i t i v e a d v a n t a g e s o f c l u s t e r i n g f o r i n d u s t r i e s.T h i s a s p e c t o f h i s w o r k i s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e S e c t i o n I I I.P o r t e r p r o v i d e s a s i m p l e d e f i n i t i o n o f t w o t y p e s o f c l u s t e r s:v e r t i c a l c l u s t e r s,a n d h o r i z o n t a l c l u s t e r s.V e r t i c a l c l u s t e r s a r e m a d e u p o f i n d u s t r i e s t h a t a r e l i n k e d t h r o u g h b u y e r-s e l l e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s.H o r i z o n t a l c l u s t e r s i n c l u d e i n d u s t r i e s w h i c h m i g h t s h a r e a c o m m o n m a r k e t f o r t h e e n d p r o d u c t s,u s e a c o m m o n t e c h n o l o g y o r l a b o r f o r c es k i l l s,o r r e q u i r e s i m i l a r n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s(P o r t e r1990).J a c o b s a n d D e M a n(1996)a n d R o s e n f e l d(1996,1997)p r e s e n t m o r e i n-d e p t h d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t d e f i n i t i o n s o f i n d u s t r y c l u s t e r s,a l t h o u g h t h e s e a u t h o r s a l s o u s e t h e d e f i n i t i o n s o f v e r t i c a l a n d h o r i z o n t a l c l u s t e r s a s t h e b a s i s f o r t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n s.J a c o b s a n d D e M a n(1996,p g.425)a r g u e t h a t“t h e r e i s n o t o n e c o r r e c td e f i n i t i o n o f t h e c l u s t e r c o n c e p t…d i f f e r e n t d i m e n s i o n s a r e o f i n t e r e s t.”T h e ye x p a n df r o m t h e d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e v e r t i c a l a n d h o r i z o n t a l i n d u s t r y c l u s t e r s t o i d e n t i f y k e y d i m e n s i o n s t h a t m a y b e u s e d t o d e f i n e c l u s t e r s.T h e s e i n c l u d e t h eg e o g r a phi c o r s p a t i a l c l u s t e r i n g o f e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y,h o r i z o n t a l a n d v e r t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n i n d u s t r y s e c t o r s,u s e o f c o m m o n t e c h n o l o g y,t h e p r e s e n c e o f a c e n t r a l a c t o r(i.e.,a l a r g e f i r m,r e s e a r c h c e n t e r,e t c.),a n d t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e f i r m n e t w o r k,o r f i r m c o o p e r a t i o n(J a c o b s a n d D e M a n1996).I n a d d i t i o n t o v e r t i c a l a n d h o r i z o n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s,R o s e n f e l d(1997)i n c l u d e s c r i t e r i a f o r d e f i n i n g a c l u s t e r,i n c l u d i n g t h e s i z e o f t h e c l u s t e r,t h e e c o n o m i c o r s t r a t e g i c i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e c l u s t e r,t h e r a n g e o f p r o d u c t s p r o d u c e d o r s e r v i c e s u s e d,a n d t h e u s e o f c o m m o n i n p u t s.H e d o e s n o t e n c o u r a g e d e f i n i n g c l u s t e r s e x c l u s i v e l yb y t h e s i z e o f t h ec o n s t i t u e n t i nd u s t r ie s o r t h e s c a l e of e m p l o y m e n t,p o i n t i ng o u t th a t m a n y e f f e c ti v e c l u s t e r s a r e l o c a t e d i n s m a l l i n t e r-r e l a t e d i n d u s t r i e s w h i c h d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y h a v e p r o n o u n c e d e m p l o y m e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s.A c c o r d i n g t o R o s e n f e l d (1997p g.10),a n i n d u s t r y c l u s t e r i s:“a g e o g r a p h i c a l l y b o u n d e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s i m i l a r,r e l a t e d o r c o m p l e m e n t a r y b u s i n e s s e s,w i t h a c t i v e c h a n n e l s f o r b u s i n e s s t r a n s a c t i o n s,c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d d i a l o g u e,t h a t s h a r e s p e c i a l i z e d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e, l a b o r m a r k e t s a n d s e r v i c e s,a n d t h a t a r e f a c e d w i t h c o m m o n o p p o r t u n i t i e s a n d t h r e a t s.”R o s e n f e l d’s d e f i n i t i o n c l e a r l y e m p h a s i z e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e h e p l a c e s o n t h e r o l e o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n a n d f i r m c o o p e r a t i o n i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d y n a m i c n a t u r e o f a c l u s t e r.I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f I n d u s t r y C l u s t e r sT h e v a r y i n g d e f i n i t i o n s o f i n d u s t r y c l u s t e r s h e l p s e x p l a i n t h e d i f f e r i n g a r g u m e n t s r e g a r d i n g t h e m e t h o d o l o g y t o i d e n t i f y c l u s t e r s.O n e o f t h e c o m m o n a p p r o a c h e s t o i d e n t i f y i n g c l u s t e r s i s b a s e d o n q u a n t i t a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s,i n c l u d i n g l o c a t i o n q u o t i e n t s a n d i n p u t-o u t p u t(I-O)a n a l y s e s(R o s e n f e l d1997).T h e s e t o o l s h e l p i d e n t i f y r e l a t i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e r e g i o n,a s w e l l a s i d e n t i f y t h e b u y e r-s e l l e r l i n k a g e s i n d i f f e r e n t i n d u s t r y s e c t o r s.M i c h a e l P o r t e r r e l i e d h e a v i l yo n t h i s t y p e o f a n a l y s i s t o f o r m t h e b a s i s o f h i s i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t u d y o f i n d u s t r y c l u s t e r s.I-O a n a l y s e s a n d o t h e r q u a n t i t a t i v e t o o l s w e r e a l s o t h e b a s i s f o r i d e n t i f y i n g c l u s t e r s i n s e v e r a l o t h e r s t u d i e s,i n c l u d i n g t h e T w i n C i t i e s I n d u s t r y C l u s t e r P r o j e c t(S t a t e a n d L o c a l P o l i c y P r o g r a m1998)a n d U N C-C h a p e l H i l l’s s t u d y o f N o r t h C a r o l i n a’s i n d u s t r i e s(B e r g m a n,F e s e r a n d S w e e n e y1996).T h e q u a n t i t a t i v e a p p r o a c h t o w a r d s i d e n t i f y i n g i n d u s t r y c l u s t e r s i s g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d a s a c r i t i c a l c o m p o n e n t o f a c l u s t e r a n a l y s i s.T h i s t y p e o f a n a l y s i s w i l l p r o v i d e a n i n i t i a l t o o l f o r i d e n t i f y i n g p o t e n t i a l c l u s t e r s a n d w i l l i n d i c a t e t h e r e l a t i v e p r e s e n c e o f d i f f e r e n t i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e l o c a l r e g i o n.A n I-O a n a l y s i s i s e s p e c i a l l y u s e f u l i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f a v e r t i c a l l y-i n t e g r a t e d c l u s t e r,w h e n t h e b u y e r-s e l l e r l i n k a g e s a r e m o r e o b v i o u s.H o w e v e r,t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s d o e s n o t a d d r e s s w h e t h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s r e a l l y e x i s t b e t w e e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l f i r m s,a n d i t d o e s n o t a c c o u n t f o r o t h e r f a c t o r s b e y o n d t h e p r o d u c t-m a r k e t r e l a t i o n s h i p s,s u c h a s i n d u s t r y c o l l a b o r a t i o n a n d i n f o r m a t i o n f l o w(D o e r i n g e r a n d T e r k l a1995,J a c o b s a n d D e M a n 1996,R o s e n f e l d1996,1997).“A l t h o u g h i n t e r-i n d u s t r y t r a n s a c t i o n s i n c o r p o r a t e d w i t h i n p r o d u c t i o n c h a n n e l s c a n s o m e t i m e s b e d e t e c t e d i n i n p u t-o u t p u t t a b l e s,n e i t h e r t h e c h a r a c t e r o r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g f i r m s n o r t h e b e n e f i t s o f c l u s t e r i n g c a n b e d i s c e r n e d i n t h i s w a y(D o e r i n g e r a n d T e r k l a1995,p g.228).”T h e r e i s a g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e t h a t i n o r d e r t o t r u l y i d e n t i f y i n d u s t r y c l u s t e r s i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c o n d u c t a q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s.S u r v e y s a n d i n t e r v i e w s o f k e y i n d u s t r y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s w i l lh e l p e x p a n d a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e b u y e r-s u p p l i e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s,a s w e l l a s f u r t h e ri d e n t i f y i n g c o m m o n a l t i e s b e t w e e n i n d u s t r i e s(i.e.,w o r k f o r c e o r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e n e e d s, o r t e c h n o l o g i e s u s e d).T h e u s e o f t h e q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s w i l l b o t h c o n f i r m t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s,a s w e l l a s h e l p i d e n t i f y p o t e n t i a l i n d u s t r y c l u s t e r s t h a t m a y h a v e b e e n o v e r l o o k e d b y t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l d a t a a n a l y s i s(D o e r i n g e r a n d T e r k l a1995,J a c o b s a n d D e M a n1996,S t e r n b e r g1991,S t a t e a n d L o c a l P o l i c y P r o g r a m1998).F a c t o r s D r i v i n g I n d u s t r y C l u s t e rG r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n tT h e f a c t o r s w h i c h d r i v e i n d u s t r y c l u s t e r d e v e l o p m e n t a n d g r o w t h a r e a l s o t h e s u b j e c t o f d e b a t e i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e.I n g e n e r a l,b u s i n e s s e s l o c a t e w h e r e i t m a k e s t h e g r e a t e s t e c o n o m i c s e n s e,e i t h e r i n t e r m s o f a c c e s s i n g t h e m a r k e t f o r t h e i r p r o d u c t, t h e l a b o r p o o l,o r r e q u i r e d r e s o u r c e s.T h e b a s i c f a c t o r s t h a t d r i v e i n d u s t r y c l u s t e r i n g a r e v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e f a c t o r s t h a t e n c o u r a g e u r b a n o r l o c a t i o n a la g g l o m e r a t i o n e c o n o m i e s.A s s t a t e db y D o e r i n g e r a n d T e r k l a,“T h e p r e s e nc e o f p o s i t i v e e x t e r n a l i t i e s e x p l a i n s t h e c l u s t e r i n g p r o c e s s,w h e r e a s s p e c i f i c l o c a t i o n s i t e s f o r e a c h c l u s t e rde p e n d o n e i t h e r‘h i s t o r i c a l a c c i d e n t’o r t h e c o s t a d v a n t a g e s p r o v i d e d b y i m m o b i l ef a c t o r s t h a t a t t r a c t e d t h e f i r m s a n c h o r i ng th e c l u s t e r (D o e ri n g e r a n d T e r k l a1995,p g.226).”W h i l e t h e r e i s c o n s e n s u s a m o n g t h e r e s e a r c h e r s t h a t f i r m s w i l l c l u s t e r b e c a u s e t h e y r e c e i v e s o m e t y p e o f b e n e f i t,t h e f a c t o r s t h a t c r e a t e t h o s e b e n e f i t s a r e d e b a t e d.M i c h a e l P o r t e r(1990)a r g u e s c o m p e t i t i o n i s a d r i v i n g f o r c e b e h i n d c l u s t e r d e v e l o p m e n t.C l u s t e r i n g i s a d y n a m i c p r o c e s s,a n d a s o n e c o m p e t i t i v e f i r m g r o w s, i t g e n e r a t e s d e m a n d f o r o t h e r r e l a t e d i n d u s t r i e s.A s t h e c l u s t e r d e v e l o p s i t b e c o m e s a m u t u a l l y r e i n f o r c i n g s y s t e m w h e r e b e n e f i t s f l o w b a c k w a r d s a n d f o r w a r d s t h r o u g h o u t t h e i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e c l u s t e r.P o r t e r a r g u e s t h a t i t i s t h e c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n r i v a l f i r m s i n t h e c l u s t e r t h a t d r i v e s g r o w t h b e c a u s e i t f o r c e s f i r m s t o b e i n n o v a t i v e a n d t o i m p r o v e a n d c r e a t e n e w t e c h n o l o g y.T h i s,i n t u r n,l e a d s t o n e w b u s i n e s s s p i n-o f f s,s t i m u l a t e s R&D,a n d f o r c e s t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f n e w s k i l l s a n d s e r v i c e s.B e c a u s e m a n y o f t h e i n d u s t r i e s w i t h i n t h e c l u s t e r e m p l o y a s i m i l a r l a b o r f o r c e,t h e l a b o r f o r c e c a n f r e e l y m o v e t o o t h e r r e l a t e d f i r m s w i t h i n t h e c l u s t e r,t h u s t r a n s f e r r i n g k n o w l e d g e t o n e w f i r m s,a n d c o n t i n u i n g t o p r o m o t e c o m p e t i t i o n a n d t h e r e f o r e g r o w t h.T h i s g r o w t h c a n e i t h e r l e a d t o i n c r e a s i n g t h e v e r t i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e c l u s t e r,o r i t c a n l e a d t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e s e c t o r.I n c r e a s e d v e r t i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n o c c u r s a s t h e d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r g e t s m o r e s p e c i a l i z e d,a n d n e w f i r m s a r e a b l e t o f i l l t h e n e w n i c h e m a r k e t s.H o r i z o n t a l c l u s t e r i n g o c c u r s a s t h e n e w t e c h n o l o g y a n d l a b o r s k i l l s a r e a p p l i e d t o r e l a t e d i n d u s t r i e s i n d i f f e r e n t s e c t o r s.P o r t e r p o i n t s t o S i l i c o n V a l l e y a s a n e x a m p l e o f h o w c o m p e t i t i o n h a s s p u r r e d t h e h o r i z o n t a l c l u s t e r i n g p r o c e s s.T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l o t h e r k e y f a c t o r s t h a t a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o c l u s t e r d e v e l o p m e n t.D o e r i n g e r a n d T e r k l a(1995)c i t e t h e b e n e f i t s o f a g g l o m e r a t i o n e c o n o m i e s o b s e r v e d i n i n d u s t r y c l u s t e r s a s o n e f a c t o r l e a d i n g t o c l u s t e r d e v e l o p m e n t.F i r m s l o c a t i n g i n c l o s e s p a t i a l p r o x i m i t y b e n e f i t f r o m l o w e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d t r a n s a c t i o n c o s t s,a s w e l l a s a c c e s s t o a s k i l l e d l a b o r f o r c e.A g g l o m e r a t i o n e c o n o m i e s c a n a l s o s p u r c o m p e t i t i o n,w h i c h e n c o u r a g e s i n f o r m a t i o n,k n o w l e d g e,a n d t e c h n o l o g y t r a n s f e r a m o n g r e l a t e d f i r m s.T h e t r a n s f e r o f k n o w l e d g e a n d t e c h n o l o g y a m o n g f i r m s c a n l e a d t o n e w i n d u s t r y g r o w t h,a n d t h e r e f o r e h e l p s d r i v e t h e o v e r a l l g r o w t h o f t h e c l u s t e r.F a c e-t o-f a c e i n t e r a c t i o n i s a l s o c i t e d i n s e v e r a l o f t h e s o u r c e s a s a c r i t i c a l f a c t o ri n c l u s t e r d e v e l o p m e n t(D o e r i n g e r a n d T e r k l a1995,R o s e n f e l d1997).T h i s i n t e r a c t i o n i s m o s t b e n e f i c i a l t o s m a l l,s p e c i a l i z e d f i r m s w h i c h h a v e t h e f l e x i b i l i t y t o f i l l e m e r g i n g n i c h e m a r k e t s a s f i n a l d e m a n d o r t e c h n o l o g y c h a n g e s(D o e r i n g e r a n d T e r k l a1995).L o c a l p r o x i m i t y t o f i r m s i n a l l a s p e c t s o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s, s u c h a s t h e s u p p l i e r s,m a c h i n e b u i l d e r s,a s s e m b l e r s,d i s t r i b u t o r s,a n d f i n a l c u s t o m e r s a l l o w s t h e c o o p e r a t i n g f i r m s t o a d o p t n e w t e c h n o l o g y a n d i n n o v a t i o n s r a p i d l y, t h e r e f o r e i n c r e a s i n g t h e o v e r a l l e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s.T h e f i r m sc o l l a b o r a t e t o p r o v ide s p e c i a l i z e d s e r v i c e s;t h r o u g h t h i s c o l l a b o r a t i o n,c l u s t e r sd e v e l o p(R o s e n f e l d1997).T h e s o c i a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n t h e c l u s t e r h e l p s f a c i l i t a t e t e c h n o l o g y a n d k n o w l e d g e t r a n s f e r,w h i c h s t r e n g t h e n s t h e c l u s t e r a n d p r o m o t e s f u t u r e g r o w t h.T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f f a c e-t o-f a c e i n t e r a c t i o n i s c i t e d i n R o s e n f e l d’s c a s e s t u d i e s o f t h e f u r n i t u r e i n d u s t r y i n M i s s i s s i p p i a n d t h e a p p a r e l/h o s i e r y i n d u s t r y i n N o r t h e r n I t a l y(R o s e n f e l d1997).S a x e n i a n a l s o d i s c u s s e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n i n t h e g r o w t h o f S i l i c o n V a l l e y,a n d a t t r i b u t e s m u c h o f t h e e a r l y s u c c e s s o f t h e a r e a t o t h e s o c i a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e(S a x e n i a n 1994).I n s u m m a r y,c l u s t e r d e v e l o p m e n t i s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o s e v e r a l k e y f a c t o r s,i n c l u d i n g t e c h n o l o g y t r a n s f e r,k n o w l e d g e t r a n s f e r,d e v e l o p m e n t o f a s k i l l e d l a b o r f o r c e i n r e l a t e d i n d u s t r i e s,t h e b e n e f i t s o f a g g l o m e r a t i o n e c o n o m i e s,a n d s o c i a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e.H o w e v e r,r e s e a r c h e r s d i f f e r o n h o w t h e s e f a c t o r s p r o m o t e c l u s t e r g r o w t h.O n t h e o n e h a n d,P o r t e r a t t r i b u t e s c l u s t e r d e v e l o p m e n t a n d g r o w t h t o c o m p e t i t i o n,a n d f o c u s e s o n h o w t h e s e k e y f a c t o r s d r i v e c o m p e t i t i o n(P o r t e r1990). O n t h e o t h e r h a n d,t h e o t h e r a u t h o r s c i t e d a b o v e,s a y c l u s t e r d e v e l o p m e n t i s p r o m o t e d b y c o l l a b o r a t i o n a m o n g r e l a t e d f i r m s t h a t i s e n c o u r a g e d b y f a c e t o f a c e c o n t a c t.T h r o u g h s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n,t e c h n o l o g y a n d k n o w l e d g e t r a n s f e r o c c u r s, t h e r e f o r e l e a d i n g t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d g r o w t h o f c l u s t e r s.R e f e r e n c eJacobs, Dany and Ard-Pieter De Man. 1996.Porter, Michael. 1990. The Competitive Advantage of Nations. NewYork: Basic Books.Saxenian, AnnaLee. 1994. Regional Advantage: Culture and Competition in Silicon Valley and Route 128. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.Bergman, E., E. Feser, and S. Sweeny. 1996. Targeting North Carolina Manufacturing: Understanding the State’s Economy through Industrial Cluster Analysis. Chapel Hill, NC: UNC Institute for Economic Development. Bosworth, Brian and Daniel Broun. 1996. “Connect the Dots: UsingCluster-Based Strategies to Create Urban Employment.”Firm Connections4(2): 1,6.Boekholt, Patries. 1997. “The public sector at arms length or in charge? Towards a typology of cluster policies.”Paper for the OECD programme National Innovation Systems, presented in Amerstdam, October 1997.Doeringer, P.B., and D.G. Terkla. 1995. “Business strategy and cross-industry clusters.”Economic Development Quarterly 9: 225-3Rosenfeld, Stuart A. 1996. Overachievers, Business Clusters thatWork: Prospects for Regional Development. Chapel Hill, NC: Regional Technology Strategies.译文产业集群文献回顾资料来源: 261计划: 城市与区域发展1998年3月作者：Jessica LeVeen产业集群的定义迈克尔·波特在国家竞争优势论（1990年）推广了产业集群这个概念。

Why Do Industries Cluster为什么产业聚集Clustering is term describing a phenomenon in which events or ar tifacts are not randomly distributed over space, but tend to be organ ized into proximate groups.集群是一个专业术语，用来描绘这样一种现象：即事件和人工制品并非在空间随机分布，而是被有组织的划入近似群体。

Industrial clustering is a process that has been observed from t he beginning of industrialization. From the cotton mills of Lancashir e and automobile manufacturing in Detroit, to the textile mills of Ah madabad and Bombay and the tanneries of Calcutta and Arcot, even the casual observer can visually discern the evidence on industrial clust ering by industry type. Why should this happen? It seems obvious that competing firms in the same industry derive some benefit from locati ng in proximity to each other.产业集群的过程在工业化开始时就受到关注。

从兰凯郡的棉花作坊和底特律特的汽车工厂到阿麻大德和彭贝的纺织工厂及卡尔库它和阿科特的皮革厂等，即使是最粗心的观察者都能看到不同种类工业的聚集过程。

第1页 共19页中文3572字毕业论文（设计）外文翻译标题：危机管理-预防，诊断和干预一、外文原文标题：标题：Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis and Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis andintervention 原文：原文：The Thepremise of this paper is that crises can be managed much more effectively if the company prepares for them. Therefore, the paper shall review some recent crises, theway they were dealt with, and what can be learned from them. Later, we shall deal with the anatomy of a crisis by looking at some symptoms, and lastly discuss the stages of a crisis andrecommend methods for prevention and intervention. Crisis acknowledgmentAlthough many business leaders will acknowledge thatcrises are a given for virtually every business firm, many of these firms do not take productive steps to address crisis situations. As one survey of Chief Executive officers of Fortune 500 companies discovered, 85 percent said that a crisisin business is inevitable, but only 50 percent of these had taken any productive action in preparing a crisis plan(Augustine, 1995). Companies generally go to great lengths to plan their financial growth and success. But when it comes to crisis management, they often fail to think and prepare for those eventualities that may lead to a company’s total failure.Safety violations, plants in need of repairs, union contracts, management succession, and choosing a brand name, etc. can become crises for which many companies fail to be prepared untilit is too late.The tendency, in general, is to look at the company as a perpetual entity that requires plans for growth. Ignoring the probabilities of disaster is not going to eliminate or delay their occurrences. Strategic planning without inclusion ofcrisis management is like sustaining life without guaranteeinglife. One reason so many companies fail to take steps to proactively plan for crisis events, is that they fail to acknowledge the possibility of a disaster occurring. Like an ostrich with its head in the sand, they simply choose to ignorethe situation, with the hope that by not talking about it, it will not come to pass. Hal Walker, a management consultant, points out “that decisions will be more rational and better received, and the crisis will be of shorter duration, forcompanies who prepare a proactive crisis plan” (Maynard, 1993) .It is said that “there are two kinds of crises: those that thatyou manage, and those that manage you” (Augustine, 1995). Proactive planning helps managers to control and resolve a crisis. Ignoring the possibility of a crisis, on the other hand,could lead to the crisis taking a life of its own. In 1979, theThree-Mile Island nuclear power plant experienced a crisis whenwarning signals indicated nuclear reactors were at risk of a meltdown. The system was equipped with a hundred or more different alarms and they all went off. But for those who shouldhave taken the necessary steps to resolve the situation, therewere no planned instructions as to what should be done first. Hence, the crisis was not acknowledged in the beginning and itbecame a chronic event.In June 1997, Nike faced a crisis for which they had no existi existing frame of reference. A new design on the company’s ng frame of reference. A new design on the company’s Summer Hoop line of basketball shoes - with the word air writtenin flaming letters - had sparked a protest by Muslims, who complained the logo resembled the Arabic word for Allah, or God.The council of American-Islamic Relations threatened aa globalNike boycott. Nike apologized, recalled 38,000 pairs of shoes,and discontinued the line (Brindley, 1997). To create the brand,Nike had spent a considerable amount of time and money, but hadnever put together a general framework or policy to deal with such controversies. To their dismay, and financial loss, Nike officials had no choice but to react to the crisis. This incident has definitely signaled to the company that spending a little more time would have prevented the crisis. Nonetheless,it has taught the company a lesson in strategic crisis management planning.In a business organization, symptoms or signals can alert the strategic planners or executives of an eminent crisis. Slipping market share, losing strategic synergy anddiminishing productivity per man hour, as well as trends, issues and developments in the socio-economic, political and competitive environments, can signal crises, the effects of which can be very detrimental. After all, business failures and bankruptcies are not intended. They do not usually happen overnight. They occur more because of the lack of attention to symptoms than any other factor.Stages of a crisisMost crises do not occur suddenly. The signals can usuallybe picked up and the symptoms checked as they emerge. A company determined to address these issues realizes that the real challenge is not just to recognize crises, but to recognize themin a timely fashion (Darling et al., 1996). A crisis can consistof four different and distinct stages (Fink, 1986). The phasesare: prodromal crisis stage, acute crisis stage, chronic crisisstage and crisis resolution stage.Modern organizations are often called “organic” due tothe fact that they are not immune from the elements of their surrounding environments. Very much like a living organism, organizations can be affected by environmental factors both positively and negatively. But today’s successfulorganizations are characterized by the ability to adapt by recognizing important environmental factors, analyzing them, evaluating the impacts and reacting to them. The art of strategic planning (as it relates to crisis management)involves all of the above activities. The right strategy, in general, provides for preventive measures, and treatment or resolution efforts both proactively and reactively. It wouldbe quite appropriate to examine the first three stages of acrisis before taking up the treatment, resolution or intervention stage.Prodromal crisis stageIn the field of medicine, a prodrome is a symptom of the onset of a disease. It gives a warning signal. In business organizations, the warning lights are always blinking. No matter how successful the organization, a number of issues andtrends may concern the business if proper and timely attentionis paid to them. For example, in 1995, Baring Bank, a UK financial institution which had been in existence since 1763,ample opportunitysuddenly and unexpectedly failed. There wasfor the bank to catch the signals that something bad was on thehorizon, but the company’s efforts to detect that were thwarted by an internal structure that allowed a single employee both to conduct and to oversee his own investment trades, and the breakdown of management oversight and internalcontrol systems (Mitroff et al., 1996). Likewise, looking in retrospect, McDonald’s fast food chain was given the prodromalsymptoms before the elderly lady sued them for the spilling ofa very hot cup of coffee on her lap - an event that resulted in a substantial financial loss and tarnished image of thecompany. Numerous consumers had complained about thetemperature of the coffee. The warning light was on, but the company did not pay attention. It would have been much simplerto pick up the signal, or to check the symptom, than facing the consequences.In another case, Jack in the Box, a fast food chain, had several customers suffer intestinal distress after eating at their restaurants. The prodromal symptom was there, but the company took evasive action. Their initial approach was to lookaround for someone to blame. The lack of attention, the evasiveness and the carelessness angered all the constituent groups, including their customers. The unfortunate deaths thatptoms,occurred as a result of the company’s ignoring thesymand the financial losses that followed, caused the company to realize that it would have been easier to manage the crisis directly in the prodromal stage rather than trying to shift theblame.Acute crisis stageA prodromal stage may be oblique and hard to detect. The examples given above, are obvious prodromal, but no action wasWebster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, an acute stage occursacutewhen a symptom “demands urgent attention.” Whether the acutesymptom emerges suddenly or is a transformation of a prodromalstage, an immediate action is required. Diverting funds and other resources to this emerging situation may cause disequilibrium and disturbance in the whole system. It is onlythose organizations that have already prepared a framework forthese crises that can sustain their normal operations. For example, the US public roads and bridges have for a long time reflected a prodromal stage of crisis awareness by showing cracks and occasionally a collapse. It is perhaps in light of the obsessive decision to balance the Federal budget that reacting to the problem has been delayed and ignored. This situation has entered an acute stage and at the time of this writing, it was reported that a bridge in Maryland had just collapsed.The reason why prodromes are so important to catch is thatit is much easier to manage a crisis in this stage. In the caseof most crises, it is much easier and more reliable to take careof the problem before it becomes acute, before it erupts and causes possible complications (Darling et al., 1996). In andamage. However, the losses are incurred. Intel, the largest producer of computer chips in the USA, had to pay an expensiveprice for initially refusing to recall computer chips that proved unreliable o n on certain calculations. The f irmfirm attempted to play the issue down and later learned its lesson. At an acutestage, when accusations were made that the Pentium Chips were not as fast as they claimed, Intel quickly admitted the problem,apologized for it, and set about fixing it (Mitroff et al., 1996). Chronic crisis stageDuring this stage, the symptoms are quite evident and always present. I t isIt is a period of “make or break.” Being the third stage, chronic problems may prompt the company’s management to once and for all do something about the situation. It may be the beginning of recovery for some firms, and a deathknell for others. For example, the Chrysler Corporation was only marginallysuccessful throughout the 1970s. It was not, however, until the company was nearly bankrupt that amanagement shake-out occurred. The drawback at the chronic stage is that, like in a human patient, the company may get used to “quick fixes” and “band “band--aid”approaches. After all, the ailment, the problem and the crisis have become an integral partoverwhelmed by prodromal and acute problems that no time or attention is paid to the chronic problems, or the managers perceive the situation to be tolerable, thus putting the crisison a back burner.Crisis resolutionCrises could be detected at various stages of their development. Since the existing symptoms may be related todifferent problems or crises, there is a great possibility thatthey may be misinterpreted. Therefore, the people in charge maybelieve they have resolved the problem. However, in practicethe symptom is often neglected. In such situations, the symptomwill offer another chance for resolution when it becomes acute,thereby demanding urgent care. Studies indicate that today anincreasing number of companies are issue-oriented and searchfor symptoms. Nevertheless, the lack of experience in resolvinga situation and/or inappropriate handling of a crisis can leadto a chronic stage. Of course, there is this last opportunityto resolve the crisis at the chronic stage. No attempt to resolve the crisis, or improper resolution, can lead to grim consequences that will ultimately plague the organization or even destroy it.It must be noted that an unsolved crisis may not destroy the company. But, its weakening effects can ripple through the organization and create a host of other complications.Preventive effortsThe heart of the resolution of a crisis is in the preventiveefforts the company has initiated. This step, similar to a humanbody, is actually the least expensive, but quite often the mostoverlooked. Preventive measures deal with sensing potential problems (Gonzales-Herrero and Pratt, 1995). Major internalfunctions of a company such as finance, production, procurement, operations, marketing and human resources are sensitive to thesocio-economic, political-legal, competitive, technological, demographic, global and ethical factors of the external environment. What is imminently more sensible and much more manageable, is to identify the processes necessary forassessing and dealing with future crises as they arise (Jacksonand Schantz, 1993). At the core of this process are appropriate information systems, planning procedures, anddecision-making techniques. A soundly-based information system will scan the environment, gather appropriate data, interpret this data into opportunities and challenges, and provide a concretefoundation for strategies that could function as much to avoid crises as to intervene and resolve them.Preventive efforts, as stated before, require preparations before any crisis symptoms set in. Generally strategic forecasting, contingency planning, issues analysis, and scenario analysis help to provide a framework that could be used in avoiding and encountering crises.出处：出处：Toby TobyJ. Kash and John R. Darling . Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis 179-186二、翻译文章标题：危机管理：预防，诊断和干预译文：本文的前提是，如果该公司做好准备得话，危机可以更有效地进行管理。