英语语言学术语解释

语言学名词解释语言学是研究语言的一门学科，涉及语言的结构、功能、变化和发展等方面的研究。

下面是一些常见的语言学名词及其解释。

1. 语音学（Phonetics）：研究语言中各种语音的产生、传播和感知等方面的学科。

2. 语音语言学（Phonology）：研究语音在特定语言中的音位（音素）和音位组合规则的学科。

3. 语法学（Grammar）：研究语言的句法结构、词法结构和语义结构等方面的学科。

4. 句法学（Syntax）：研究语言中句子的结构和组织方式的学科。

5. 语义学（Semantics）：研究语言中词汇和句子的意义、概念和关系的学科。

6. 词汇学（Lexicology）：研究语言中词汇的组成、形态、构词规则等方面的学科。

7. 词义学（Semantics）：研究词汇中词义的构成、关系和词义的变化等方面的学科。

8. 语用学（Pragmatics）：研究语言在具体语境中的使用方式以及语言的上下文相关性等方面的学科。

9. 文法学（Stylistics）：研究语言使用中的文体、修辞手法、语言风格等方面的学科。

10. 母语（Mother tongue）：一个人从小学会并用于日常交际的语言。

11. 第二语言（Second language）：在学习者的母语之外学习的语言。

12. 语言接触（Language contact）：不同语言之间在社会、文化接触中产生的相互影响和借用的现象。

13. 语言变异（Language variation）：指同一个语言在不同社会、地理和使用者间发生的音、词、句法等方面的变化。

14. 语言变化（Language change）：指语言在漫长的时间内逐渐变化和发展的过程。

15. 语言规范（Language standardization）：制定和规范一个语言的正确用法、标准词汇和语法规则的过程。

16. 语言习得（Language acquisition）：指儿童在自然环境中学习母语的过程。

英语的知识名词解释在学习英语的过程中，我们会遇到各种各样的专业术语和知识名词。

这些名词既是学习语言的基础，也是了解语言学的关键。

在本文中，我们将对一些英语知识名词进行解释，希望能够帮助读者更好地理解和掌握英语。

1. 语法（Grammar）语法是语言研究和教育的重要组成部分。

它研究句子的结构、词汇的组织和句子的语义，以及句子的正确构造和使用。

掌握语法可以帮助我们更好地理解和运用英语。

2. 词法（Lexis）词法是研究词汇的学科。

它包括研究词的形态和词义。

掌握词法知识能够帮助我们理解和使用单词的不同形式和含义，提高我们的词汇量。

3. 发音（Pronunciation）发音是指人们发出语音的方式。

正确的发音能够让我们更好地进行口语交流。

在学习英语的过程中，我们需要学习和练习正确的发音规则和技巧。

4. 阅读（Reading）阅读是指理解和解释书面材料的过程。

通过阅读，我们可以扩大词汇量，提高语言理解能力，并了解不同类型的文章和写作风格。

5. 写作（Writing）写作是指用书面语言表达思想和观点的过程。

通过写作，我们可以提高自己的表达能力，培养逻辑思维和批判性思维。

6. 听力（Listening）听力是指理解并准确地接收口语信息的能力。

提高听力能力可以帮助我们更好地理解和交流，同时也是学习口语和口语考试的重要基础。

7. 口语（Speaking）口语是指用口头语言进行交流的能力。

通过练习口语，我们可以提高对话和演讲能力，增强和他人的交流能力。

8. 词汇量（Vocabulary）词汇量指的是一个人所掌握的词汇数量。

丰富的词汇量可以使我们更好地表达自己的思想和观点，更容易理解和使用英语。

9. 社交语言（Sociolinguistics）社交语言是研究语言和社会之间关系的学科。

它研究不同社会群体之间的语言差异、语言规范和口语交际规则等。

10. 语用学（Pragmatics）语用学是研究语言使用和交际意义的学科。

语言学名词语言学名词是用来描述和研究语言现象和语言结构的专门术语。

下面是一些常见的语言学名词及其解释：1. 语音学（Phonetics）：研究语音产生、传播和接收的学科，包括音素的分类、语音能力和语音现象等。

2. 语音：语言中的基本声音单位，通过调节声带、口腔和喉咙等发音器官产生。

语音可以被分类为辅音和元音。

3. 辅音（Consonant）：通过喉咙、口腔和鼻腔等部位的阻碍或摩擦，产生的声音单位。

4. 元音（Vowel）：发音器官不受阻碍或摩擦，使空气顺畅通过口腔而产生的声音单位。

5. 语音形式学（Phonology）：研究语音符号在特定语言中的组合和分布规律的学科。

6. 语音规则（Phonological rules）：用来描述声音变化和音系结构的一套规则。

7. 语法学（Grammar）：研究语言结构和组织的学科，包括句法、语义和语用等方面。

8. 句法（Syntax）：研究句子结构和成分之间的关系，以及句子的形式和结构组织。

9. 语义（Semantics）：研究词、短语和句子的意义和含义的学科。

10. 语用学（Pragmatics）：研究语言在特定语用背景下的使用和理解方式。

11. 词汇学（Lexicology）：研究词汇的起源、结构、使用和意义等方面。

12. 词（Word）：语言中的基本意义单位，具有独立的意义和语法功能。

13. 词法（Morphology）：研究词的内部结构、形态变化和构词法的学科。

14. 语素（Morpheme）：语言中的最小意义单位，可以独立存在或者是其他词的构成组成部分。

15. 词义（Word meaning）：词语所表达的概念或事物的内涵。

16. 语篇（Discourse）：由句子和词组组成的扩展语言单位，表达完整的意义。

17. 修辞学（Rhetoric）：研究语言如何用于说服和交流的学科。

18. 语族（Language family）：具有共同源头和结构相似的一组语言。

Chapter 6 SemanticsSemantics: it is generally defined as the study of inherence or intrinsic meaning, the meaning in isolation from the context.The naming theory:命名论it is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning proposed by Plato, which holds the view that the relationship between linguistic forms and what they stand for is one of naming. Its defaults: firstly, the theory seems applicable to nouns only. Secondly, even within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world at all or things that do not refer to physical objects, but abstract notions. Finally, some words may have different meanings in different contexts while the same reference may have different names such as “the morning star” and “the evening star”The conceptualist theory: 意念论C. K .Ogden Richard created the semantic triangle to show the indirect relationship between symbols and their supposed referents.Symbol: it refers to the linguistic elements such as word or sentence.Referent: it refers to the object in the world of experience.Context: it refers to what comes before and after a word, phrase, statement, etc. helping to fix the meaning; or refers to circumstances in which an event occurs. Contextualism :情境论、语境论John FirthSituational context: it refers to the particular spatiotemporal situation in which an utterance occurs, the main components of which include, apart from the place and time of the utterance, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing at the time, the various objects and events exists in the situation.The linguistic context: sometimes known as context, it includes a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of a word, and, also the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance. For example, the meaning of the word “paper” differs in the two collocations of “a piece of paper” and“a white paper”。

英语语言学名词解释最终版现代语言学1 language: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1 interlanguage:The type of language produced by nonnative speakers in the process of learning a second language or foreign language.1 Linguistics : Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants3 Phonology” : The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone.4 Morphology 形态学:The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher.5 Syntax 句型: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.”6 Semantics语义学: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worr ied.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things.7 Pragmatics语用学: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragma tics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context.二音系学1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t.4 Phoneme音素: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.5 allophone同位音: The different phones which can representa phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.10 intonation朗诵: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest}三形态学1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.4 morpheme词素: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in combination with other morphemes.6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must becombined with another root or an affix to form a word.8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to creat a word.Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form nes words.12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to creat new words.四句法学1 linguistic competence: Comsky defines competence as theideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.五语义学1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy 同义词: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy一词多义: Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy :Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation betweena more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.{$isbest}六语用学1 pragmatics词的活用: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentencein a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4 locutionary act:言内行为A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.5 illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act performed in saying something.6 perlocutionary act:言后行为A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.十语言习得1 language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in whicha child has been brought up.4 acquisition: According to Krashen,acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.。

术语翻译及术语解释汇总术语翻译1. Design features of Ianguage （语言的甄别特征）Arbitrariness （任意性），Duality （二层性 /二重性），Creativity （创造性 /原创性）， Displacement （移位性）,Cultural transmission （文化传播），Interchangeability （可 互换性）2. Functions of language referential 指称功能 poetic 诗学功能 conative 劝慰功能 phatic 寒暄功能ideational function 概念功能 textualfunction 语篇 /文本功能 Performative Function （施为功能）， Phatic communion （寒暄交谈）， 3. Phonetics 语音学）， Morphology （形态学） ，Semantics （语义学）， Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学 Sociolinguistics 社会语言学 Computationallinguistics 计算语言学 Neurolinguistics神经语言学emotive 情感功能 metalingualfunction 元语言功能 in terpers onal function 人际功能 Informative （信息 /告知功能）， Emotive Function （情感功能） ， Recreational Function （娱乐功能）， Pho no logy （音系/音位学）； Syntax （句法学）；Pragmatics （语用学）Acoustic pho netics 声学语音学 Psycholi nguistics 心理语言学 Anthropological linguistics 人类语言学 Applied linguistics 应用语言学4. Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描写式和规定式Synchronic vs. diachr onic 共时和历时 Lan gue vs. parole 语言和言语Compete nee vs. performa nce§言能力和语言行为5. Vocal tract 声道 （res on at ing cavities 共鸣腔），phary nx 咽腔,oral cavity 口腔 and n asal cavity 鼻腔.其它的一些发音器官：lungs 肺,windpipe （trachea ）气管，vocal folds 声带, larynx 喉,epiglottis 会厌，次声门,pharynx 咽,uvula 小舌,hard palate 硬腭, soft palate 软腭,alveolar ridge 齿龈 6. Consonants and vowels （辅音和元音）A. Manners of articulation 发音方式B. Places of articulation 发音位置7. Stop （or plosive ）爆破音 Fricative 摩擦音 Approximant 近似音Lateral （approximant ）边音 Affricates 塞擦音,trill 颤音 and tap 闪音 Bilabial 双唇音 Labiodental 唇齿音 Dental 齿音 Postal veolar 后齿龈音 Retroflex 卷舌音 Velar 软腭音 Uvular 小舌音, pharyngeal 咽音monophthong vowel: 单元音 diphthongs 双元音 Laxvowels 短元音 Tensed vowels 长元音8. Coarticulation and phonetic transcription 协同发音和标音anticipatory coarticulation 先期协同发音 perseverative coarticulation 后滞协同发音. broad tran scriptio n 宽式标音 narrow tran scripti on 严式标音9. minimal pairs 最小对立体 Phoneme 音位phon emic tran scripti ons 音位转写phon etic tran scripti ons 语音转写 phones 音子 alloph ones 音位变体 compleme ntary distributi on 互补分布Alveolar 齿龈音Palatal 硬腭音glottal 声门音triphthongs 三元音phonetic similarity 发音近似性 Free variation 自 由变体assimilation 同化 regressive assimilation 逆同化progressive assimilatio n 顺同化 phono logical rule 音系规则 Epen thesis 增音binary 二分的Distinctive features 区别特征Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions 向心结构和离心结构subord in ate and coord in ate 从 属和并歹 U The refere ntial theory 指 称理论 Sema ntic tria ngle 语义三角Sense and referenee 涵义和指称Synonymy 同义关系 Antonymy 反义关系 Hyponymy 上下义关系Polysemy 一词多义关系 Homonymy 同音/形异意关系Dialectal synonyms 地域同义词 Stylistic synonyms 风格同义词 Collocati onal synonyms 搭配同义词gradable antonymy 等级反义关系 cover term 覆盖项Marked vs. unm arked terms 标记项和非标记项compleme ntary antonymy 互补反义关系 con verse antonymy 逆向反义关系homoph on es:同音异义词 homographs :同形异义词 complete homonyms sema ntic comp onents 语义部分术语解释1. Design feature 的定义：the defining （最典型的，起决定作用的） properties ofhuma n Ian guage that disti nguish it from any ani mal system of com muni cati on.2. Synchronic 共时：It refers to the description of a Ianguage at some point of time in history.3. Diachronic 历时：It studies the development or history of Ianguage. In other words, it refers tothe description of a Ianguage as it changes through time .4. prescriptive 规定式：A kind of linguistic s tudy aims to lay down rules for“ correctand standard ” behavior in using Ianguage 5. descriptive 描写式:A kind of linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the Ian guagepeople actually use6. Arbitrariness （任意性）：By saying that “Ianguages arbitrary we,mean that there is no logicalconnection betwee n meaning and sound.7. Duality （二层性 /二重性）：it means that Ianguage is a system, which consists of two levels of structures, at the lower level there is the structure of sounds; at the higher level there is the structure of meaning.8. Displaceme nt （移位性）：it mean s that Ian guage can be used to com muni cate about thingsCon ceptual meaning^既念意义 Associative mea ning:联想意义 Conno tative mea ning 内涵意义 Affective meaning 情感意义 Collocative meaning 搭配意义 deno tati on:夕卜延意义Social meaning 社会意义 Reflected meaning 反射意义 Thematic meaning 主位意义 conno tati on:内涵that are not prese nt in our immediate com muni catio nal con text.9. compete nee 语言能力:it refers to an ideal speaker ' s kno wledge of the un derly ingsystem of rules in a Ian guage.10. Performance 语言行为: it refers to the actual use of the language by a speaker in a realcommunicational context.11. Langue 语言: it refers to the speaker 'usnderstanding and knowledge of the language that hespeaks.12. Parole 言语: it is the actual speaking of language by an individual speaker.13. Cultural transmission （文化传播）:It refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic systemmust be learned ane（w 重新，再）by each speaker. Language is not transmitted biologically from generation to generation.14. Phatic communion （寒暄交谈）：it refers to ritual exchanges, exchanges that have littlemeaning but help to maintain our relationships with other people.15. Pho netics（语音学）:it is the study of the characteristics of speech soundsand providesmethods for their description, classification and transcription.16. Vowels 元音：the sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close togetherand the air-stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction.17. Consonants 辅音：The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of theair-stream at some point of the vocal trac.t18. Phonology: it is the study of the sound systems of languages and it is concerned with thelinguistic patterning of sounds in human languages. And it studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning.19. Phoneme音位:the smallest unit of sound in a Ianguage which can distinguish two words.20. Allophone 音位变体: it refers to the different forms of a phoneme.21. Assimilation: it is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of aneighboring sound.22. Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulationsare involved.23. complementary distribution 互补分布: when two sounds never occur in the same environment,they are in complementary distribution.24. Free variation 自由变体: if two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast,that is, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word form, but merelya different pronunciation of the same word, then the two sounds are in free variation.25. Distinctive features 区别特征：A phonetic feature which distinguishes one phonological unit,especially one phoneme, from another.26. minimal pairs 最小对立体 --- which can be defined as pairs of words whichdiffer from each other by only one sound.27. vowel glides 滑音: The vowels involving movement from one sound to another are calledvowel glides.28. Epenthesis增音：it means a process of inserting a sound after another sound.29. Substitution relation: it refers to the relation specifically between an individual unit and othersthat can replace it in a given sequence.30. Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approachingequivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the centre, or head, of the whole.31. Exocentric construction: a group of syntactically related words where none of them isfunctionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable center or head inside the group32. Reference: it is the relationship between words and the objects, actions or properties that thewords stand for. It deals with the extra-linguistic relationships betwee n words and expressi ons and the world they describe 具体的物质性的东西）33. Synonymy ：It refers to the sameness sense relations between words.34. Componential analysis ：Componential analysis defines the meaning of a lexical element interms of semantic components 语义部分.35. Sense:it refers to the complex system of relationships that hold between linguistic elementsthemselves, it is concerned only with intra-linguistic relations.（概念性的东西）36. Semantics：semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences inparticular.37. Homonymy: the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e.,different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.38. Antonymy ：It refers to the oppositeness sense relations between words.39. Hyponymy 上下义关系：Hyponymy indicates sense inclusiveness. The upper term in thissenserelation is called superordinate 上义词, and the lower terms, hyponyms 下义词, members of the same class are callecdo-hyponyms.。

Chapter 1: Introduction1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community.9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.11.performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.13.design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of humanlanguage that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to no logical connection between meaning andsound.15. productivity: Users can understand and produce sentences t hat they have neverheard before.16. duality: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound,which is meaningless, and the higher lever of meaning.17. displacement: Language can be used to refer to the contexts removed from theimmediate situation of the speaker no matter how far away from the topic ofconversation in time or space.18. cultural transmission: Language is culturally transmitted. It is taught and learnedfrom one generation to the next, rather than by instinct.Chapter 2: Phonology1. phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.2. phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with allsounds in t he world’s languages.3. articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. ha speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.the4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how sounds are perceived by the hearer.5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one personto another.6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or soundssequences in written form.9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to showsounds in written form.10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists ofletters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.15. consonant: a speech s ound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.17. monophthong : the individual vowel.18. diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions as a single one.19. phone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language.20. phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds.21. allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments.22. phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.23. phonemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.24. complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in the same position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a featureof a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.29. suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments----syllable, word, sentence.30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.Chapter 3: Morphology1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.2. open class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.3. closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes themeaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changesthe part of speech of a word.7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usuallychanges the meaning of a word to its opposite.8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combinedwit others. E.g. –ment.9. free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to forma new word.11. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case.12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine howmorphemes combine to form words.13. compound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as asingle words14. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for pasttense.Chapter 4: Syntax1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to formsentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similarfunctions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are calledphrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which thephrase is built.8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers.10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.11. phrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulatesthe arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of thesame type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon isknown as coordination.15. subcategorization: The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization.16. complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.17. complement clause: The sentence i ntroduced by the complementizer is called acomplement clause.18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complementclause is called a complement phrase.19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded iscalled matrix clause.20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of headsis called modifier.21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.24. deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.25. surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, i.e., transformation, to the deep structure. (05)26. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.Chapter 5: Semantics1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.6. dialectal synonyms: synonyms that are used in different regional dialects.7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they go together with.9. polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationshipbetween the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife,father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.21. entailment: the relationship between two sentences w here the truth of one isinferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massagealready knows. e.g. Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take somemore tea.Chapter 6: Pragmatics1. pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.2. context: The general knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers.3. sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract andde-contextualized features.4. utterance meaning: The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particularutterance in a particular context.5. utterance: expression produced in a particular context with a particular intention.6. Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by Searle,which believes that we are performing actions when we are speaking.7. constatives: Constatives are statements t hat either state or describe, and are thusverifiable.8. performatives: Pe rformatives are sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.9. locutionary act: The act of conveying literal meaning by virtue of syntax, lexiconand phonology.ntention and performed in10. illocutionary act: The act of expressing the speaker’s isaying something.11. perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something and the consequenceor the change brought about by the utterance.12. representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.13. directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something.17. cooperative Principle: The principle that the participants must first of all bewilling to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible tocarry on the talk.18. conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to imply meaningduring conversation.Chapter 7: Language Change8. acronyms: Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.9. protolanguage: The original form of a language family, which has ceased to exist.10. Language family: A group of historically related languages that have developedfrom a common ancestral language.Chapter 8: Language And Society1. sociolinguistics: The subfield of linguistics that study language variation andlanguage use in social contexts.2. speech community: A group of people who form a community and share at leastone speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms.3. speech varieties: It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speakeror a group of speakers.4. regional dialect: A variety of language used by people living in the same geographical region.5. sociolect: A variety of language used by people, who belong to a particular socialclass.6. registers : The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements,7. idiolect : A person’sregarding regional, social, gender and age variations.8. linguistic reportoire : The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individualconstitutes his linguistic repertoire.9. register theory : A theory proposed by American linguist Halliday, who believedthat three social variables determine the register, namely, field of discourse, tenor ofdiscourse and mode of discourse.10. field of discourse : the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior..11. tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question:who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship theystand to each other.12. mode of discourse: It refers to the means of communication and it is concernedwith how communication is carried out.13. standard dialect: A superposed variety of language of a community or nation,usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.14. formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflects the relationship and conversations. According to Martin Joos, there are five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen.15. Pidgin: A blending of several language, developing as a contact language ofpeople, who speak different languages, try to communication with one another on aregular basis.16. Creole : A pidgin language which has become the native language of a group ofspeakers used in this daily life.17. bilingualism : The use of two different languages side by side with each having adifferent role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes.(07C)18. diaglossia : A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties of languageco-exist in a speech community, each having a definite role to play.19. Lingua Franca : A variety of language that serves as a medium of communicationamong groups of people, who speak different native languages or dialects20. code-switching: the movement back and forth between two languages or dialectswithin the same sentence or discourse.Chapter 10: Language Acquisition1. language acquisition: It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.2. language acquisition device (LAD): A hypothetical innate mechanism every normalhuman child is believed to be born with, which allow them to acquire language.3. Universal Grammar: A theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.4. motherese: A special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slow rate of speed, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures etc.----又叫child directed speech，caretaker talk.5. Critical Period Hypothesis: The hypothesis that the time span between early childhood and puberty is the critical period for language acquisition, during which children can acquire language without formal instruction successfully and effortlessly.6. under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation.7. over-extension: Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children.8. telegraphic speech: Childre n’s early multiword speech that contains content words and lacks function words and inflectional morphemes.9. content word: Words referring to things, quality, state or action, which have lexical meaning used alone.10. function word: Words with little meaning on their own but show grammatical relationships in and between sentences.11. taboo: Words known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech for reasons of religion, politeness etc.12. atypical development: Some acquisition of language may be delayed but followthe same rules of language development due to trauma or injury.Chapter 11 : Second Language Acquisition1. second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.2. target language: The language to be acquired by the second language learner.3. second language: A second language is a language which is not a native language ina country but which is widely used as a medium of communication and which is usually used alongside another language or languages.4. foreign language: A foreign language is a language which is taught as a school subject but which is not used as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country.5. interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions.6. fossilization: In second or foreign language learning, there is a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part ofthe way a person speaks or writes a language.14. overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable.15. cross-association: s ome words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.16. error: the production of incorrect forms in speech or writing by a non-native speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of thattarget language.17. mistake: mistakes, defined as either intentionally or unintentionally deviant formsand self-corrigible, suggest failure in performance.18. input: language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she canlearn.19. intake: the input which is actually helpful for the learner.20. Input Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Krashen , which states that in secondor the learner to understand input language whichlanguage learning, it’s necessary fpresent linguisticcontains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’scompetence. E ventually the ability to produce language is said to emerge naturallywithout being taught directly.21. acquisition: Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their firstlanguage. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules.Learners are hardly aware of their learning but they are using language to communicate. It is also called implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.23. comprehensible input: Input language which contains linguistic items that aresent linguistic competence.slightly beyond the learner’s pre24. language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not includingintelligence, motivation, interest, etc.25. motivation: motivation is defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive.26. instrumental motivation: the motivation that people learn a foreign language forinstrumental goals such as passing exams, or furthering a career etc.27. integrative motivation: the drive that people learn a foreign language because ofthe wish to identify with the target culture.28. resultative motivation: the drive that learners learn a second language for externalpurposes.29. intrinsic motivation: the drive that learners learn the second language forenjoyment or pleasure from learning.Chapter 12 : Language And Brain1. neurolinguistics: It is the study of relationship between brain and language. Itincludes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning,how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brainaffects the ability to use language.2. psycholinguistics: the study of language processing. It is concerned with theprocesses of language acqisition, comprehension and production.7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired language disorders due to the cerebrallesions caused by a tumor, an accident and so on.13. spoonerism: a slip of tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or words isreversed, for example, Let’s have chish and fips instend of Let’s have fish and ch 14. priming: the process that before the participants make a decision whether thestring of letters is a word or not, they are presented with an activated word.15. frequency effect: Subjects take less time to make judgement on frequently usedwords than to judge less commonly used words . This phenomenon is calledfrequency effect.16. lexical decision: an experiment that let participants judge whether a string of letter is a word or not at a certain time.18. priming effect: Since the mental representation is activated through the prime, when the target is presented, r esponse time is shorter that it otherwise would have been. This is called the priming effect.。

英语语言学常见名词解释1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like ―book‖) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different ―books‖: ―book‖ in English, ―livre‖ in French, ―shu‖ in Chinese. It is symbolic, because word s are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term ―human‖ in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.2. What are design features of language?“Design features‖ here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability3. What is arbitrariness?By ―arbitrariness‖, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like ―bang‖, ―crash‖, ―roar‖, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. ―Type‖ and ―write‖ are opaque or unmotivated words, while ―type-writer‖ is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So w e can say ―arbitrariness‖ is a matter of degree.4. What is duality?Linguists refer ―duality‖ (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al., language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality.5. What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one‘s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard ―A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon‖, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes out side the language, thus also called ―rule-bound creativity‖ (by N.Chomsky).6.What is displacement?“Displacement‖, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn‘t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be l ost. The bee‘s system, nonetheless, has a small share of ―displacement‖, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it ―language acquisition device‖, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog‘s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf‘s roaring ―tongue‖ when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.8. What is interchangeability?Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. Though some people suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable. Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot). When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are) ―speaking‖ and which listening.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human la nguage has six ―design features‖ which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them. Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught ―American sign Language‖, and learned a little that made the teachers happy butdid mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to do so.10. What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art . M .A. K. Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three ―Macro-Functions‖: ideational, interpersonal and textual.11. What is the phatic function?The ―phatic function‖ refers to language being used fo r setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts(rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. ―How are you?‖ ―Fine, thanks.‖) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say ―Hello‖ to a friend you meet, or if you don‘t answer his ―Hi‖, you ruin your friendship.12. What is the directive function?The ―directive function‖ means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., ―Tell me the result when you finish.‖ Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J. S earle‘s ―Indirect speech act theory‖ at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., ―If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!‖13. What is the informative function?Language serves an ―informational function‖ when used to tell so mething, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P. Grice‘s ―Cooperative Principle‖, one ought not to violate the ―Maxim of Quality‖, when he is informi ng at all.14. What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an ―interrogative function‖. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the ―indirect speech act the ory‖, may have this function as well, e.g., ―I‘d like to know you better.‖ This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader‘s/listener‘s answer.15. What is the expressive function?The ―expressive function‖ is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like ―Good heavens!‖ ―My God!‖ Sentences like ―I‘m sorry about the delay‖ can serve as good examples too,though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or a sserts the speaker‘s own attitudes.16. What is the evocative function?The ―evocative function‖ is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes(not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That‘s also the case with the other way round.17. What is the performative function?This means peopl e speak to ―do things‖ or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. The judge‘s imprisonment sentence, the president‘s war or independence declaratio n, etc., are performatives.18. What is linguistics?“Linguistics‖ is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities.19. What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic ―stone‖ unturned. Consistency means there should be no contra diction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.20. What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, psycholinguistics etc.21. What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled ―On the Use of THE‖, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration.22. What is speech and what is writing?No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional, while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.23. What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is ―descriptive‖ if it only describes and analyses the f acts of language, and ―prescriptive‖ if it tries to lay down rules for ―correct‖ language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were base d on ―high‖ (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.24. What is the difference between langue and parole?F. de Saussure refers ―langue‖ to the abstract linguist ic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers ―parole‖ to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.25. What is the difference between competence and performance?According to N. Chomsky, ―competence‖ is the ideal language user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language, and ―performance‖ is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker‘s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‘s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language. Chomsky‘s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure‘s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.26. What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behaviour?These two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his ―actual linguistic behavior‖) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).27. In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different. Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker‘s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is in visible but reliable abstract system. Competence means ―knowing‖, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for ―doing‖ or ―performing actions‖. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.28. What is phonetics?“Phonetics‖ is the science which studi es the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research fro m the hearer‘s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by theear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics.29. How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.30. What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved, e.g. lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) ]; (4) alveolar:[t, d, l, n, s, z]; (5)T, Plabiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental:[ retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar:[ ]; (7) palatal:[j]; (8) velar[ k, g]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal:[h]. Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and that two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed ―labial-velar‖.31. What is the manner of articulation?The ―manner of articulation‖ literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstream may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive:[p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal:[m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap;(5) lateral:[l]; (6) fricative:[f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant:[w, j]; (8) affricate:[ ].32. What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of ―International Phonetic Alphabet‖, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.33. What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinct ion between ―narrow‖ and ―broad‖ transcriptions, which he called ―Narrow Romic‖. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.34. What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?“Phonology‖ is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist. Phonetics is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they areconceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign ―accent‖, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one‘s language.35. What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?A ―phone‖ is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced: [pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different [p]s, readily making pos sible the ―narrow transcription or diacritics‖. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A ―phoneme‖ is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit]. The phones representing a phoneme are called its ―allophones‖, i.e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different [p] s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme [p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.36. What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two forms (i. e., word) are supposed to form a ―minimal pair‖, e.g., ―pill‖ and ―bill‖, ―pill‖ and ―till‖, ―till‖ and ―dill‖, ―till‖ and ―kill‖, etc. All the se words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language.37. What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in ―free variation”. The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.38. What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never oc cur in the same environment, they are in ―complementary distribution‖. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after [s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of [l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear [l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of [l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words ―please‖, ―butler‖, ―clear‖, etc., and t he dark [l] occurs only after a vowel or as asyllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words ―feel‖, ―help‖, ―middle‖, etc.39. What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?The ―assimilation rule‖ assimilates one segment to another by―copying‖ a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal [n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix ―in-― serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], [i] or [im] when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ] (alveolar) inconceivable-[ ](velar) input-[‗imput] (bilabial)The ―deletion rule‖ tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter ―g‖ is mute in ―sign‖, ―design‖ and ―paradigm‖, it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: ―signature‖, ―designation‖ and ―paradigmatic‖. The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling.40. What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features?“Suprasegmental phonology‖ refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, length and pitch, stress, intonation.41. What is morphology?“Morphology‖ is the br anch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology.42. What is inflection/inflexion?“Inflection‖ is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.43. What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph?The ―morpheme‖ is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. The word ―boxes‖, for example, has two morphemes: ―box‖ and ―-es‖, neither of which permits further division or analysis if we don‘t wish to sacrifice meaning. Therefore a morpheme is considered the minimal unit of meaning. Allomorphs, like allophones vs. phones, are the alternate shapes (and thus phonetic forms) of the same morphemes. Some morphemes, though, have no more than one invariable form in all contexts, such as ―dog‖, ―cat‖, etc. The variants of the plurality ―-s‖ make the allomorphs thereof in the following exa mples: map-maps, mouse-mice, sheep-sheep etc.44. What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?A ―free morpheme‖ is a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself, such as ‗bed‖, ―tree‖, etc. A ―bound morpheme‖ is one that appears with at least another morpheme, such as ―-s‖ in ―beds‖,。

英语语言学名词解释
英语语言学是语言学中的一个分支，研究英语的语言结构、语音、语法、语义、语用和历史演变等方面。

以下是一些英语语言学的名词解释：
1. Phonetics（音韵学）：研究语音、发音和声音的学科。

它包括语音学和音系学。

2. Phonology（音系学）：研究语音在语言中的系统性组织和规律性变化的学科。

3. Morphology（形态学）：研究词形变化和词构成的学科。

4. Syntax（句法学）：研究句子结构和语法规则的学科。

5. Semantics（语义学）：研究语言意义的学科，包括词义和句子意义。

6. Pragmatics（语用学）：研究语言在实际使用中的含义和功能的学科。

7. Discourse analysis（语篇分析）：研究语言在实际使用中的连贯性和语篇结构的学科。

8. Historical linguistics（历史语言学）：研究语言的演变和变化的学科。

9. Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：研究语言和社会、文化、地理和历史等因素之间的关系的学科。

10. Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）：研究语言和心理过程之间的关系的学科，包括语言习得、记忆和理解等。

以上是一些常见的英语语言学名词解释，它们涵盖了英语语言学的主要领域和分支。

语言学术语解释1. A Tale of Two Cities was written by Charles Dickens.2. Phonology: The study of speech sounds in language or a language with reference to their distribution and patterning and to tacit rules governing pronunciation. 音位学; 在语言或一门语言中，对有关其分类和模式以及为大家所默认的发音规则的研究音韵学, 音系学3. Syntax: The study of the rules whereby words or other elements of sentence structure are combined to form grammatical sentences. 句法，研究词或其它句子成分如何联合起来形成合乎语法的句子规则的学科4. Semantics: The study or science of meaning in language forms.语义学，以语言形式表示意思的研究或科学5. acronym : 首字母组合词，首字母缩略词，比如，NATO, UNESCO, BASIC,它们可以连拼，但VOA是Initialism。

6. Metonymy: A figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another with which it is closely associated, as in the use of Washington for the United States government or of the sword for military power. 换喻或转喻，一种,一个词或词组被另一个与之有紧密联系的词或词组替换的修辞方法，如用华盛顿代替美政府或用剑代替军事力量，对面来了三个"红领巾"也是，以红领巾指代少先队员。

英语语言学名词解释2009-09-30 13:54Synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time. Diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. Arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.Duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels; meaningful units and meaningless segments .Competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language. Performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.Langue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.Parole: the concrete utterances of speaker.Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Inflection: is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to which they are attached.Root: refers to the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity. Stem:is any morpheme or combinations of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.Acronym:is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.Syntax: the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structure. Subordination: the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. Denotation: denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entities to which it refers.Connotation: properties of the entity a word denote.Synonymy: synonymy is the technical name for one of the sense relations between linguistic units, namely the sameness relation.Hyponymy: the technical name for inclusiveness sense relation, is a matter of class membership. Entailment: This a logic relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second necessarily follows from the truth of the first, while the falsity of the first follows from the falsity of the second.Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is onlyone-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ call.Critical Period HypothesisThe critical period for language acquisition语言获得的关键期 Eric Lenneberg was a major proponent.The critical period hypothesis关键期假设It refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly, and without explicit instruction. It coincides with the process of brain lateralization. Prior to this period, both hemispheres are involved to some extent in language and one can take over if the other is damaged.「语言学习关键期」（the critical period）的争议。

现代语言学一绪论1 Linguisitics : Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants3 Phonology” : The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone.4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher.5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.”6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be f ound.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things.7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context.8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language.9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.二音系学1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t.4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others.9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme;therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature.10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest}三形态学1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.4 morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in combination with other morphemes.6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to forma word.8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to creat a word.Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form nes words.12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to creat new words. {$isbest}四句法学1 linguistic competence: Comsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.5 Move а : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is cal led Move а{$isbest}五语义学1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy :Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.{$isbest}六语用学1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a4 locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.5 illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act expressing t he speaker’s intention; It is the act performed in saying something.6 perlocutionary act:A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.{$isbest}七历史语言学1 historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.2 apocope: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segement, a phenomenon called apocope.3 epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.4 metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.5 compounding: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.6 derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.7 blending: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.8 back-formation: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.9 semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..10 semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning ofa word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.11 semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.12 protolanguage: It refers to a family of a language.A protolanguage is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.The proto form can be reconstructed by identifying and comparing similar linguistic forms with similar meanings across related languages.13 sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes. {$isbest}八社会语言学1 sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context.2 speech community: A speech community is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.3 speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.4 language planning: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.5 idiolect: Such a personal dialect is refered to as idiolect.6 standard language: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media.7 nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.8 lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.9 pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.10 Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established asa native language in some speech communication.11 diglossia: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.12 bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.13 ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often cutting across regional differences.14 sociolect: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.15 register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.16 slang: Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.17 tabo A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.18 euphemism: Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemismos, meaning “to speak with good words”. A euphemism, then ,is mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.{$isbest}九心理语言学1 psycholinguistics:Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.2 cerebral cortex: The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.3 brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and percpetual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.4 linguistic lateralization: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particulary interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.5 dichotic listening: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks6 right ear advantage: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right car. This phenomenon is knowas the right ear advantage.7 critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty during which the humanbrain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction.8 linguistic determinism: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.9 linguistic relativism: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion10 subvocal speech: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech”.of linguistic relativism.{$isbest}十语言习得1 language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.2 telegraphic speech: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the styly of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.3 holophrastic sentence: Children’s one-word utterance are also calledholophrastic sentences.4 acquisition: According to Krashen,acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.5 learning: Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.6 language transfer: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.7 positive transfer: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.8 negative transfer: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.9 contrastive analysis: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.10 interlanguage: SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.11 formal instruction: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousnes s about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.12 instrumental motivation: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional.13 integrative motivation: Integrative motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.14 acculturation: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the 12community. This adaptation process is called acculturation.。

语言学名词解释自己整理的，供参考。

↖(^ω^)↗↖(^ω^)↗↖(^ω^)↗↖(^ω^)↗↖(^ω^)↗↖(^ω^)↗1 Duality(二元性): each human language is organized into two basic seystems: a system of sounds and a system of meaning. This is called the duality of language.2.connotative meaning（内涵意义）: the additional meanings that a word or a phrase has beyond its central meaning.3. minimal pair（最小对立体）: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are called minimal pairs.4. Affix（词缀）: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem).(词缀是一个构词成分的集合,它们只能附加于另一个语素词根或词干上.)5. Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）studies the interaction between language and the structure and functioning of society.6. lingua franca（通用语)the general term for a language that serves as a means of communication between different groups of speakers.7. Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）studies how humans learn language and the relationship of linguistic behavoir and the psychological processes in producing and understanding language.8. diachronic linguistics（历时语言学）: The description of the historical development of a language is a diachronic study.9. immidiate constituent analysis（直接成分分析）is the technique of breaking up sentences into word groups by makingsuccessive binary cuttings until the level of single words is reached.(when constituents(i.e. Structural units) are considered as part of the successive unraveling of a sentence, they are known as its immidiate constituents.)10. Euphemism（委婉语）：a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects,e.g. powder room for toilet.11. Taboo（禁忌语）：words that are offensive or embarrassing, considered inappropriate for “polite society”, thus to be avoided in conversation.12. structural linguistics（结构语言学）it is based on the assumption that grammatical categories, should be definede not in terms of meaning, but in terms of distribution and that the structure of each language should be focused on description.13. Semantic triangle（语义三角）One best known example to illustrate this view is the Semantic Triangle .Thought or Reference( concept)Symbol Referent(Linguistic elements) ( object in the world)14. Morphology（形态学）refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.15. Presupposition（预设）refers to the conditions that must be met in order for the intended meaning of a sentence to be regarded as acceptable.16. Overgeneralization（过分概括）the process of extending the application of a rule to items that are excluded from it in the language norm.17. Fossilization（僵化现象）It is a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become apermanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.18. Register（语域）It is a technical term used to describe a language variety that is associated with a particular topic, the interpersonal relationship between the speaker and the hearer, and the speech channel.(It refers to the functional variety of language that is defined according to its use in context.)19. utterance meaning （话语意义）----refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication. It becomes an utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered or used.话语意义是指在句子意义的基础上，是句子意义在特定语境中的具体化，它体现了说话人的意图和目的，它是动态的。

英语语言学概论名词解释汇总英语语言学概论是研究英语语言的基本原理和结构的学科。

在这门学科中，有许多重要的名词需要解释，以便更好地理解英语语言的各个方面。

下面是一些常见的英语语言学术语和其解释：1. 语言：人类使用的一种符号系统，用于交流和表达意思。

2. 语音：语言中的声音单元，用于区分不同的词汇和语法形式。

3. 语法：语言中词汇和句法结构的规则系统，用于构建和理解句子。

4. 词汇：语言中的词汇单位，用于表示特定的意思。

5. 句法：句子的结构和组织方式，包括短语和句子之间的关系。

6. 语义：词汇和句子的意义和解释。

7. 语用学：语言使用的实际情境和交际目的的研究。

8. 语篇分析：研究句子和段落如何组成连贯的文本的过程。

9. 语音学：语音的科学研究，包括语音的产生、传播和感知。

10. 语音变体学：研究语音变化和发音差异的学科。

11. 语音库：包含语音录音和相关信息的数据库。

12. 语音识别：使用计算机技术将语音转换为文字的过程。

13. 语音合成：使用计算机技术将文字转换为语音的过程。

14. 语言变体：同一语言在不同地区或社会群体中的变化形式。

15. 方言：某个特定地区或社会群体使用的语言变体。

16. 标准语：在教育和媒体等公共场合使用的规范语言形式。

17. 语言接触：不同语言之间的互动和影响。

18. 二语习得：学习者将自己的母语转换为第二语言的过程。

19. 语言教学：帮助学习者学习和掌握一门语言的过程。

20. 语言规划：改变或发展一种语言的过程，包括制定规范和推广使用。

这些名词只是英语语言学概论中的一部分，通过学习和理解这些名词，可以更好地理解和分析英语语言的各个方面。

When I was preparing the postgraduate entrance examination of NNU(Nanjing Normal University),some of these following concepts had been tested,but there's no specific or clear explanation in the textbook required by the university.As in preparing the second-round examination I read them in other relevant books, I wrote down here for your reference.Hope they are useful to some of you.1. Acculturation(同化过程）is a process in which members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and behaviors of another group.2. Adjacency pair（相邻语对）;a sequence of two utterances by different speakers in conversation. The second is a response to the first, such as question/answer sequences and greeting/greeting exchange.3. affix: a bound morpheme that is attached to a stem and modifies its meaning in some way.4. agreement (concord)（一致）: a grammatical phenomenon in which the form of one word in a sentence is determined by the form of another word which is grammatically linked to it. E.g. in the sentence The boy goes to school every day.There is an agreement in number between boy and goes.5.articulators（发音器官): the tongue,lips,and velum, which change the shape of the vocal tract to produce different speech sounds.6.aspect(体）: the grammatical category representing distinction in the temporal structure of an event. English has two aspect construction---the perfect and the progressive.(完成体和进行体)7.aspiration(吐气）; the puff of air that sometimes follows the pronounciation of a stop consonant.E.g. /p/ in the word pit.8.consonant（辅音）; a speech sound produced by partial or complete closure of part of the vocal tract, thus obstructing the airflow and creating audible friction. Consonants are described in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation.9. converstional implicature（会话含义）:meanings that are explicable in the light of converational maxims.municative competence（交际能力）; the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.11. constituent（成分）: a syntactic unit that functions as part of a large unit within a sentence; typical constituent types are verb phrase, noun phrase, prepositional phrase and clause.12.case(格)：the grammatical category in inflectional languages by which the form of a noun or noun phrase varies for grammatical or semantic reasons. English has only one case distinction in nouns—the genitive case(所有格), but English pronouns have three forms that correspond to three of the six cases in Latin.13.clause（小句）: a grammatical unit that contains a subject and a predicate. It may be a sentence or part of a sentence.14.closed class（封闭词类）: a group of words whose membership is small and does not readily accept new members.15.coinage（创新词）: the construction and addition of new words.16.distribution(分布）: the set of positions in which a given linguistic element or form can appear in a language.17.duality（双重结构）: a type of double-layer structure in which a small number of meaningless units are combined to produce a large number of meaningful units.18.entailment（包含）; the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one(the second)is inferred from the truth of the other.19.euphemism（委婉语）: a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects,e.g. powder room for toilet.20.garden path sentence（花园小径句）: a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or a phrase but later discovers that the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentence21.free variation;(自由变异) a relation between two speech sounds such that either one can occur in a certain position and the substitution of one for the other never makes any difference in the meaning of the word. For instance, the unexploded(失去爆破) stop /d/ in the phrase Good morning is in free varitation with the exploded(爆破)counterpart.22.inflection（屈折变化）: the morphological process by which affixes combine with words or stems to indicate such grammatical categories as tense or plurity.ernment（支配）: the grammatical phonomenon in which the presence of a particular word in a sentence requires a second word which is grammatical linked with it to appear in a particular form. E.g. a preposition or a verb requires that the pronoun following it be in the objective form,as in with me,to him.nguage universal(语言共性): any property that is shared by most,if not all, human lanugages.25.lingua franca: ( 通用语) A language variety used for communication among groups of people wo do not otherwise share a common language. For example, English is the lingua franca of the international scientific community.26.macrosociolinguistics; The study of the effect of language on society.27.microsociolinguistics: The study of the effect of any and all aspects of society,including cultural norms, expetations and contexts,on the way language is used. It is often simply called sociolinguistics.28.paradigmatic relation: (纵组合关系)The substitutional relation between a set of linguistic items,that is,linguistic forms(letters,words and phrases)can be substituted for each other in the same position in a word or sentence. E.g, b,p,s,f are in paradigmatic relation in the words bit,pit,sit,fit, so are Nature,Beauty, Love, Honesty in the sentences:Nature purifies the mind.Beauty purifies the mind.Love purifies the mind.Honesty purifies the mind.29.syntagmatic relation: (横组合关系) The relation between any linguistic elements which are simultaneously present in a structure. E.g. in the word bit, b, i,t are in syntagmatic relation, so are nature, purifies, the, mind, in the sentence Nature purifies the mind.30.presupposition（预设）: implicit assumptions about the world acquired to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate,e,g, “ some tea has already been taken”is a presuppostion of “Take some more tea”.31.prototype(典型): What members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category,e.g.for some English speakers “cabbage”(rather than,say,carrot)might be the prototypical vegetable.32.root(词根): the morpheme that remains when all affixes are stripped from a complex word. E.g. system from un- + system + atic + ally.33.stem（词干）: the base to which one or more affixes are attached to create a more complex form that may be another stem or a word.34.taboo（禁忌语）:words that are offensive or embarrassing, c onsidered inappropriate for “polite society”, thus to be avoided in conversation.35.selectional restriction(选择限制): a restriction on the combining of words in a sentence resulting from their meaning.36.linguistic universal:(语言共性) The linguistic universals are principles that enable children to acquire a particular language unconsciously, without instruction in the early years of life. As a whole they are referred to as Universal Grammar.37.contrastive distribution(对比分布)：If the speech sounds occur in the same phonetic context and the substitution results a contrast in meaning, we say they are in contrastive distribution.38.immidiate constituent analysis（直接成分分析法）is the technique of breaking up sentences into word groups by making successive binary cuttings until the level of single words is reached.39.endocentric construction: (向心结构或内心结构)One construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents. The typical English endocentric constructions are noun phrases and adjective phrases.40.exocentric construction(离心结构或外心结构)the opposite of endocentric construction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole group. Most constructions are exocentric.41.politeness can be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person’s public self-image.42.PP(politeness principle)tact maxim;generosity principle;approbation maxim;modesty maxim;agreement maxim;sympathy maxim.43.irony(反语)is the use of words to express something other than and especially the opposite of the literal meaning of the utterance.44.code-switching: (语码转换) means the alternation between two or more languages,language varieties or registers in communication.45.affective filter(情感过滤)：A screen of emotion that can block language acquisition or learning if it keeps the learners being too self-conscious or too embarrassed to take risks during communicative exchanges.46.Conversion（转类构词）is a change in the grammatical function of a word without adding or removing any part of it. A word belonging to one part of speech is extended to another part of speech. It is also called functional shift or zero derivation.47.lexical meaning VS grammatical meaning(词汇意义与语法意义)The meaning of a sentence is carried by the words proper as well as by the patterns of word order that is part of the grammatical system of a language. The part of the sentence meaning contributed by words is called the lexical meaning and the part of sentence meaning that depends upon the way the words are put together is called grammatical meaning, in which the function words and the word order play a very important role.48.paralinguistic meaning VS non-linguistic meaning (副语言意义与非语言意义)In human communication, apart from the linguistic meaning conveyed by language itself,there are numerous paralinguistic meanings and non-linguistic meanings that are perceived simultaneously by the hearer. Paralinguistic meanings are those attached to the verbal expressions by quality of voice,tempo of speech,posture,facial expression and gestures. Non-linguistic meanings are thoseindicated by non-verbal noises such as cough, sigh, tongue-clicking, various kinds of body languages and different contexts of situation.49.denotation VS connotation (外延与内涵)Denotation is a straightforward, literal meaning of the word every member of the language speaking community will agree on. Connotation is not the basic meaing of the word but some emotive or evaluative meaings associated with the word by individual language users in their mind.50.linguistic relativity VS linguistic determinism (语言相对论与语言决定论)The Sapir-Wholf Hypothesis states that there is a systematic relationship between the grammatical categories of the language a person speaks and how that person both understands the world and behaves in it. It boils down to two principles: linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism.Linguistic relativity states that disctinctions encoded in one language are unique to that langage alone, and that there is no limit to the structural diversity of languages.Linguistic determinism refers to the idea that the language we use determines, to some extent, the way in which we view and think about the world around us. This concept has two versions; strongdeterminism and weak determinism. The strong version, which has few followers today, holds that language actually determines thought, whereas that weak version, which is widely accepted today, merely holds that language affects thought.。

Define the following terms:1.Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3.Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. .4.Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.5.Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.7.Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.8.Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.9.Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.10.Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.11.Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.12.Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds13.Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.14.Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker15.Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.16.Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communicationpetence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,18.Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication.ngue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently20.Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.21. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. Butit is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.22. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.23. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.24. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.25. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages26. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.27. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.528. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning. 529. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.33.Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.34.inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections35. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.36.Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.37.free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes. 38.Bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.39.Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.40.Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.41.Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.42.Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.43.Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.pounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.45.syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.46.Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.47.coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".48.syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers toa word (called a lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function.49. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .50. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.51. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.52. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.53. Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.54. Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualised.55. Reference: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience56. Synonymy :Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.57. Polysemy :Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.58. Homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.59. homophones :When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones60. homographs :When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.61. complete homonyms.:When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.62.Hyponymy :Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.63. Antonymy :Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.64. Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was pro-posed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a -word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features.65.The grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. , its grammatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.66. predication :The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.67. argument : An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence.68. predicate : A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.69. two-place predication :A two-place predication is one which contains two arguments.37.pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.38.Context: Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speak-er and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.39.utterance meaning: the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence ina real situation of communication, or simply in a context.40.sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is of-ten considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.41.Constative: Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable ;42.Performative: performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act. 43. locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.44. illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.45. perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the act per-formed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.46. Cooperative Principle: It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principle that guides our conversational behaviors. The content is : Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.。

英语语言学专业术语英语语言学是研究英语语言的起源、发展、结构和使用的学科。

以下是常见的英语语言学专业术语及其解释。

1. Phonetics（音系学）：研究语音的学科。

主要研究语音发音过程，包括语音的组成、发音方式和特点等。

2. Phonology（音韵学）：研究语音在语言中的功能和规律的学科。

主要研究语音在不同语境下的变化规律和相互关系，包括音素、音位和音系等。

3. Morphology（形态学）：研究语言中单词的形态和构成的学科。

主要研究单词的基本单位和构成规律，包括词根、词缀和词类等。

4. Syntax（句法学）：研究句子结构和句子组成的学科。

主要研究句子的构成和排列方式，包括短语、从句和主谓结构等。

5. Semantics（语义学）：研究语言意义的学科。

主要研究语言符号和意义之间的关系，包括单词、短语和句子的意义等。

6. Pragmatics（语用学）：研究语言使用的学科。

主要研究语言与社会文化环境的关系，包括语境、语用规则和交际意图等。

7. Discourse analysis（话语分析）：研究语篇结构和语篇功能的学科。

主要研究语言在话语交际中的组织和作用，包括话语行为、话语结构和话语分析方法等。

8. Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：研究语言和社会文化因素之间的关系和影响的学科。

主要研究不同社会群体、文化背景和地理区域中语言使用的差异和变化，包括方言、语言变体和语言政策等。

9. Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）：研究语言和心理过程之间的关系的学科。

主要研究语言理解、语言产生和语言习得等心理过程，包括语音知觉、语法处理和语言记忆等。

以上是英语语言学常见的专业术语及其解释，希望能够帮助你更好地了解英语语言学。

《语言学》术语及英文解释Define the following terms:1.design feature:are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2. function: the use of language to communicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which o riginates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenui th or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge abou t the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21． Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22． V oicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords. 23．Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription. 24．Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25．Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language. 26． Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/. 27． V owl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28．Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29． Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30．Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31．Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32．IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33．Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation. 34．Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compoundoly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.术语251. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61. concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.69. c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth perio d of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72. ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his ownconsciousness.73.interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85. relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. The shorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g<+human>89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90. selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92. proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone hassaid,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.ina specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.nguage perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.术语3101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.102. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.103. language production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.106. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng. 114. communicative competence: a speaker’s know ledge of the total set of rules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of know ledge of a grammar. 115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines thought.117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118.linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119.sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120.sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.124. locutionary act: the act of saying s omething;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference. 125. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128.entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily f ollows from the other:e.g.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.129.ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.130. communicative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131. relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.132.Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale,i.e.Make your contribution necessary (G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).133. division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unma rkeda(simpler,less”effortful”)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).134.constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..135.third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.136.I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.137.direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.138.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.139.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140.narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of p assage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech representation would be.141.narrator”srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example,,she considered his unpunctuality.142.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late.143.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.144.narrator’s representation of thought acts:a kind of the c ategories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.145.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would be late.146.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.147.narrator”s repr esentation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of theircharacters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.148.free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late.149.direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..150. computer system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,disk drives,programs,etc.术语4puter literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.puter linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processing of human language.153.Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154.programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students into appropriate lessons,material,etc.155.local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or building.They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156.CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.157.machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.158.concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information,160.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.rmational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of actrvity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not infor(i.e.change the knowledge of)the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162.document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retrieval.163.precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164.recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165.applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,etcmunicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.167.syllabus:the planning of course of instruction.It is a description of the cousr content,teaching procedures and learning experiences.168.interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language,i.e.the language system between the target language and the learner’s。

1.Synchronic The study of language at some point in timeDiachronic The study of language as it changes through time2 .Langue refers to the linguistic competence of the speakerParole refers to the actual phenomena or data of linguisticsplementary distribution（互补分布）is the relationship between two different elements, where one element is found in a particular environment and the other element is found in the opposite environment. It often indicates that two superficially different elements are in fact the same linguistic unit at a deeper level.4.Locutionary act means that when we speak, we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds with a certain meaning. Illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function. Perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by meanings of saying something.5.Semantic broadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one.6.A lingua franca(通用语) is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues7. Grammatical marker in linguistics, a marker is a free or bound morpheme that indicates the grammatical function of the marked word, phrase, or sentence.9.Displacement（移位性）means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.1.Prescriptive:lay down rules for correct usage.Descriptive:describe the language actually used by the speaker,being right or wrong.2.Diacritics:the study of a language through the course of its history.3.Bound root: is a root which cannot occur as a separate word apart from any other morpheme.4.Grammatical relations: is a role of a noun phrase or complement clause that determinessyntactic behaviors5.Selectional restriction: A limitation on what words can go with a particular word.6.Speech act theory: A theory of language based on J. L. Austin's How to Do Things with Words(second edition, 1975), the major premise of which is that language is as much, if notmore, a mode of action as it is a means of conveying information.7.Gradable antonymy: A term that denotes one end of a scale while the other term denotes theother end, such as long and short.8.Standard language: is a language variety used by a group of people in their public discourse.9.Esperant o: is the most widely spoken constructed international auxiliary language10.Equivalence: The relationship between two propositions that are either both true or both false 1.Argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with nominal element in a sentence general linguistics the study of language as a whole3.Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4Syntactic category refer to the language law field5. Derivational affix added to an existing form to create a word6.context Generally speaking is consist of language as a whole7converse antonymy The type of antonymy is typically seen is reciprocal social roles ,kinship relations, temporal and spatial relation,such as teacher-student8 bilingual people develop some ability in a second language9 co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.10 the application of linguistics theories and principles to language teaching.especially the teaching of foreign and second language1.Narrow transcription the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.2.Negative transfer is all called interference, it means that the learners’ mother tongue obstacles their second language’s acquisition, it mainly manifest the differences between the objective language and the native language.3Inflectional affix very often add a minute or delicate grammatical function only to the stem, Inflectional affix do not change the word class of the word they attach to.4 sequential rules（序列规则）the rules governing the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.5.polysemy A single word having several or many meanings6.Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context.plementary antonymy :members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely.such as male, female, present andAbsent.8.diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of history.9.Superordinate the upper term in hyponymy is the class name. A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.under flower, for example, there are peony,jasmine, violet, carnation. Hyponyms the lower terms in hyponymy. These members of the same class are co-hyponyms. 10.Hyponymy a relation between two words in which the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another word.11..endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or moire of its constituents, i.e, a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable center or head.12.The critical period hypothesis there is a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.nguage transfer learner’s use of prior linguistic information (chiefly his mother tongue )or some physically carryover of native language surface to a second language context.14.Creole when a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language,it is said to be a creole 15.Dialect it is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regional, social, gender, and age variations.16.Connotation what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.17.Entailment this is a logical relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second necessarily follows the truth of the first, while the falsity of the first follows from the falsity of the context.18.Descriptive study if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive. prescriptive study if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be descriptive.19.Grimm’s law Grimm's law named for Jacob Grimm, is a set of statements describing the inherited Proto-Indo-European(PIE) stops as they developed in Proto-Germanic in the 1st millennium BC. It establishes a set of regular correspondences between early Germanic stops and fricatives and the stop consonants of certain other centum Indo-European languages.As it is presently formulated.20.Semantic change: every word has a variety of senses connotations which can be added, removed, or altered over time, often to the extent that cognates across space and time have very different meanings.21.Cooperative principle:It’s proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.。