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《英语教学法》名词解释<P3>◆Structural view (结构主义语言理论）The structural view of language sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystems: the sound system (phonology); the discrete units of meaning produced by sound combinations (morphology), and the system of combining units of meaning for communication (syntax).◆Functional view（功能主义语言理论）The functional view not only sees language as a linguistic system but also a means for doing things. In order to perform functions, learners need to know how to combine the grammatical rules and the vocabulary to express notions that perform the functions.◆Interactional view（交互语言理论）The interactional view considers language to be a communicative tool, whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people.<P5-6>◆Behaviourist theory（行为主义理论）------SkinnerThe key point of the theory of conditioning is that＂you can train an animal to do anything( with reason) if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, stimulus, response, and reinforcement＂.◆Cognitive theory（认知理论）Chomsky thinks that language is not a form of behaviour, it is an intricate rule-based system and a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system. There are a finite number of grammatical rules in the system and with a knowledge of these an infinite number of sentences can be produced. A language learner acquires language competence which enables him to produce language.◆Constructivist theory (建构主义理论)-------John DeweyThe constructivist theory believes that learning is a process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experiences and what he/she already knows.◆Socio-constructivist theory (社会建构主义理论)Vygotsky emphasises interaction and engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of “Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD) and scaffolding.<P18>◆Linguistic competence（语言能力）----HedgeLinguistic competence is concerned with knowledge of the language itself, its form and meaning.◆Pragmatic competence (语用能力) ----HedgePragmatic competence is concerned with the appropriate use of the language in social context.◆Discourse competence (话语能力/ 语篇能力) ----Canale and SwainDiscourse competence refers to one’s ability to create coherent written text or conversation and the ability to understand them.◆Strategic competence (策略能力)Strategic competence refers to strategies one employs when there is communication breakdown due to lack of resources.<P86>◆ErrorsAn error has direct relation with the learners’language competence.Errors result from lack of knowledge in the target language.◆MistakesA mistake refers to a performance error that is either a randomguess or a slip of tongue, and it is a failure performance to a known system.Mistakes result from carelessness and hesitation.<P143>◆Bottom-up model （自下而上的模式）In the bottom-up model, listening comprehension is believed to start with sound and meaning recognitions. In other words, “we use information in the speech itself to try to comprehend the meaning” .◆Top-down model （自上而下的模式）In the top-down model, listening for gist and making use of the contextual clues and background knowledge to construct meaning are emphasised. In other words, listening comprehension involves “ knowledge that a listener brings to a text, sometimes called “ inside the head” information, as opposed to the information that is available within the text itself” .。
Unit 1一，Views on language：一、Structural view （language competence）结构主义语言观—The founder：Saussure，lasen freeman&long—The structural view of language sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystems：一、the sound system（phonology）二、sound combinations（morphology）the discrete units of meaning 3、the system of combining units of meaning for communication（syntax）—The structural view limits knowing a language to knowing its structural rules andvocabulary2 、Functional view功能主义语言观—Representative：Johnson、marrow、swain canal (the core: grammar)—The function view not only sees language as a linguistic system but also a means for doing things功能不仅以为语言是一个语言系统,但也做情形的一种方式—Learners learn a language in order to be able to doing things with itUse the linguistic structure to express functions3、Interactional view 交互语言观（communicative competence）—Emphasis：appropriateness—Language is a communicative tool，which main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people—Learners need to know the rules for using the language in certain context 二，View on language learning语言学习观1.Process-oriented theories:强调进程are concerned with how the mind organizes new information such as habit formation, induction, making inference, hypothesis testing and generalization.2.Condition-oriented theories: 强调条件emphasize the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place, such as the number of students, the kind of input learners receives, and the atmosphere.3.Behavioristtheory,(Skinner and waston raynor)A the key point of the theory of conditioning is that” you can train an animal to d o anything if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, s timulu s, response, and reinforcementB the idea of this method is that language is learned by constant repletion and the reinforcement of the teacher. Mistakes were immediately corrected, and correct utterances were immediately praised.4.Cognitive theory:Chomsky)thinks that language is not a form of behavior,it is an intricate rule-based system a nd a large part of language acquisition is the learni ng of this system.There are a finite number of grammatical rules in the system and with knowledge of these an infinite number of sentences can be produced.5.Constructivist theory:(John Dewey)the constructivist theory believes that lea rning is aproces in which the learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experie nces and what he/her already knows6.Socio-constructivist theory: (Vygotsky) he emphasizes interaction and enga gement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of “Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD) and scaffolding.Unit 2一，What makes a good language teacher?ethic devotion, professional qualities ，certain desirable personal styles.四， principles of communicative language teaching (CLT) 交际语言教学法原那么1) Communication principle: activities that involve real communication promote l earning.2) Task principle: activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning.3) Meaningfulness principle: language that is meaningful to the learner supportsthe learning process.五，Howatt proposes a weak and a strong version of CLT.Weak version: learners first acquire language as a structural system and then lear n how to use it in communication. --- the weak version regards overt teaching of l anguage forms and functions as necessary means for helping learners to develop the ability to use them for communication.Strong version: language is acquired through communication. The learners discov er the structural system in the process of leaning how to communicate.---regards experiences of using the language as the main means or necessary conditions for l earning a language as they provide the experience for learners to see how langua ge is used in communication.六，PPP: presentation，practice，production三. Principles for good lesson planningA. AimB. VarietyC. FlexibilityD. learning abilityE. linkage四. Components of a lesson plan教案的内容A. Background informationB Teaching aimsC. Language contents and skillsD. stages and proceduresE. Teaching aidsF. End of lesson summaryG.. Optional activities and assignmentsH. After lesson reflectionUnit 5二，The role of the teacher 教师的角色1. Controller: control the pace, the time, the target language, the student.2. Assessor: two thingsa. as corrector: correct the mistakes, organizing feed back the learnersb. as evaluator: to create a success-oriented learning, atmosphere, more praise, less criticism3. Organizer : task based on teaching to design tasks and to organize4. Prompter: to give appropriate prompts hints5. Participant: to take part in the activities6. Resource-provider: as a walking dictionaryUnit 6一，Critical Period Hypothesis 关键期假说This hypothesis states that if humans do not learn a foreign language before a certain age ,then due to changes such as maturation of the brain ,it becomes impossible to learn the foreign language like a native speaker.Unit 7三，pennington grammatical pedagogy:1.collocational grammar should biuld on collocational relations between individual lexical items and their subcategories2.Constructive offer learners a way to build elements that can be continually added in sequence3.Contextual it means that elements and structures are taught in relation to their context.四，mechanical practice机械操练1.substitute drills 替换the students substitute a part in a structure so that they getto know how that part function in a sentence2.Transformation drills转换change a given structure in a way so that they are exposed to another similar structureUnit 81. A: passive/receptive words :words that can be recognized or compared inreading and listening but can not be used automatically in speaking and writing.B: active/productive words: words that can be recognized and also be used in speech and writing by learners.Unit 11Sight vocabulary:words that one is able to recognise immediately are often referred to as sight vocabulary.Unit15Testing takes the pencil and paper form and it is usually done at the end of a learning periodAssessmen t involves the collecting of in formation or evidence of a learner s teaching and learning.Evaluation:can be concerned with a whole range of issues in and beyond language education :lessons courses programs and skills can all be evaluated ,四，bloom’s taxonomy 目标分类学1.knowledge知识:recalling facts ,terms,and basic concepts2.prehension明白得:understanding of facts and ideas byorganizing ,comparing,translating interpreting,describing and stating the main ideas3.application运用:applying acquired knowledge,facts ,techniques and rules in a different context.4.analysis分析:identifying relationships,causes or motives,and finding evidence to support main ideas.5.synthesis综合：combing elements in a different way and proposing alternative solutions,creative thinking.6.evaluation 评判：present and defend opinions by making informed judgement about information or ideas based on a set of criteria.、Teaching objectives中心the Ss will be able to understand the main idea of an article about XX and can write a list of XX for XX.辞汇be able to name the new word about XX in english using pictures as cues and be able to tell each other whatXX they like.情感be able to talk about their opinions or feelings about XX to each other.其他tell the five simple forms ofXX can role play the dialogue of XXWarming up.。
施工组织设计英文参考文献以下是关于施工组织设计的英文参考文献，供您参考：1. C.J. Anumba, J.E. Bouchlaghem, and R.J. Evbuomwan (1997). The integration of process planning with 3D CAD models for construction project management. Robotics andComputer-Integrated Manufacturing, 13(1), 47-57.2. M.A. Becerik-Gerber, and K.L. Rice (2010). Construction informatics in the 21st century: a review and outlook. Automation in Construction, 19(7), 829-835.3. A. Chao-Duivis, and H.S.M. Schoenmakers (2012). Planning and control of construction projects: a systems approach based on fuzzy logic and simulation. Automation in Construction, 22, 217-225.4. J. Fan, and X. Li (2010). Application of BIM technology in construction project management. Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, 24(3), 236-243.5. E. Kheradmand, and M.R. Nikakhtar (2012).Multi-objective optimization of construction site layout using genetic algorithms. Automation in Construction, 26, 85-91.6. M. Liao, Y. Luo, and S. Wu (2011). A system dynamics model for construction project management. Automation in Construction, 20(2), 107-114.7. G. Shen, and J. Liu (2004). Integrating case-based reasoning and rule-based reasoning for construction project management decision support. Automation in Construction, 13(1), 11-23.8. T. Tezel, and I. Aziz (2008). Building information modeling (BIM) adoption and implementation for architectural practices. Structural Survey, 26(1), 7-25.9. J. Wang, Y. Wang, and X. Zhang (2010). Construction project management using building information modeling (BIM) in China. Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Construction & Real Estate Management, 924-928.10. L. Yi, and L. Chan (2009). A fuzzy set approach for construction project risk assessment and control. Automation in Construction, 18(6), 731-736.以上文献涵盖了施工组织设计中的多个方面，包括计划与控制、BIM技术应用、风险评估与控制等。
专家系统专家系统是基于人工智能技术开发的一种智能计算机系统，它能够模拟和复制人类专家在特定领域内的知识和经验，从而能够进行问题的分析、推理和解决。
本文将介绍一些关于专家系统的基本概念、分类以及其在不同领域中的应用。
首先，我们来了解一下专家系统的基本概念。
专家系统是一种模仿专家解决问题的计算机程序，它通过获取专家的知识和经验，建立相关的知识库和推理机制，从而能够自主地进行问题的分析和解决。
专家系统通常由三部分组成：知识库（knowledge base）、推理机（inference engine）和用户接口（user interface）。
知识库保存了专家的知识和经验，推理机利用这些知识和经验进行问题的推理和解决，而用户接口则提供了与用户交互的方式。
根据专家系统的分类方法，可以将其分为基于规则的专家系统（rule-based expert systems）和基于案例的专家系统（case-based expert systems）。
基于规则的专家系统通过使用一系列的规则来描述专家的知识和经验，然后使用这些规则进行问题的推理和解决。
而基于案例的专家系统则是根据专家的经验案例来进行问题的处理和解决。
这些案例包含了问题的描述和解决方法，系统可以通过比较新问题和已有案例的相似度，来找到最佳的解决方案。
在不同领域中，专家系统都有着广泛的应用。
在医学领域中，专家系统可以帮助医生诊断各种疾病和制定治疗方案。
通过分析患者的症状和病历，专家系统可以根据专家的知识和经验给出准确的诊断结果和治疗建议。
在工程领域中，专家系统可以用于辅助设计和优化工程方案。
通过分析工程问题的各种参数和限制条件，专家系统可以提供最佳的设计解决方案，从而提高工程效率和质量。
除了医学和工程领域，专家系统在金融、法律、环境保护等多个领域都有应用。
在金融领域中，专家系统可以用于股票交易和投资决策。
通过分析市场数据和专家的投资经验，专家系统可以帮助投资者进行投资决策，提高投资的成功率和收益率。
《英语教学法》名词解释《英语教学法》名词解释<P3>◆Structural view (结构主义语言理论）The structural view of language sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystems: the sound system (phonology); the discrete units of meaning produced by sound combinations (morphology), and the system of combining units of meaning for communication (syntax).◆Functional view（功能主义语言理论）The functional view not only sees language as a linguistic system but also a means for doing things. In order to perform functions, learners need to know how to combine the grammatical rules and the vocabulary to express notions that perform the functions.◆Interactional view（交互语言理论）The interactional view considers language to be a communicative tool, whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people.<P5-6>◆Behaviourist theory（行为主义理论）------SkinnerThe key point of the theory of conditioning is that＂you can train an animal to do anything( with reason) if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, stimulus, response, and reinforcement＂.◆Cognitive theory（认知理论）Chomsky thinks that language is not a form of behaviour, it is an intricate rule-based system and a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system. There are a finite number of grammatical rules in the system and with a knowledge of these an infinite number of sentences can be produced. A language learner acquires language competence which enables him to produce language.◆Constructivist theory (建构主义理论)-------John DeweyThe constructivist theory believes that learning is a process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experiences and what he/she already knows.◆Socio-constructivist theory (社会建构主义理论)Vygotsky emphasises interaction and engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of “Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD) and scaffolding.<P18>◆Linguistic competence（语言能力）----HedgeLinguistic competence is concerned with knowledge of the language itself, its form and meaning.◆Pragmatic competence (语用能力) ----HedgePragmatic competence is concerned with the appropriate use of the language in social context.◆Discourse competence (话语能力/ 语篇能力) ----Canale and SwainDiscourse competence refers to one’s ability to create coherent written text or conversation and the ability to understand them.◆Strategic competence (策略能力)Strategic competence refers to strategies one employs when there is communication breakdown due to lack of resources.<P86>◆ErrorsAn error has direct relation with the learners’ language competence.Errors result from lack of knowledge in the target language.◆MistakesA mistake refers to a performance error that is either a random guess or a slip of tongue, and it is a failure performance to a known system.Mistakes result from carelessness and hesitation.<P143>◆Bottom-up model （自下而上的模式）In the bottom-up model, listening comprehension is believed to start with sound and meaning recognitions. In other words, “we use information in the speech itself to try to comprehend the meaning” .◆Top-down model （自上而下的模式）In the top-down model, listening for gist and making use of the contextual clues and background knowledge to construct meaning areemphasised. In other words, listening comprehension involves“ knowledge that a listener brings to a text, sometimes called “ inside the head” information, as opposed to the information that is available within the text itself” .。
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（英文版）Two regulations promulgated for implementation is in the party in power for a long time and the rule of law conditions, the imp lementation of comprehensive strictly strategic plan, implementation in accordance with the rules and discipline to manage the party, strengthen inner-party supervision of major initiatives. The two regulations supporting each other, the < code > adhere to a positive advocate, focusing on morality is of Party members and Party leading cadres can see, enough to get a high standard; < rule > around the party discipline, disciplinary ruler requirements, listed as "negative list, focusing on vertical gauge, draw the party organizations and Party members do not touch the" bottom line ". Here, the main from four square face two party rules of interpretation: the first part introduces two party Revised regulations the necessity and the revision process; the second part is the interpretation of the two fundamental principles of the revision of laws and regulations in the party; the third part introduces two party regulations modified the main changes and needs to grasp several key problems; the fourth part on how to grasp the implementation of the two regulations of the party. < code > and < Regulations > revised the necessity and revised history of the CPC Central Committee the amendment to the Chinese Communist Party members and leading cadres honest politics several guidelines > and < Chinese Communist Party discipline and Punishment Regulations > column 1 by 2015 to strengthenparty laws and regulations focus. Two party regulations revision work lasted a Y ears, pooling the wisdom of the whole party, ideological consensus, draw historical experience, respect for the wisdom of our predecessors, which reflects the unity of inheritance and innovation; follow the correct direction, grasp the limited goals, adhere to the party's leadership, to solve the masses of the people reflect a focus on the problem. The new revision of the < code > and < rule >, reflects the party's 18 and the eighth session of the third, the spirit of the fourth plenary session, reflecting the experience of studying and implementing the General Secretary Xi Jinping series of important speech, reflects the party's eighteen years comprehensive strictly practice. (a) revised two regulations of the party need of < the ICAC guidelines > in < in 1997 Leaders as members of the Communist Party of China clean politics certain criteria (Trial) > based on revised, the promulgation and implementation of January 2010, to strengthen the construction of the contingent of leading cadres play an important role. But with the party to manage the party strictly administering the deepening, has not been able to fully meet the actual needs. Content is too complicated, "eight prohibition, 52 are not allowed to" hard to remember, and also difficult to put into practice; the second is concisely positive advocated by the lack of prohibited provisions excessive, no autonomy requirements; the third is banned terms and discipline law, both with the party discipline, disciplinary regulationsrepeat and Criminal law and other laws and regulations repeat; the fourth is to "clean" the theme is not prominent, not for the existing problems, and is narrow, only needle of county-level leading cadres above. < rule > is in 1997 < Chinese Communist Party disciplinary cases (Trial) > based on revision, in December 2003 the promulgation and implementation, to strengthen the construction of the party play very important role. Along with the development of the situation, which many provisions have been unable to fully meet the comprehensive strictly administering the practice needs. One is Ji law, more than half of the provisions and criminal law and other countries laws and regulations Repetition; two is the political discipline regulations is not prominent, not specific, for violation of the party constitution, damage the authority of Party Constitution of misconduct lack necessary and serious responsibility to pursue; third is the main discipline for the leading cadres, does not cover all Party members. Based on the above situation, need to < the criterion of a clean and honest administration > and < rule > the two is likely to be more relevant regulations first amendment. By revising, really put the authority of Party discipline, the seriousness in the party tree and call up the majority of Party members and cadres of the party constitution of party compasses party consciousness. (II) two party regulations revision process the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China attaches great importance to two regulations revision . Xi Jinping, general books recorded in the FifthPlenary Session of the eighth session of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, on the revised regulations < > made clear instructions. According to the central deployment, the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection from 2014 under six months begin study two regulations revision. The Standing Committee of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection 4 review revised. Comrade Wang Qishan 14 times held a special meeting to study two regulations revision, amendment clarifies the direction, major issues of principle, path and target, respectively held a forum will listen to part of the province (area) secretary of the Party committee, Secretary of the Discipline Inspection Commission, part of the central ministries and state organs DepartmentThe first party committee is mainly responsible for people, views of experts and scholars and grassroots party organizations and Party members. Approved by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, on 7 September 2015, the general office of the Central Committee of the Party issued a notice to solicit the provinces (autonomous regions, municipalities) Party, the central ministries and commissions, state ministries and commissions of the Party (party), the General Political Department of the military, every 3 people organization of Party of two regulations revision opinion. Central Commission for Discipline Inspection of extensive solicitation of opinions, careful study, attracting, formed a revised sent reviewers. In October 8 and October 12, Central Committee PoliticalBureau Standing Committee and the Political Bureau of the Central Committee After consideration of the two regulations revised draft. On October 18, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China formally issued two regulations. Can say, two laws amendment concentrated the wisdom of the whole party, embodies the party. Second, < code > and < Regulations > revision of the basic principles of two party regulations revision work and implement the party's eighteen, ten eight plenary, the spirit of the Fourth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee and General Secretary Xi Jinping important instructions on the revised < low political criterion > and < Regulations >, highlighting the ruling party characteristics, serious discipline, the discipline quite in front of the law, based on the current, a long-term, advance as a whole, with Bu Xiuding independent < rule > and < rule >. Main principle is: first, adhere to the party constitution to follow. The constitution about discipline and self-discipline required specific, awaken the party constitution of party compasses party consciousness, maintaining the authority of the constitution. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out that "no rules, no side round. Party constitution is the fundamental law, the party must follow the general rules. In early 2015 held the eighth session of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection Fifth Plenary Session of the 16th Central Committee, Xi Jinping again pointed out that constitution is the party must follow the general rules, but also the general rules." the revisionof the < code > and < rule > is Method in adhere to the regulations established for the purpose of combining rule of virtue is to adhere to the party constitution as a fundamental to follow, the constitution authority set up, wake up the party constitution and party rules the sense of discipline, the party constitution about discipline and self-discipline specific requirements. 4 second is to adhere to in accordance with the regulations governing the party and the party. The Party of rule of virtue "de", mainly refers to the party's ideals and beliefs, excellent traditional style. The revised the < code > closely linked to the "self-discipline", insisting on the positive initiative, for all members, highlight the "vital few", emphasized self-discipline, focusing on the morality, and the majority of Party members and the ideological and moral standards. The revised < > Ji method separately, Ji, Ji Y an to Method, as a "negative list", emphasizing the heteronomy, focusing on vertical gauge. Is this one high and one low, a positive reaction, the strict party discipline and practice results transformation for the integration of the whole party to observe moral and discipline requirements, for the majority of Party members and cadres provides benchmarking and ruler. Third, insist on to. In view of the problems existing in the party at the present stage, the main problems of Party members and cadres in the aspect of self-discipline and abide by the discipline to make clearly defined, especially the party's eighteen years strict political discipline and political rules, organization and discipline andto implement the central eight provisions of the spirit against the four winds and other requirements into Disciplinary provisions. Not one pace reachs the designated position, focusing on in line with reality, pragmatic and effective. After the revision of major changes, major changes in the < code > and < rule > modified and needs to grasp several key problems (a) < code > < code > adhere to according to regulations governing the party and party with morals in combination, for at the present stage, the leadership of the party members and cadres and Party members in existing main problems of self-discipline, put forward principles, requirements and specifications, showing Communists noble moral pursuit, reflected at all times and in all over the world ethics from high from low 5 common requirements. One is closely linked to the "self-discipline", removal and no direct relation to the provisions of . the second is adhere to a positive advocate, "eight prohibition" 52 are not allowed to "about the content of the" negative list moved into synchronization amendment < cases >. Three is for all the party members, will apply object from the leadership of the party members and cadres to expand to all Party members, fully embodies the comprehensive strictly required. The fourth is prominent key minority, seize the leadership of the party members and cadres is the key, and put forward higher requirements than the ordinary Party members. Five is to simplify, and strive to achieve concise, easy to understand, easy to remember. The revised < code > is the ruling Party since the first insists ona positive advocate forAll Party members and the self-discipline norms, moral declaration issued to all members of the party and the National People's solemn commitment. > < criterion of a clean and honest administration consists of 4 parts, 18, more than 3600 words. After the revision of the < code >, a total of eight, 281 words, including lead, specification and Party member cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms, etc. Part 3 members low-cost clean and self-discipline, the main contents can be summarized as "four must" "eight code". Lead part, reiterated on ideal and faith, fundamental purpose, the fine traditions and work style, noble sentiments, such as "four must" the principle of requirements, strong tone of self-discipline, The higher request for 6 and supervised tenet, the foothold in permanent Bao the party's advanced nature and purity, to reflect the revised standards requirements. Members of self-discipline norms around the party members how to correctly treat and deal with the "public and private", "cheap and rot" thrifty and extravagance "bitter music", put forward the "four norms". Party leader cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms for the leadership of the party members and cadres of the "vital few", around the "clean politics", from civil servant of the color, the exercise of power, moral integrity, a good family tradition and other aspects of the leadership of the party members and cadres of the "four norms" < > < norm norm. "The Party member's self-discipline norms" and "party members and leading cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms," atotal of eight, collectively referred to as the "eight". "Four must" and "eight" of the content from the party constitution and Party's several generation of leaders, especially Xi Jinping, general secretary of the important discussion, refer to the "three discipline and eight points for attention" statements, and reference some embody the Chinese nation excellent traditional culture essence of epigrams. (2) the revised regulations, the main changes in the revised Regulations > to fully adapt to the strictly requirements, reflects the according to the regulations governing the law of recognition of deepening, the realization of the discipline construction and Jin Ju. < rule > is party a ruler, members of the basic line and follow. And the majority of Party members and cadres of Party organizations at all levels should adhere to the bottom line of thinking, fear discipline, hold the bottom line, as a preventive measure, to keep the party's advanced nature and purity. 1, respect for the constitution, refinement and discipline. Revised < rule > from comprehensive comb physical constitution began, the party constitution and other regulations of the Party of Party organizations and Party discipline requirements refinement, clearly defined in violation of the party constitution will be in accordance with regulations to give the corresponding disciplinary action. The original 10 categories of misconduct, integration specification for political discipline, discipline, honesty and discipline masses Ji Law and discipline and discipline and other six categories, the content of < rule >real return to Party discipline, for the majority of Party members and listed a "negative list. 7 2, highlighting the political discipline and political rules. > < Regulations according to the stage of the discipline of outstanding performance, emphasizing political discipline and political rules, organization and discipline, in opposition to the party's leadership and the party's basic theory, basic line, basic program and basic experience, the basic requirement of behavior made prescribed punishment, increase the cliques, against the organization such as violation of the provisions, to ensure that the central government decrees and the Party of centralized and unified. 3, adhere to strict discipline in the law and discipline In front, Ji separated. Revised < Regulations > adhere to the problem oriented, do Ji separated. Any national law existing content, will not repeat the provisions, the total removal of 79 and criminal law, repeat the content of the public security management punishment law, and other laws and regulations. In the general reiterated that party organizations and Party members must conscientiously accept the party's discipline, die van comply with national laws and regulations; at the same time, to investigate violations of Party members and even criminal behavior of Party discipline and responsibility, > < Regulations distinguish five different conditions, with special provisions were made provisions, so as to realize the connection of Party discipline and state law. 4, reflect Wind building and anti-corruption struggle of the latest achievements. < rule > the party's eighteen yearsimplement the spirit of the central provisions of the eight, against the requirements of the "four winds" and transformation for disciplinary provisions, reflecting the style construction is always on the road, not a gust of wind. In the fight against corruption out of new problems, increase the trading rights, the use of authority relatives profit and other disciplinary terms. Prominent discipline of the masses, the new against the interests of the masses and ignore the demands of the masses and other disciplinary terms and make provisions of the disposition and the destruction of the party's close ties with the masses.Discipline to protect the party's purpose. 8 of these regulations, a total of three series, Chapter 15, 178, more than 24000 words, after the revision of the regulations a total of 3 series, Chapter 11, 133, 17000 words, divided into "general" and "special provisions" and "Supplementary Provisions" Part 3. Among them, add, delete, modify the provisions of the proportion of up to nearly 90%. 1, the general general is divided into five chapters. The first chapter to the regulations of the guiding ideology, principles and scope of application of the provisions, highlight the strengthening of the party constitution consciousness, maintenance the authority of Party Constitution, increase the party organizations and Party members must abide by the party constitution, Y an Centralized centralized, would examine at all levels of the amended provisions implementing and maintaining Party discipline, and consciously accept the party discipline,exemplary compliance with national laws and regulations. The second chapter of discipline concept, disciplinary action types and effects of the regulations, will be a serious warning from the original a year for a year and a half; increase the Party Congress representative, by leaving the party above (including leave probation) punishment, the party organization should be terminated its representative qualification provisions. The third chapter of the disciplinary rules of use prescribed in the discipline rectifying process, non convergence, not close hand classified as severely or heavier punishment. "Discipline straighten "At least eighteen years of five years, these five years is to pay close attention to the provisions of the central eight implementation and anti -" four winds ". The fourth chapter on suspicion of illegal party disciplinary distinguish five different conditions, with special provisions were made provisions, to achieve effective convergence of Party and country 9 method. < rule > the provisions of Article 27, Party organizations in the disciplinary review found that party members have committed embezzlement, bribery, dereliction of duty dereliction of duty and other criminal law act is suspected of committing a crime shall give cancel party posts, probation or expelled from the party. The second is < Regulations > Article 28 the provisions of Party organizations in the disciplinary review But found that party members are stipulated in the criminal law, although not involved in a crime shall be investigated for Party discipline and responsibility shouldbe depending on the specific circumstances shall be given a warning until expelled punishment. This situation and a difference is that the former regulation behavior has been suspected of a crime, the feeling is quite strict, and the latter for the behavior not involving crime, only the objective performance of the provisions of the criminal code of behavior, but the plot is a crime to slightly. < Regulations > the 29 provisions, Party organizations in the discipline review found that party members and other illegal behavior, affect the party's image, the damage to the party, the state and the people's interests, we should depend on the situation Seriousness given disciplinary action. The loss of Party members, seriously damaging the party's image of behavior, should be given expelled from the party. At this article is party member is in violation of the criminal law outside the other illegal acts, such as violates the public security administration punishment law, customs law, financial laws and regulations behavior. The fourth is < cases > Article 32 stipulates, minor party members and the circumstances of the crime, the people's Procuratorate shall make a decision not to initiate a prosecution, or the people's court shall make a conviction and exempted from criminal punishment shall be given within the party is removed from his post, probation or expelled from the party. Party members and crime, sheets were fined in accordance with For acts; the principal Ordinance amended the provisions of the preceding paragraph. This is the new content, in order to achieve Ji method effectiveconvergence. Five is < > the thirty third article 10 of the provisions, the Party member due to an intentional crime is sentenced to criminal law (including probation) sheets or additional deprivation of political rights; due to negligence crime and was sentenced to three years or more (excluding three years) a penalty, shall give expelled punishment. Due to negligence crime is convicted and sentenced to three years (including three years) in prison or be sentenced to public surveillance, detention, shall in general be expelled from the party. For the individual may not be expelled from the party, should control Approval. This is followed and retained the original > < Regulations the provisions of punishment party authorization rules and report to a level party organizations. For is "party members with criminal acts, and by the criminal punishment, generally should be expelled from the party". The fifth chapter of probationary Party member of the discipline and discipline after missing members of the treatment and punishment decisions, such as the implementation of the provisions, clear the related party discipline and punishment decision made after, for duties, wages and other relevant alteration formalities for the longest time. 2, sub sub section will the original regulations of10 categories of acts of violation of discipline integration revised into 6 categories, respectively, in violation of the punishments for acts of political discipline "in violation of discipline behavior of punishment" in violation of integrity of disciplinary action points "of violation punishments for actsof mass discipline" "the violation of work discipline, punishment" in violation of discipline of life behavior punishment "6 chapters. 3, annex" Supplementary Provisions "clear authority making supplementary provisions of, cases of interpretative organ, as well as regulations implementation time and retroactivity etc.. 11 (3) learning understanding > < regulations needs to grasp several key problems The first problem -- about the violation of political discipline behavior > < new ordinance chapter 6 the political discipline column for the six disciplines, that is the main opposition to Party leadership and the opposition of the basic theory, basic line, basic program and basic experience, basic requirements of misconduct made provisions of the disposition, especially the eighteen since the CPC Central Committee put forward the Yan Mingzheng treatment of discipline and political rules requirements and practical achievements transformation for Discipline article, increase the false debate central policies, cliques, against the organization review, make no discipline of the principle of harmony terms. These are the party's eighteen years in comprehensive strictly Process combined with the practice of rich content. (1) false debate the central policies and undermine the Party of centralized and unified the problem is made in accordance with the provisions of the party constitution. Constitution in general programme requirements adhere to democratic centralism is one of the requirements of the construction of the party must adhere to the four cardinal. Applicationof this principle is not only the party the basic organization principle and is also the mass line in party life, it requires that we must fully develop inner-party democracy, respect for the dominant position of Party members, safeguarding the Party member democratic rights, give full play to the enthusiasm and creativity of the party organizations at all levels and Party members, at the same time, also must implement the right concentration, ensure the party's mission < the chaos in unity and concerted action to ensure that the party's decision to get quickly and effectively implementing. The Party Central Committee formulated the major principles and policies, through different channels and ways, fully listen to the party organizations and Party members of the opinions and suggestions, but 12 is some people face to face not to say back blather "" will not say, after the meeting said, "" Taiwan does not say, and nonsense ", in fact, not only disrupt the people thought, some causing serious consequences, the damage to the Party of the centralized and unified, hinder the central policy implementation, but also a serious violation of the democratic system of principles. There is no doubt that shall, in accordance with the Regulations > 4 Specified in Article 6 to give the appropriate punishment. For did not cause serious consequences, to give criticism and education or the corresponding tissue processing. (2) about the destruction of the party's unity < New Regulations > the forty eighth to fifty second article, to damage Party's unity unified and violation of political discipline, punishment situationmade explicit provisions. Article 52 of the new "in the party get round group, gangs seek private gain, cliques, cultivate private forces or through the exchange of interests, for their own to create momentum and other activities to gain political capital, given a serious warning or withdraw from their party posts disposition; if the circumstances are serious, to give Leave a party to observation or expelled from the party. (3) on against the organization review of the provisions of the constitution, party loyalty honesty is party members must comply with the obligations. Members must obey the organization decision, shall not violate the organization decided encounters by asking questions to find organization, rely on the organization, shall not deceive the organization, against the organization. For example, after the investigation does not take the initiative to explain the situation, but to engage in offensive and defensive alliance, hiding the stolen money is against survey organization, is a violation of the behavior of political discipline. Article 24 of the original > < Regulations, although the provisions of the interference, hinder group review the behavior of the fabric can be severely or 13 Aggravated punishment, but did not put this kind of behavior alone as a discipline for qualitative amount of discipline. > < new regulations increase the Article 57, "anti organization review, one of the following acts, given a warning or serious warning; if the circumstances are relatively serious, giving removed from or placed on probation within the party post; if the circumstances are serious, give。
Combining rule-based and case-based learningfor iterative part-of-speech taggingAlneu de Andrade Lopes, Alípio JorgeLIACC - Laboratório de Inteligência Artificial e Ciências de ComputadoresUniversidade do Porto - R. do Campo Alegre 823, 4150 Porto, PortugalE-mail: alneu@ncc.up.pt, amjorge@ncc.up.ptAbstract. In this article we show how the accuracy of a rule based first ordertheory may be increased by combining it with a case-based approach in aclassification task. Case-based learning is used when the rule language bias isexhausted. This is achieved in an iterative approach. In each iteration theoriesconsisting of first order rules are induced and covered examples are removed.The process stops when it is no longer possible to find rules with satisfactoryquality. The remaining examples are then handled as cases. The case-basedapproach proposed here is also, to a large extent, new. Instead of only storingthe cases as provided, it has a learning phase where, for each case, it constructsand stores a set of explanations with support and confidence above giventhresholds. These explanations have different levels of generality and themaximally specific one corresponds to the case itself. The same case may havedifferent explanations representing different perspectives of the case. Therefore,to classify a new case, it looks for relevant stored explanations applicable to thenew case. The different possible views of the case given by the explanationscorrespond to considering different sets of conditions/features to analyze thecase. In other words, they lead to different ways to compute similarity betweenknown cases/explanations and the new case to be classified (as opposed to thecommonly used global metric). Experimental results have been obtained on acorpus of Portuguese texts for the task of part-of-speech tagging withsignificant improvement.1IntroductionOften, computational natural language processing requires that each word in a given text is correctly classified according to its role. This classification task is known as part-of-speech tagging and it consists in assigning to each word in a given body of text an appropriate grammatical category like noun, article, ordinal number, etc., according to the role of the word in that particular context. These categories are called part-of-speech tags and may total a few tens, depending on the variants one considers for each particular category. The difficulty of this task lies in the fact that a given word may play different roles in different contexts. Although there is, for each word, a relatively small set of possible tags, for many words there is more than one tag.Words with a single possible tag are handled by employing a simple lookup-table (dictionary). The way to solve the ambiguity for words with more than one possible tag is by considering the context of the word and possibly employing background knowledge.Tagging words manually is a tedious and error-prone activity, and learning approaches have been proven useful in the automation of this task. In (Jorge & Lopes 1999) an iterative approach was proposed that can learn, from scratch, a recursive first order decision list able to tag words in a text. This approach proceeds by learning a theory containing context free tagging rules in the first iteration and then by learning context dependent recursive theories in subsequent iterations until all words can be tagged. The training data employed for each iteration consists of the words that could not be tagged in previous iterations.Despite the high predictive ability of the iterative tagging approach, it was clear that the theory produced in the last iteration was responsible for a large number of errors that would have a large impact in the overall result. These remaining cases include noise, rare exceptions or examples that cannot be expressed in the given language. Therefore, we expected that a case-based approach could cope with these residual cases better than an induced theory. However, experiments show that a traditional case-based reasoning algorithm, based on overlapping similarity measures and weighted features, does not improve the results of the rule-based approach (section 8). Besides, it is difficult to choose the appropriate weights for the features. Although typically closest neighbors are more relevant, and therefore require higher weights, it is often the case that the tag of one word is determined by other more distant neighbors. Situations like these may be common in the residual cases handled in the last iteration.The current approach exploits the concept of case understanding to allow retrieval of good similar cases to solve it. For that, we have developed a case-based reasoning algorithm, RC2, consisting of two phases. In the learning phase, it constructs explanations of the cases. In the classification phase, it uses these explanations to classify new cases. Instead of using a fixed metric, each case is analyzed using an appropriate set of conditions defined by constructed explanations.In summary, in this paper we present an iterative strategy that combines a rule based learning in the first iterations with a case-based learning in the last one. This paradigm shift during learning overcomes the limitations of the rule language and increases the predictive accuracy in the last iteration and overall. The approach proposed is new and will be described in some detail.2The ProblemA sentence is a sequence of words for which we are interested in assigning an appropriate tag for each of its constituents. The tag is an appropriate grammatical category. Usually, from the original sequence we take a part of it (a window) with some number of elements to the left and to the right of a given position, and we try topredict the value related to the element in the central position; in general employing background knowledge too.In the task of Part-of-speech tagging the assignment must take into account the role of the word in that particular context. The difficulty of this task lies in the fact that a given word may play different roles in different contexts.Below we show two sequences representing two sentences.Words Tags We start by representing the text or the primary sequence of words to be tagged as a set of facts.{word(s1,1,'The'), word(s1,2,car), word(s1,3,is), word(s1,4,red),word(s1,5,’.’), word(s2,1,’I’), word(s2,2,like), word(s2,3,the),word(s2,4,car), word(s2,5,’.’) }In the above example, s1 and s2 are sentence labels. The second argument is the position of the word within the sentence. Punctuation marks such as "." are regarded as words. The corresponding tags are also represented as facts.{tag(s1,1,art), tag(s1,2,noun), tag(s1,3,v), … , tag(s2,5,dot)}3 The Iterative Induction StrategyThe iterative approach to part-of-speech tagging presented in Jorge & Lopes (1999)tackles the problem of learning recursive first order clauses and is mainly based on work done in the context of inductive program synthesis (Jorge & Brazdil 1996) and (Jorge 1998).In this approach, we start by inducing clauses that are able to determine the tag of some of the words in a given set, without any context information and with confidence above of a given threshold. These are the first clauses to be applied in the classification. They are the base clauses of the recursive definition we want to induce and are not recursive. These clauses are also used to enrich the background knowledge, thus enabling and/or facilitating the synthesis of recursive clauses in the following iterations.Having obtained this first layer of clauses, let us call it T 1, we are able to classify (tag) some of the words in the text used for training. Using the answers given by this theory T 1 we may induce some recursive context clauses thus obtaining theory T 2. By iterating the process, we obtain a sequence of theories T 1, T 2, ..., T n . The final theory isT = T 1 ∪ T 2 ∪ ... ∪ T n .To induce each theory in the sequence we may apply a sort of covering strategy, by considering as training examples in iteration i only the ones that have not been covered by theories T 1, ..., T i-1. We stop iterating when all the examples have beencovered, or when we cannot find any clauses. To handle the remaining examples, we consider all clauses for selection regardless of their confidence (quality).The construction of each theory T1, T2, ... is done by a given learning algorithm. Inthis article the learning algorithm ALG used is the first order rule inducer CSC(RC1), for all but the last iteration. There we employ a case-based reasoning strategy.Algorithm 1: Iterative InductionGivenLanguage L, examples E and background knowledge BK,Confidence level CLearning algorithm ALG(E, BK,C)FindA theory T in LAlgorithm:Uncovered ← E, T ←∅, i ← 1DoT i← ALG(Uncovered, BK,C)T ← T ∪ T iBK ← BK ∪ T iUncovered ← Uncovered – covered_examples(T i)i ← i + 1Until covered_examples(T i) = ∅ or Uncovered = ∅T ← T ∪ ALG(Uncovered, BK, 0 )Example: Assume that the background knowledge includes the definition of the predicate word/3 (describing the text) and window/9 defined aswindow(P,L1,L2,L3,L4,R1,R2,R3,R4)←L1 is P-1, L2 is P-2, L3 is P-3, L4 is P-4,R1 is P+1, R2 is P+2, R3 is P+3, R4 is P+4.In iteration 1 non recursive rules like the following are induced:tag(A,B,adj) ←word(A,B,portuguesa),!.tag(A,B,n) ← word(A,B,documento),!.These rules are defined solely in terms of the background predicates word/3. They do not depend on the context of the word to be tagged. Before proceeding to iteration 2 we add these rules to the background knowledge.In iteration 2, some words can be tagged using the rules induced in iteration 1. Now these rules are defined in terms of the word to tag and the context. In this second iteration we also find many non recursive rules. In subsequent iterations more clauses will appear until the stopping criterion is satisfied.Therefore recursive rules like the following appear:tag(A,B,art)←window(A,B,L1,L2,L3,L4,R1,R2,R3,R4),tag(A,L1,prep),tag(A,R1,n),tag(A,L2,n),tag(A,R2,virg),tag(A,L3,prep),!.tag(A,B,art)←window(A,B,L1,L2,L3,L4,R1,R2,R3,R4), word(A,B,a),tag(A,R2,prep), tag(A,R3,n),tag(A,R4,prep),!.In general, the total number of iterations depends on the data, the language, and the underlying learning algorithm employed. For the experiments described in this article,the typical number of iterations was 5.4 The Case-Based Approach in the Iterative StrategyBy observing the partial results of each theory T 1, T 2,... produced by iterative induction it was clear that the last theory in the sequence is responsible for a large number of wrong answers. This is not surprising, since the examples left for the last iteration are the most difficult ones. Previous iterations failed to find good clauses in the given language. To improve the results we have shifted the bias in the last iteration by applying case based reasoning.We have two main approaches to compute similarity between cases, syntactic and semantic (Aamodt 1994). In the syntactic methods the similarity is inversely proportional to the distance between cases, and a case is described as a vector of feature-values and a corresponding class. On the other hand, semantic methods employ background knowledge and are able to explain cases and use these explanations to retrieve and adapt cases. For this work, we adopted this second view of cases.Preliminary experiments we have conducted employed syntactic methods. In these experiments we defined the cases as set of features corresponding to a neighborhood of the word to tag of length 11. The overlapping metric used divided the number of matching features by the total number of features representing the context of the word. Weights of features were manually set. The best result was not better then previous results obtained with rules only (Table 1 and Figure 1). Besides, setting the appropriate weight to each position in the window is a difficult task. Although closer neighbors tend to be more relevant for tagging, more distant words may be important in certain contexts.These results motivated the use of the semantic approach to CBR. For that, we developed the new algorithm RC2 (Rules and Cases) that constructs explanations from cases, and uses explanations to classify new cases. Explanations are constructed in different levels of generality, enabling different views of the case. These different views correspond to different case filters that are suited for a particular kind of cases.A consequence of this is that, differently from usual case-based systems, we do not use a fixed metric to retrieve cases, but an appropriate set of conditions according to the new case being analyzed. In the following sections we describe in detail our concept of cases and the construction and use of explanations.5CasesTo decide which tag T should be assigned to a given word, in a given position P in a sequence, the new case description must take into account either the word at that position or the context of that word or both. For practical reasons, this context was limited to the tags on the five positions at the left of P and five positions at the right of P (a window of size 11). In general, the context may include any information regarding that word. In our approach, case descriptions can be regarded as ground clauses of the form:tag(S,P,T)←window(P,L1,L2,L3,L4,L5,R1,R2,R3,R4,R5), word(S,P,W),tag(S,R1,TR1),tag(S,R2,TR2),tag(S,R3,TR3), tag(S,R4,TR4),tag(S,R5,TR5), tag(S,L1,TL1),tag(S,L2,TL2), tag(S,L3,TL3),tag(S,L4,TL4),tag(S,L5,TL5).For example, the case associated to the position 2 in sentence s1 is described by the following ground clause:tag(s1,2,n)←window(2,1,0,-1,-2,-3,3,4,5,6,7), word(s1,2,car),tag(s1,3,v), tag(s1,4,adj), tag(s1,5,dot), tag(s1,6,pr),tag(s1,7,v),tag(s1,1,art), tag(s1,0,'?'), tag(s1,-1,'?'),tag(s1,-2,'?'),tag(s1,-3,'?').Notice that the context here corresponds to the literals that define the neighborhood of the position being classified. Also notice that a case corresponds to a maximally specific clause in terms of the description of its context.6Case ExplanationsFor each case we have a set of explanations. These are clauses that are more general than the case, given some language constraints.Let C be a case and L be a clause language, the set of explanations exp(C) is exp(C) = { E: A→B ∈ L | E θ-subsumes C }As described below we will construct a subset of these explanations and select only the ones applied to a large number of cases. That will be measured by the support and confidence parameters defined as:Support( A→B ) = #{ true instances of A∧B }, andCf( A→B ) = #{ true instances of A∧B }/ #{ true instances of A }.One explanation associated to the case in the previous section could betag(S,Pos,n)←window(Pos,L1,L2,L3,L4,L5,R1,R2,R3,R4,R5), word(S,P,car),tag(S,R1,v), tag(S,R2,adj), tag(S,R3,dot), tag(S,R4,pr),tag(S,R5,v), tag(S,L1,art), tag(S,L2,'?'), tag(S,L3,'?'),tag(S,L4,'?'), tag(S,L5,'?').Other explanations can be obtained by deleting literals in the body of the clause.Each explanation built by RC2 is obtained by generalizing each pair of cases of the same class. This is possible since we are dealing with a relatively small set of residual cases (about 400). The number of explanations can also be controlled by defining appropriate support and language bias. To obtain the generalization of two cases C 1and C 2, we first compute the least general generalization (lgg) of C 1 and C 2 and then remove literals of the form tag(X,Y,Z) where Y or Z are variables that occur nowhere else in the clause. The explanations with support and confidence above given thresholds are stored in a base of explanations.Besides the support and confidence, each explanation is characterized by its level of generality. This is the number of literals defining the context used in the explanation.Algorithm 2: Explanation Base Construction GivenCases C,Background knowledge BK,Minimal support MS, minimal confidence MCDoFor each pair of cases (c 1, c 2) in C, with the same classconstruct explanation exp = filtered lgg(c 1, c 2)such thatSupport ( exp ) ≥ MS,Cf ( exp ) ≥ MC We call this set of explanations Explanation-Base.7 Using ExplanationsThe tagging of a corpus using a theory produced by iterative induction is also done in an iterative way. Initially, no word occurrence in the corpus is tagged. Then, the induced theories T 1, T 2,..., T n , are applied in sequence. Each theory tags some of the words, and uses the tagging done by previous theories. In the last iteration we use the case based classification.To tag one occurrence of a word in a sentence using a explanations, we first represent that occurrence as a case in the case language defined (section 5). As described there, the case contains the context information for that particular position in the sentence. Since many of the words have already been tagged by previous iterations, the context of one word contains the known tags neighboring that word.After this, we look for the explanation in the explanation-base that maximizes the similarity measure described below. This is, in some aspects, similar to a regular instance based approach. The main difference is that here we may have, in the explanation-base, a set of explanations with different levels of generality and different views for each training case.Given a case explanation A and a case B, the similarity metric used combines an overlapping metric, given by the number of matched literals divided by the total number of literals in the case explanation (Dist ), with the confidence of the explanation used (Cf ) and the level of generality of the explanation (N ).Sim (A , B ) = Dist × Cf × log (N × 10/M )Where M is the number of literals in the maximally specific explanation. The value of Sim ranges from 0 to 1. To count the matching literals of a case and an explanation,we first unify the head of the clause representing the case with the head of the clause representing the explanation. One literal L c in the body of the case matches with one literal L e in the body of the explanation if they are the same. We are assuming that all the variables in the explanation will be instantiated after unifying its head.When more than one explanation with the same level of generality and the same number of matched conditions apply to one case, it is preferred the explanation with higher confidence. The factor log (N × 10/M ) is an ad hoc generality measure that gives more weight to more specific explanations. Considering that the approach is case-based, it is natural to prefer, under similar circumstances, explanations closer to the new case (the most specific ones). Experiments not reported here have confirmed that retrieving explanations by using this generality measure works better than structuring the retrieval process by level of generalization, starting with the most specific explanations.A maximally specific explanation can be seen as the case itself. In this case, the confidence is typically 1, log (N × 10/M ) becomes 1, and the similarity metric is reduced to the usual overlapping metric.Note that log (N × 10/M ) is negative when N < M /10. This happens when the explanation used has less than 10% of the literals of the most specific one. For the part-of-speech tagging approach described here, this generality measure ranged from 0 (N = 1, M = 10) to 1 (N = 10, M = 10).It is important to note that the main difference between an explanation and a rule lies in the fact that when using one explanation we do not have to match all literals.Besides, in a rule-based approach it is necessary to select, from all the hypotheses, an appropriate set of rules. Here we only have to store the explanations.8 ResultsIn the experiments conducted, we observed that the use of a case-based approach in the last iteration of an iterative induction strategy instead of induced rules improves the accuracy results.We have used the described approach in a set of experiments with a corpus in Portuguese text containing more than 5000 words. The corpus had been manually tagged.The corpus was divided into a training set with the first 120 sentences (about 4000 words), and a test set with the remaining 30 sentences (1000 words). The theories were induced using the information in the training set only, and then we measured the success rate of the theories on the test sets. Notice that the learning task we consider here starts with no dictionary. In fact, the dictionary is learned and is expressed as rules that will be part of the final theory produced. In this experimental framework, tagging words of the test set is a hard task since approximately 30% of the words do not occur in the training set.We now give some details about the synthesis of the theory associated with the result shown in Table 1. In the first four iterations a large number (more than 350) of rules are induced. Some 350 appear in iteration 1 and do not take the context into account. In the experiments, the minimal confidence of the rules for each iteration was 0.8. The minimal support was 2. In iteration 2 many recursive rules (about 200) appeared. The iterative induction algorithm went through three more iterations. The number of rules induced at each iteration tends to decrease very rapidly.Table 1. Success rates over the test with Lusa corpusTable 1 shows the overall success rates obtained by using iterative induction with each one of three different algorithms in the last iteration (it. 5).Fig. 1. Coverage × Error. The first four iterations use the CSC(RC1) algorithm and in the lastone we use the algorithms CBR, RC1, and RC2.Figure 1 shows the coverage vs. error rate obtained using the CSC(ALG) in each iteration. In the first 4 iterations ALG is the rule learner RC1. In the last iteration we have used the algorithm CBR (Case Based Reasoning with an overlapping metric), RC1 with a new set of parameters of quality to answer the remaining cases, and RC2 (using explanations).The total number of iterations of the learning process depends on the data, the language, and the quality parameters (minimal confidence, support and selection algorithm). The inductive induction stops when the coverage in a given iteration is close to zero. This strategy yielded 5 iterations.In the case of RC2, the untagged words at iteration 5 (about 400) were stored in a case-base and used to construct explanations (about 1300). The result shown for CBR in Table 1 was the best one achieved using a simple overlapping metric, and setting manually the weights.9Related workThe system SKILit (Jorge & Brazdil 1996, Jorge 1998) used the technique of iterative induction to synthesize recursive logic programs from sparse sets of examples.Many other ILP (Inductive Logic Programming) approaches to the task of part-of-speech tagging exist. The ones that are more directly related to our work are (Cussens 1997) and (Dehaspe 1997), where relational learning algorithms are employed in the induction of rule based taggers. More recently, Cussens et al. (1999) used the ILP system P-Progol to tag Slovene words. Lindberg and Eineborg (1999) used P-Progol to induce constraint grammars for tagging of Swedish words. And using linguistic background knowledge. Horváth et al. (1999) tried different learning algorithms for tagging of Hungarian. One of the systems that obtained good results was RIBL, a relational instance based learning system.In (Liu et al. 1998) a propositional learning algorithm was proposed that is similar in structure to CSC. The main differences are that CSC is relational and it is used here in an iterative way.The methodology proposed here is one of a number of possible hybrid approaches combining cases and rules. The main motivations found in the literature for this combination are efficiency improvement and accuracy improvement. For example, Golding and Rosenbloom (1996), use a set of approximately correct rules to obtain a preliminary answer for a given problem. Cases are used to handle exceptions to the rules. Rules are also used for case retrieval and case adaptation. This approach yielded good accuracy results in the task of name pronunciation. Domingos (1996) proposes a propositional framework (and the learning system RISE) for the unification of cases and rules by viewing cases as most specific rules. The class of a new example is given by the nearest rule (or case) according to a given distance function. Rules are constructed by generalizing examples and other rules. Only generalizations that improve global accuracy are maintained. Our approach differs from RISE in some aspects. First, ours is a relational approach that can use background knowledge. Second, contrary to what happens in RISE, when an explanation is generated it doesnot replace the cases being generalized. We believe that this use of redundancy is important for a difficult set of examples like the ones treated in the last iteration of the inductive process. Another difference is that we use rules (in the first iterations) while these have a satisfactory quality, and cases only when the rule language exhausts.10ConclusionIn an inductive process such as iterative strategy, where the most visible patterns (represented as rules) are identified first, we typically get to a set of residual examples that cannot be reliably captured by the initial bias. As can be seen in Figure 1, the effectiveness (coverage) of the bias decreases from iteration to iteration.The paradigm shift in the last iteration, when using a case based approach with explanations (RC2), improves significantly the accuracy in the iteration and overall. Case explanation was able to explore particularities of the cases not explored by the language bias in the previous rule-based inductive process.Generating all explanations could be intractable for large corpora. However, the iterative approach used leaves only a relatively small set of cases for the last iteration.The methodology proposed here has also explored and formalized some concepts such as case explanation, context, similarity assessment considering semantic aspects, as well as the use of background knowledge to understanding and retrieve cases.Although the iterative learning process is described here as starting from scratch, previously acquired tagging knowledge could have been used before learning. Likewise we may have some words tagged before using the theories induced or the explanation-base constructed for tagging. Since we are using a first order setting, richer background knowledge can also be used in the learning process. However, this would probably motivate some more elaboration of the explanation matching concept. AcknowledgementsThe authors would like to thank the support of project Sol-Eu-Net IST 1999 - 11495, project ECO under Praxis XXI, FEDER, and Programa de Financiamento Plurianual de Unidades de I&D. The first author would also like to thank the support of CNPq -Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico, Brazil. The Lusa corpus was kindly provided by Gabriel Pereira Lopes and his NLP group. References1.Aamodt, E. Plaza Case-Based Reasoning: Foundational Issues, MethodologicalVariations, and System Approaches. AI Communications, Vol. 7 Nr. 1, (1994), 39-59.2.Cussens, J.; Dzeroski, S.; Erjavec, T.: Morphosyntatic Tagging of Slovene Using Progol.Proceedings of the 9th Int. Workshop on Inductive Logic Programming (ILP-99). Dzeroski, S. and Flach, P. (Eds). LNAI 1634, 1999.。
