语言学教程Chapter8.LanguageinUse

Chapter8语言学Chapter 8 Language in UseWhat is pragmatics? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics?Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speakerand the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.8.1 Speech act theory8.1.1 Performatives and constatives1. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, suchas Watch out (= a warning).2. Constative: An utterance which asserts something that is either true or force.E.g. Chicago is in the United States.3. Felicity conditions of performatives:(1) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevantparticipants and circumstances must be appropriate.(2) The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.(3) Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelingsand intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.8.1.2 A theory of the illocutionary act1. What is a speech act?A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speechact theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning.Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning): This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structureswhich the utterance contains.Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force): This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. E.g. in I’m thirsty, the propositionalmeaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. Theillocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on thelistener. It may be intended as request for something to drink.A speech act is asentence or utterance which has both propositional meaning and illocutionaryforce.A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirectspeech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts areoften felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such asrequests and refusals.2. Locutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech actsbetween three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance ofa sentence. A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningfuland can be understood.3. Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform afunction.4. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that areproduced by means of saying something.8.2 The theory of conversational implicature8.2.1 The cooperative principle1. The cooperative principle (CP)Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims:(1) The maxim of quantity:a. Make your contribution as informative as required.b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true.a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation: Say things that are relevant.(4) The maxim of manner: Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief.d. Be orderly.2. Conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to implymeaning during conversation is called conversational implicature.8.2.2 Violation of the maxims[In fact this is taken from one of my essays. Only for reference. ^_^ - icywarmtea]1. Conversational implicatureIn our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with eachother, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to misleadthem. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having aconversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withholdrelevant information from one another.However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words iscalled conversational implicature. For example:[1] A: Can you tell me the time?B: Well, the milkman has come.In this little conversation, A is asking B about the time, but B is not answering directly. That indicates that B may also not no the accurate time, but throughsaying “the milkman has come”, he is in fact giving a rough time. T he answer Bgives is related to the literal meaning of the words, but is not merely that. That isoften the case in communication. The theory of conversational implicature is forthe purpose of explaining how listeners infer the speakers’ intention through thewords.2. The CPThe study of conversational implicature starts from Grice (1967), the American philosopher. He thinks, in daily communication, people are observing aset of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as to communicate effectivelythrough conversation. He calls this set of rules the cooperative principle (CP)elaborated in four sub-principles (maxims). That is the cooperative principle.We assume that people are normally going to provide an appropriate amount of information, i.e. they are telling the relevant truth clearly. The cooperativeprinciple given by Grice is an idealized case of communication.However, there are more cases that speakers are not fullyadhering to the principles. But the listener will assume that the speaker is observing the principles“in a deeper degree”. For example:[2] A: Where is Bill?B: There is a yellow car outside Sue’s house.In [2], the speaker B seems to be violating the maxims of quantity and relation, but we also assume that B is still observing the CP and think about the relationshipbetween A’s question and the “yellow car” in B’s answer. If Bill has a yellow car,he may be in Sue’s house.If a speaker violate CP by the principle itself, there is no conversation at all, so there cannot be implicature. Implicature can only be caused by violating one ormore maxims.3. Violation of the CP(1) The people in conversation may violate one or more maxims secretly. Inthis way, he may mislead the listener.For this case, in the conversation [2] above, we assume that B is observing the CP and Bill has a yellow car. But if B is intentionally trying tomislead A to think that Bill is in Sue’s house, we will be misled without knowing. In this case, if one “lies” in conversation, there is no implicature in the conversation, only the misleading.(2) He may declare that he is not observing the maxims or the CP.In this kind of situation, the speaker directly declares he is not cooperating. He has made it clear that he does not want togo on with the conversation, so there is no implicature either.(3) He may fall into a dilemma.For example, for the purpose observing the first principle of the maxim of quantity (make your contribution as informative as is required), he may be violating the second principle of the maxim of quality (do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence).For this case, Grice gave an example:[3] A: Where does C live?B: Somewhere in the south of France.In [3], if B knows that A is going to visit C, his answer is violating the maxim of quantity, because he is not giving enough information about where C lives. But he has not declared that he will not observe the maxims. So we can know that B knows if he gives more information, he will violate the principle “do not say that for which you lack ad equate evidence”. In other words, he has fallen into a “dilemma”. So we can infer that his implicature is that he does not know the exact address of C. In this case, there is conversational implicature.(4) He may “flout” one or more maxims. In other w ord s, he may beobviously not observing them.The last situation is the typical case that can make conversational implicature. Once the participant in a conversation has made an implicature, he or she is making use one of the maxims. We can see that from the following examples:[4] A: Where are you going with the dog?B: To the V-E-T.In [4], the dog is known to be able to recognize the word “vet” and to hate being taken there. Therefore, A makes theword spelled out. Here he is “flouting” the maxim of mann er, making the implicature that he does not want the dog to know the answer to the question just asked.[5] (In a formal get-together)A: Mrs. X is an old bag.B: The weather has been quite delightful this summer, hasn’t it?B is intentionally violating the maxim of relation in [5], implicating thatwhat A has said is too rude and he should change a topic.8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature1. Calculability2. Cancellability / defeasibility3. Non-detachability4. Non-conventionality8.3 Post-Gricean developments8.3.1 Relevance theoryThis theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986. They argue that all Griceanmaxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to a single principle of relevance,which is defined as: Every act of ostensive communication communicates thepresumption of its own optimal relevance.8.3.2 The Q- and R-principlesThese principles were developed by L. Horn in 1984. The Q-principle is intended to i nvoke the first maxim of Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principle the relation maxim,but the new principles are more extensive than the Griceanmaxims.The definition of the Q-principle (hearer-based) is:(1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity);(2) Say as much as you can (given R).The definition of the R-principle (speaker-based) is:(1) Make your contribution necessary (cf. Relation, Quantity-2, Manner);(2) Say no more than you must (given Q)8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principlesThis tripartite model was suggested by S. Levinson mainly in his 1987 paper Pragmatics and the Grammar of Anaphor: A Partial Pragmatic Reduction of Bindingand Control Phenomena. The contents of these principles are: Q-principle:Speaker’s maxim: Do not provide a statemen t that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the world allows, unless providing a stronger statement wouldcontravene the I-principle.Recipient’s corollary: Take it that the speaker made the strongest statement consistent with what he knows, and therefore that:(1) If the speaker asserted A (W), and form a Horn scale, such that A (S) ||(A (W)), then one can infer K ~ (A (S)), i.e. that the speaker knows that the strongerstatement would be false.(2) If the speaker asserted A (W) and A (W) fails to entail an embedded sentenceQ, which a stronger statement A (S) would entail, and {S, W} form a contrast set, thenone can infer ~ K (Q), i.e. the speaker does not know whether Q obtains or not.I-principleSpeaker’s maxim: the maxim of minimizationSay as little as necessary, i.e. produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends.Recipient’s corollary: the enrichment ruleAmplify the informational content of the speaker’s utterance, by finding the most specific interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker’s m-intended point.M-principleSpeaker’s maxim: Do not use a prolix, obscure or marked expression without reason.Recipient’s corollary: If the speaker used a prolix or marked expression M, he did not mean the same as he would have, had he used the unmarked expression U –specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of U.。

Chapter 8 Language in Use1. 语义学与语用学的区别1.1 语用学（Pragmatics）Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.（语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。

）1.2 区别Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.（语用学主要研究在特定的语境中说话人所想要表达的意义，语义学研究的句子的字面意义，通常不考虑语境。

）2. 合作原则及其准则（Herbert Paul Grice）2.1. 合作原则(Cooperative Principle)说话人经常在话语中传达着比话语表层更多的信息，听话人也能够明白说话人所要表达的意思。

格莱斯认为一定存在一些管理这些话语产生和理解的机制。

他把这种机制称作合作原则。

2.2. 准则(maxims)数量准则(quantity)①使你的话语如（交谈的当前目的）所要求的那样信息充分。

②不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。

质量准则(quality)设法使你的话语真实①不要讲明知是虚假的话②不要说没证据的话关系准则(relation)所谈内容要密切相关方式准则(manner)要清晰。

①避免含糊不清②避免歧义③要简练（避免冗长）④要有序3. 言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）---John Austin3.1. 施为句&叙事句(Performatives & Constatives)施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证真假；叙事句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证真假。

Chapter 8 Language in Use一、Some basic notions in pragmatics(1) Context:a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation, and the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc. The relevant constraints of the communicative situation that influence language use. For example, my bag is heavy.(2) Pragmatics vs. semanticsSemantics studies the literal meaning of a sentence. (without taking context into consideration) Pragmatics studies the intended meaning of a speaker. (taking context into consideration)(3) Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义二、Speech act theoryThe first major theory in pragmatics, proposed by Austin. It is a theory which analyzes the role of utterances about the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication. It aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?” According to this theory, we are performing different kinds of acts when we are speaking.(1) Two types of utterances:① Performatives: sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state and are not verifiable. It performs an act, including non-conventional acts such as promising, requesting and suggesting. E.g.:“I name this ship Elizabeth.”“I bet you six pounds it will rain tomorrow.”① Constatives: statements that either state or describe and are verifiable.Felicity conditions for performatives to be appropriate:A. (i) there must be a relevant conventional procedure,(①) the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.B. The procedure must be executed(①) correctly and(①) completely.C. The relevant participants must(①) have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and(①) follow it up with actions as specified.(2) Austin’s new model of speech acts:Austin suggests that a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:①The first one is locutionary act: an act of saying something, that is, an act of making a meaningful utterance. It is an act of making the sentence and it is a description. For example, when someone says”It is cold here”, its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is cold here.①The second one is illocutionary act: an act performed in saying something, that is, in saying X, I was doing Y. And it indicates the speakers’ intention. For example, when we say”It is cold here”, its illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer to shut the window.①The third one is perlocutionary act: an act performed as a result of saying something, and the act is not related with the speaker’s intention. For example, “The weather is cold here.” Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request.Of the three acts, what speech act theory most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It trys to explain the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple:——— (the telephone rings)——— H: That’ the phone. (1)——— W: I’ m in the bathroom. (2)——— H: Okay. (3)This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because the speakers understand each other’s illocutionary acts:1) Asking his wife to go and answer the phone.2) A refusal to comply with the request; asking her husband to answer the phone instead.3) Accepting the wife’s refusal and accepting her request, meaning “all right, I’ll answer it.”(3) Searle’s classification of illocutionary acts:Searle has made great contribution to the development of the speech act theory. According to Searle, speech act are divided into five general categories. That is, five general types of things we do with language. Each type has a common, general purpose. They are representatives, directives, commsives, expressives, declarations. (阐述类、指令类、承诺类、表达类、宣告类）三､The theory of conversational implicature 会话含义理论The second major theory in pragmatics. Proposed by Grice.In daily communication, people are observing a set of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as to communicate effectively through conversation. He calls this set of rules the cooperative principle elaborated in four maxims.(1) Cooperative principle (CP)In making a conversation, all participants are expected to observe a general principle: Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.Four maxims of CP:1) The maxim of quantity1) Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange).2) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.2) The maxim of qualityTry to make your contribution one that is true.1) Do not say what you believe to be false.2) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.4) The maxim of mannerBe perspicuous.1) Avoid obscurity of expression.2) Avoid ambiguity.3) Be brief.4) Be orderly.(2) Conversational implicatureAccording to Grice, it refers to the extra meaning not contained in the utterance, but understandable to the listener. Only when he shares the speakers’ knowledge or he knows why and how, he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of CP.The following provides different circumstances of the violation of CP and its maxims.1) Violation of the maxim of quantityA:When is Lucy’s birthday party?B:Sometimes next month.A:Where is X?B:He’s gone to the library. He said so when he left.2) Violation of the Maxim of qualityHe is made of iron. (Metaphor)Every nice girl loves a sailor.3) Violation of the maxim of relationA: How do you like my painting?B: I’m afraid I don’t have any eye for beauty. A: What time is it?B: The postman has just arrived.4) Violation of the maxim of mannerA: Shall we get something for the kids?B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.A:Where is your mother?B: She is either in the room or at the market. (3) Characteristics of implicature(4) Politeness Principle (PP)Leech suggests that CP can’t explain why people are often so indirect in conveying what they mean. Conversational interaction is a social behaviour. Choice of linguistic codes is central in language use. There are social and psychological factors that determined the choice.Besides being cooperative, participants try to be polite. And the speakers consider the matter of face for themself and others. Based on this observation, Leech proposed PP, which contains six maxims.1.Tact 策略Minimize cost to other.Maximize benefit to other.2.Generosity 宽宏Minimize benefit to self.Maximize cost to self.3.Approbation 赞扬Minimize dispraise of other.Maximize praise of other.4.Modesty 谦虚Minimize praise of self.Maximize dispraise of self.5.Agreement 赞同Minimize disagreement between self and other.Maximize agreement between self and other.6.Sympathy 同情Minimize antipathy between self and other.Maximize sympathy between self and other.四、Post-Gricean Developments3.Levinson’s Q- , I- and M- principles。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》分章测试题一Chapter 8 Language in Use1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study ofmeaning ___D is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context2. A sentence is a B concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied inisolation. A. pragmatic B. grammatical C. mental D. conceptual3. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication,it becomes a (n) C.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive4. Which of the following is true?√ A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.√ D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.5. Speech act theory did not come into being until A.胡壮麟《语言学教程》分章测试题一A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century6. C is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act7. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is B .A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs8. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ A C .A. in their illocutionary actsB. in their intentions expressed胡壮麟《语言学教程》分章测试题一C. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about9. A is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle10. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, __D might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. F Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.12.T It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.13.T What essentially distinguishes semantics andpragmatics is whether in the study ofmeaning the context of use is considered.14. F The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is胡壮麟《语言学教程》分章测试题一not uttered while an utterance is.15.F The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.16.F The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.17T. F Utterances always take the form of complete sentences18. F Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.19.T Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.20.T Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The notion of ___context is essential to the pragmatic study of language.22. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an ___utterance .23. The meaning of a sentence is __ abstrac t , and decontexualized.24. _Constative were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.胡壮麟《语言学教程》分章测试题一25. Performative were sentences that did not state a factor describe a state,and were not verifiable.26. A(n) __locuionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.27. A(n) ___illocutionary act is the act of expressingthe speaker’s i ntention; it isthe act performed in saying something.28. A(n) __commisive is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.29. A(n) __expressive is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.30. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim ofquantity , the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Conversational implicature32. Performative33. Locutionary act34. Q-principle (Horn)胡壮麟《语言学教程》分章测试题一Key: Chapter8I. 1~5 DBCBAII. 11~15 FTTFFIII. 21.context 22.utterance locutionary27. illocutionary 28. commissive6~10 CBCAD16~20 FFFTT23.abstract 24. Constatives25. Performatives 26.29. expressive 30. quantityChapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The person whois often de scribedas f“ather of modern linguistics”is___ B..A. FirthB. SaussureC. HallidayD. Chomsky2. The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of A.A. functionB. meaningC. signsD. system3. The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is C.胡壮麟《语言学教程》分章测试题一A. BoasB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. Harris4. Generally speaking, the A specifies whether a certain tagmeme is in the position of the Nucleus or of the Margin in the structure.A. SlotB. ClassC. RoleD. Cohesion5. A Grammar is the most widespread and the best understood method of discussing Indo-European languages.A. TraditionalB. StructuralC. FunctionalD. Generative6. A Grammar startedfromthe American linguist Sydney M. Lambin the late 1950s and the early 1960s.A. StratificationalB. CaseC. RelationalD. Montague7. In Halliday’s v iew, the B function is the function that the child uses toknow about his surroundings.A. personalB. heuristicC. imaginativeD. informative8. The rheme in the sentence “On it stood Jane” is D .A. On itB. stoodC. On it stoodD. Jane胡壮麟《语言学教程》分章测试题一9. Chomsky follows C in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.A. empiricismB. behaviorismC. relationalismD. mentalism10. TG grammar has seen C stages of development.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. sixII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. F Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to langue whereas phonology belonged to parole.12. F The subject-predicate distinction is the same as the theme and rheme contrast.13. T London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.14.T According to Firth, a system is a set of mutually exclusive options that come intoplay at some point in a linguistic structure.15.F American Structuralism is a branch of diachronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century.16.F The Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar.胡壮麟《语言学教程》分章测试题一17.T American descriptive linguistics is empiricist and focuses on diversities of languages.18.T Chomsky’s c oncept of linguistic performance is similar toSaussure’sconcept ofparole, while his use of linguistic competence is somewhat different fromSaussure’slangue.19.T Glossematics emphasizes the nature andstatus of linguistic theory andits relationto description.20. F If two sentences have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions, they would be the same in terms of textual coherence.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The Prague School practiced a special style of ___synchronic Linguistics.22. The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between __phonetics and phonology.23. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was Mathesius__ ﹙×﹚_J.R Firth_.24. Halliday’s Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, and the theory behind his Functional Grammar is systemic ___.25. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a(n) ___socially_sociogically oriented胡壮麟《语言学教程》分章测试题一functional linguistic approach.26. Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should bedefined not in terms of meaning but in terms of ___stucture___ distribution .27. In the history of American linguistics, the period between 1933 and 1950 is also known as __Bloomfieldian Age.28. Descriptivism in language theories is characteristic of America.29. The starting point of Chomsky’s TG grammar is h is innateness hypothesis.30. Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of three elements, that is a __hypothesis maker , linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. FSP32. Cohesion33. LAD34. Case Grammar胡壮麟《语言学教程》分章测试题一Key: Chapter12I.1~5 BACAAII.11~15 FFTTF III.21. synchronic 23. J. R. Firth 25. sociologically 27. Bloomfieldian 29. innateness6~10 ABDCC16~20 FTTTF22. phonetics 24. systemic26. distribution 28. Descriptivism 30. hypothesis-makerIV.31. FSP: It stands for Functional Sentence Perspective. It is a theory of linguisticanalysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information theycontain.* 32. Cohesion: The Cohesion shows whether a certain tagmeme is dominating other tagmemes or is dominated by others.33. LAD: LAD, that is Language Acquisition Device, is posited by Chomsky in the 1960s as a device effectively present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their nativelanguage is constructed.胡壮麟《语言学教程》分章测试题一* 34. Case Grammar: It is an approach that stresses the relationship of elements in a sentence. It is a type of generative grammar developed by C. J. Fillmore in the late 1960s。

《Language in use》讲义语言，作为人类交流和思维的工具，其运用无处不在。

从日常的交流沟通，到文学创作、商务谈判、学术研究等各个领域，语言都发挥着至关重要的作用。

一、语言在日常交流中的运用日常交流是语言最基本也是最常见的应用场景。

我们通过语言与家人、朋友、同事等交流想法、分享感受、传达信息。

在这个过程中，清晰准确的表达至关重要。

比如，当我们向朋友讲述自己的经历时，需要组织好语言，按照一定的逻辑顺序进行叙述，让朋友能够轻松理解。

同时，要注意语气和语调的运用，以传达出恰当的情感。

此外，倾听也是日常交流中语言运用的重要部分。

我们不仅要善于表达自己，还要能够理解对方的语言，捕捉其中的关键信息，并给予恰当的回应。

二、语言在文学创作中的运用文学是语言的艺术，作家们运用丰富多样的语言来塑造形象、表达情感、揭示主题。

在诗歌中，诗人常常通过简洁而富有韵味的语言，营造出独特的意境，给读者带来美的享受和深刻的思考。

小说则以更为丰富和细腻的语言，刻画人物性格，推动情节发展，展现社会风貌。

散文则以自由灵活的语言，抒发作者的真情实感，让读者产生共鸣。

无论是哪种文学体裁，都需要作者对语言有精准的把握和巧妙的运用，才能创作出优秀的作品。

三、语言在商务场合中的运用在商务领域，语言的运用直接关系到交易的成败和企业的形象。

商务谈判中，清晰、准确、有说服力的语言能够帮助双方达成共识，实现合作共赢。

谈判者需要用恰当的词汇和语气来阐述自己的观点，同时也要善于倾听对方的需求和意见。

商务写作，如合同、报告、邮件等，要求语言规范、严谨、准确，避免产生歧义。

商务演讲则需要具备良好的语言表达能力和演讲技巧，吸引听众的注意力，传达关键信息。

四、语言在学术研究中的运用学术研究要求语言准确、客观、严谨。

学术论文中，作者需要运用专业的术语和精确的表述来阐述研究成果和观点，同时要遵循学术规范和格式要求。

在学术讨论和交流中，清晰明了的语言能够促进思想的碰撞和学术的进步。

Chapter 8 Language in UseAre you a fool?SPEKER’S MEAING, UTTERANCE MEANING, or CONTEXTUAL MEANINGPRAGMA TICS(语用学): a branch of linguistics which studies the relationship between natural language expression and theirs uses in specific situations.Pragmatic= meaning- semantics8.1 Speech act theoryAustin, J. L.1975[1962]. How to do Things with Words[M]. 2nd ed. Oxford: Charendon Press.8.1.1 Performative and constativePERFORMA TIVES (施为句): the utterance of the sentences is, or is a part of, the doing of an action.Performative verbsEx. 8-1a. I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth.b. I bequeath my watch to my brother.c. I promise to finish it in time.d. I declare the meeting open.CONSTATIVES(表述句): a description of what speaker is doing at the time of speakingEx. 8-2I pour some liquid into the tube.FELICITY CONDITIONS (合适条件) for performativesA. (i) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and(ii) the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.B. The procedure must be executed (i) correctly and (ii) completely.C. Very often, (i) the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and (ii) must follow it up with actions as specified.Disadvantages of felicity conditions1) There might be cases that one does not need a conventional procedure to produce a performative.E.g. I promise.I gave my word for it.2) The so-called constatives may also be infelicitous.E.g. The present King of France is bald.I bequeath my watch to my brother.Question: How to distinguish performatives from constatives?Answer: the grammatical and lexical criteriaTypical performatives:first person singular subject, simple present tense, indicative mood, active voice, and performative verbs8.2 The theory of conversational implicature8.2.1 The cooperative principleCOOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE“Make your conversational contribution such as is required , at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged”(Grice 1975:45). QUANTITY1. Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange).2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.QUALITYTry to make your contribution on that is true.1. Do not say what you believe to be false.2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidenceRELATIONBe relevant.MANNERBe perspicuous.1. Avoid obscurity of expression.2. Avoid ambiguity.3. Be brief.4. Be orderly.IMPLICATURE(含义): the implied meaning8.2.2 Violation of the maximsViolation of Quality maximsExample 1: violation of the first maxim of QuantityRecommend letter“Dear Sir, Mr. X’s command of English is excellent, and his attendance at tutorials has been regular. Yours, etc.”Example 2: Conflict of Quantity maxim and Quality maximA: Where does he live?B: Somewhere in the north of the city.Example 3: violation of the second maxim of Quantitya. Boys are boys.b. Wars are wars.Violation of Quality maximsExample 1: violation of the first Quality maxima. He is made of iron.b. Every nice girl loves a sailor.“It may be the case that…”, or “I’m not sure but…”Example 2: violation of the second Quality maximA: Where is X?B: He’s gone to the library. He said so when he left.Violation of Relation maximExampleA: “Mrs. X is an old bag.”B: The weather has been quite delightful this summer, hasn’t it?Violation of Manner maximExample 1: violation of “avoid obscurity”A: Let’s get the kids something.B: Okey, but I veto I-C-E C-R-E-A-M-S.Example 2: violation of “avoid ambiguity”“Never seek to tell thy love, Love that never told can be.”Example 3: violation of briefA: Miss X sang “Home sweet home”.B: Miss X produced a series of sounds that corresponded cl osely with the score of “Home sweet home”.8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature(i)CALCULABILITY(可推导性)(ii)CANCELLABILITY(可取消性)(iii)NON-DETACHABILITY(不可分离性) (iv)NON-CONVENTIONALITY(非规约性)。

《Language in use 》知识清单一、语言的基本要素语言作为人类交流的工具，由语音、词汇、语法等基本要素构成。

语音是语言的物质外壳，是我们发出和听到的声音。

不同的语言有独特的语音系统，包括元音、辅音、声调等。

准确的发音对于清晰的交流至关重要。

词汇是语言的建筑材料，是表达意义的基本单位。

词汇量的大小直接影响我们的表达能力和理解能力。

我们需要不断积累词汇，了解其含义、用法和搭配。

语法则是语言的规则和结构，它规定了词汇如何组合成句子以表达完整的意思。

掌握语法规则能帮助我们正确地组织语言，避免语法错误。

二、语言的功能语言具有多种功能，包括交际功能、表达功能、认知功能等。

交际功能是语言最基本的功能，我们通过语言与他人交流思想、情感和信息。

无论是日常的对话、商务谈判还是学术讨论，都依赖于语言的交际功能。

表达功能使我们能够抒发内心的感受、想法和态度。

我们可以用语言表达喜悦、悲伤、愤怒等各种情绪，也可以表达自己的观点和立场。

认知功能帮助我们获取知识、理解世界。

通过语言，我们能够学习新知识，进行思考和推理。

三、语言的运用场景语言在不同的场景中有不同的运用方式和特点。

在家庭中，语言通常比较随意、亲切，充满了亲情和关爱。

在学校，语言相对正式、规范，注重知识的传授和学术交流。

在工作场所，语言要根据具体的职业和工作内容有所调整，比如商务场合的语言要求准确、专业、礼貌。

在社交场合，语言则需要根据社交对象和氛围来选择，既要展示自己的个性，又要考虑他人的感受。

四、语言的理解与表达良好的语言理解能力是准确接收信息的关键。

这包括倾听他人的讲话、阅读书面材料等。

在理解语言时，我们要注意语境、语气、语调等因素，以全面准确地把握对方的意思。

而有效的语言表达则需要清晰、连贯、有条理。

在说话或写作时，我们要有明确的主题，合理的结构，恰当的词汇和语法。

同时，要注意语言的简洁性和准确性，避免模糊不清或冗长繁琐的表达。

五、语言的文化差异不同的文化背景会导致语言的使用存在差异。

《Language in use》讲义语言，作为人类交流与思维的工具，其运用无处不在。

从日常的交流沟通，到学术研究的阐述，从文学艺术的创作，到商务活动的协商，语言都发挥着至关重要的作用。

在日常生活中，我们使用语言来表达自己的需求、感受和想法。

比如，早上醒来跟家人说“早上好”，这简单的三个字传递了问候与关怀；在超市购物时询问商品的价格和品质，通过语言获取所需的信息；与朋友分享生活中的趣事，用生动的描述和恰当的词汇让对方感同身受。

日常语言的运用往往较为随意，但也需要遵循一定的规则和礼仪，以确保交流的顺畅和有效。

在学术领域，语言的使用则更加严谨和精确。

撰写学术论文时，需要运用专业术语、准确的定义和逻辑严密的论证来表达研究成果和观点。

一个用词不当或者逻辑混乱的句子，可能会导致整个研究的可信度受到质疑。

例如，在物理学的论文中，对于“能量”“质量”等概念的定义必须清晰明确，实验数据的描述和分析要准确无误，引用他人的研究成果也要遵循规范的引用格式。

文学创作是语言运用的艺术殿堂。

作家们通过巧妙地运用词汇、句式和修辞手法，塑造出丰富多彩的人物形象，描绘出绚丽多彩的场景，讲述引人入胜的故事。

比如，在诗歌中，诗人运用押韵、对仗等手法增强语言的节奏感和韵律美；在小说中，通过细腻的心理描写和生动的对话展现人物的性格和命运。

商务活动中的语言运用则注重简洁明了和高效。

商务谈判时，要清晰地表达自己的立场和利益诉求，同时倾听对方的观点，并及时做出回应。

撰写商务邮件和报告时，语言要规范、正式，避免模糊不清和歧义。

语言的运用还受到文化背景的影响。

不同的文化对于语言的表达方式、礼仪规范和禁忌有着不同的理解。

在跨文化交流中，如果不了解对方的文化背景，可能会因为语言使用不当而引起误解甚至冲突。

比如，在某些文化中，直接拒绝别人的请求被视为不礼貌，而会采用委婉的方式来表达。

此外，语言的发展也是一个动态的过程。

随着社会的进步和科技的发展，新的词汇和表达方式不断涌现。