植物化学物综述

翻白草化学成分概述作者：孙琛来源：《科技资讯》2015年第10期摘要：翻白草具有比较繁杂的化学成分，其全草都含有鞣质（单宁），黄酮类是它的主要有效成分，此外还含有萜类和甾体类化合物、脂肪酸、酚类化合物和其他化合物，翻白草在全国各地均有分布，有着丰富的药材资源，由于其具有复杂的化学成分，所以它的药理作用和生物活性也很广泛，在未来具有广大的应用前景，本文针对翻白草的化学成分进行了概述。

关键词：翻白草化学成分概述中图分类号：R284 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1672-3791（2015）04（a）-0000-00翻白草（Potentilla discolor Bge.）为蔷薇科（Rosaceae）植物，大多数以全草或根入药，采集于夏季和秋季，生长于北方温带区域[1]，存活于坡地、丘陵、荒地、沟边、山野草丛、草地、山谷、草甸及疏林[2]，全国各地均有分布，主其具有比较繁杂的化学成分，现将翻白草的化学成分综述如下：1.黄酮类：黄酮类化合物主要存在的两种形式是结合糖苷和游离态，还拥有多种多样的结构类型，具有多种药理及生理活性，比如：以预防和治疗呼吸系统和心血管系统疾病、消炎抗菌、抗氧化、降血糖、抗肿瘤、抗辐射、抗癌、增强免疫力等[3][4]。

黄酮类化合物能够促使胰岛β细胞的恢复，降低血糖和血清胆固醇，改善糖耐量[5]，其中含有的主要黄酮类化合物主要有槲皮素（Quercetin）分子式为C15H10O7、槲皮素-3-O-β-D-葡萄糖（quercetin- 3- O-β- D- glucoside）分子式为C21H20O12、槲皮素-7-O-α-L-鼠李糖苷（quercetin-7-O-α-L-rhamnosid）分子式为C21H20O13、槲皮素-3-O-α-D-阿拉伯糖苷（quercetin-3-O-α-D-arabinose）分子式为C20H18O11、槲皮素-3-O-β-D-半乳糖-7-O-β-D-葡萄糖苷（quercetin-3-O-β-Dgalactoside -7-O-β-D-glucoside）分子式为C27H30O17、金丝桃苷（Hyperoside）分子式为C21H20O12、芹菜素（Apigenin）分子式为C15H10O5、木犀草素（luteolin）分子式为C15H10O6、山奈酚（Kaempferol） C15H10O6、山奈酚-3-O-β-D-葡萄糖（kaempferol-3-O-β-D-glucoside）分子式为C21H20O12、山奈酚-7-O-α-L-鼠李糖（kaempferol-7-O-α-L-rhamnoside）分子式为C21H20O12、金合欢素（ acacetin）分子式为C17H14O7。

植物化学物的降脂功效代会敏;刘春晓(综述);马洪波(审校)【摘要】目前已有大量文献报道多种植物或其活性成分有降脂作用，但关于它们的概述却鲜有文献报道。

本文综述了具有降脂作用植物化学物，按活性成分分为9类，且简述了每种活性成分的降脂特点，为开发新型降脂药奠定基础。

【期刊名称】《吉林医药学院学报》【年(卷),期】2015(000)005【总页数】5页(P384-388)【关键词】高脂血症;植物;植物化学物;降脂作用【作者】代会敏;刘春晓(综述);马洪波(审校)【作者单位】吉林医药学院公共卫生学院，吉林吉林 132013;吉林医药学院公共卫生学院，吉林吉林 132013;吉林医药学院公共卫生学院，吉林吉林 132013【正文语种】中文【中图分类】R285随着人们生活水平的提高，越来越多的人患有“三高”症状，即高血压、高血脂和高血糖，其中高脂血症容易引发多种疾病，如脂肪肝、肥胖症、高血糖和冠心病等等，严重危害人类身体健康，降低生活质量。

目前临床上用于降脂的多为西药，虽然降脂效果明显，但容易引起不良反应，且复发率较高，只治标不治本。

植物中有些是天然降脂的好材料，效果显著，不良反应较西药显著减少，达到标本兼治的目的。

本文将植物化学物调节高脂血症血脂水平的研究概况综述如下。

1 黄酮类和类黄酮化合物黄酮和类黄酮是自然界植物中广泛存在的化合物，它们的降脂作用主要是通过促进脂质代谢、影响脂质吸收和合成等途径来发挥，这些途径涉及到分子水平的逐级调控机制，包括脂质吸收受体、脂质合成与代谢基因、细胞信号通路和脂质代谢与合成酶等一系列调控机制［1］。

许多研究表明，黄酮类化合物具有抗氧化和降血脂作用。

乌药、潘石榴叶、山楂、荷叶、罗布麻等，都含有黄酮类化合物。

曹宁等提取乌药叶总黄酮，实验发现其能降低模型小鼠血清中的胆固醇(TC)、甘油三酯(TG)和低密度脂蛋白(LDL-C)，且有剂量依赖性，即小鼠口服摄入量越多，降脂效果越好，有很好的降脂活性［2］。

紫苜蓿(medicago sativa)提取物化学成分1. 引言1.1 概述紫苜蓿（Medicago sativa）是一种常见的多年生草本植物，属于豆科植物，被广泛栽培用作饲料和绿肥。

该植物以其高营养价值和多样的药理活性而闻名。

近年来，越来越多的研究关注紫苜蓿提取物的化学成分，并探究其在医药领域中的应用潜力。

1.2 文章结构本文将从引言、紫苜蓿提取物化学成分、紫苜蓿提取物的主要活性成分、紫苜蓿提取物的药理作用研究以及结论和展望等方面对紫苜蓿提取物进行全面阐述。

1.3 目的本文旨在系统地介绍紫苜蓿提取物的化学成分，并总结其主要活性成分及其可能的药理作用研究。

通过对已有文献和研究结果进行综合分析，进一步挖掘紫苜蓿提取物在医药领域中的应用前景，并为相关领域的进一步研究提供理论基础和参考。

以上内容为引言部分的详细清晰撰写。

2. 紫苜蓿提取物化学成分2.1 紫苜蓿概述紫苜蓿（Medicago sativa）是豆科植物的一种，是一种常见的草本植物，广泛分布在全球各地。

紫苜蓿在医药和保健品行业中被广泛应用，并且其提取物已被证明具有多种药理活性。

2.2 提取方法对紫苜蓿进行化学成分分析需要先进行提取。

目前常用的提取方法包括水煎剂法、醇提法或超临界流体萃取等。

其中，水煎剂法在实验室和工业生产中得到广泛应用，因其简单、方便且经济高效。

2.3 化学成分分析通过对紫苜蓿提取物的化学成分进行分析，可以发现其中存在多种活性成分。

已有研究表明，紫苜蓿提取物主要含有多酚类化合物、皂苷类化合物和生物碱类化合物等。

3.1 多酚类化合物多酚类化合物是紫苜蓿提取物中最为丰富的成分之一。

这些化合物常见的包括黄酮类化合物（如大豆苷、根皮素等）、儿茶素和花青素等。

多酚类化合物是具有很强的抗氧化作用的天然物质，可以帮助中和自由基，减少氧化损伤。

3.2 皂苷类化合物紫苜蓿提取物中还含有丰富的皂苷类化合物。

皂苷是一种表面活性剂，在药理学研究中显示出多种生理活性，如抗炎、抗氧化和抗菌作用等。

天然产物研究与开发N at Prod Res D ev 2009,21:3462353,238文章编号:100126880(2009)022*******　收稿日期:2007212225 接受日期:2008201228　基金项目:国家科技支撑计划项目(2006BAD16B08);农业公益性行业科研专项(nyhyzx072022);农业部948计划项目(20062G38)3通讯作者Tel:86210262731199;E 2mail:lgzhou@cau .edu .cn紫花苜蓿化学成分及其生物活性与开发利用王蓟花1,周立刚13,韩建国2,玉　柱21中国农业大学农学与生物技术学院,北京100193;2中国农业大学动物科技学院,北京100193摘　要:紫花苜蓿(M edicago sativa L inn .)为广泛分布在我国的一种牧草植物,含有黄酮、三萜、生物碱、香豆素、蛋白质和多糖等化学成分,具有抗菌、抗氧化、免疫调节、降低胆固醇等多方面的生物活性,部分活性成分已开发成产品。

本文对该植物的化学成分及其生物活性与开发利用的研究进展进行了综述。

关键词:紫花苜蓿;黄酮;三萜;香豆素;抗菌;抗氧化中图分类号:Q946.8;R285;S541文献标识码:AB i oacti v ity and Utili za ti on of A lfa lfa Chem i ca l Con stituen tsWANG J i 2hua 1,ZHOU L i 2gang 13,HAN J ian 2guo 2,Y U Zhu21College of A grono m y and B iotechnology,China A gricultural U niversity,B eijing 100193,China;2College of A ni m al Science and Technology,China A gricultural U niversity,B eijing 100193,ChinaAbstract:A lfalfa (M edicago sativa L inn .)is a f orage cr op widely distributed in China .The maj or che m ical constituents are flavonoids,triter penoid saponins,alkal oids,cou marins,p r oteins and polysaccharides,which showed a variety of bi o 2l ogical activities such as anti m icr obial,anti oxidant,i m muno 2modulat ory,cholester ol 2l owering effects .Some bi oactive con 2stituents have been devel oped as commercial p r oducts .Advances on che m istry,bi oactivity as well as devel opment and u 2tilizati on of alfalfa constituents were briefly revie wed .Key words:M edicago sativa L.;flavonoid;triter penoid;cou marin;anti m icr obial;anti oxidant 紫花苜蓿(M ed icago sativa L inn .)为豆科(Legu 2m inosae )蝶形花亚科(Faboideae )苜蓿属植物[1],因其产草量高、富含蛋白质、适口性好、适应性强等特点而被称为“牧草之王”[2]。

夏枯草的化学成分及生物活性研究进展一、本文概述夏枯草，作为一种具有悠久药用历史的草本植物，其在中医药学中的应用广泛而深远。

近年来，随着现代科学技术的发展，尤其是化学和生物学领域的进步，夏枯草的化学成分及生物活性研究取得了显著的进展。

本文旨在综述夏枯草的化学成分，包括其主要的活性成分，以及这些成分在生物活性方面的研究成果，以期为夏枯草的药理作用机制和临床应用提供科学依据。

本文将首先概述夏枯草的传统药用价值和现代研究的重要性，然后详细介绍其主要的化学成分及其生物活性，最后讨论这些研究成果在医药领域的应用前景。

二、夏枯草的化学成分夏枯草，作为一种传统中药材，其化学成分丰富多样，主要包括黄酮类、苯丙素类、甾体类、三萜类及其苷类、挥发油类以及微量元素等。

这些化学成分赋予了夏枯草广泛的药理作用和生物活性。

黄酮类化合物是夏枯草中的主要活性成分之一，包括槲皮素、山奈酚、异鼠李素等。

这些黄酮类化合物具有显著的抗氧化、抗炎和抗肿瘤活性，对于预防和治疗多种疾病具有重要价值。

苯丙素类化合物也是夏枯草中的重要成分，主要包括香豆素类和木脂素类。

这些化合物具有抗菌、抗病毒和免疫调节等作用，对于提高机体免疫力和抵抗感染具有积极作用。

夏枯草还含有多种甾体类和三萜类化合物，如β-蜕皮激素、熊果酸等。

这些化合物具有抗炎、抗疲劳、抗肿瘤等多种生物活性，对于改善人体健康状态具有重要意义。

除了上述成分外，夏枯草中还含有挥发油类成分，主要包括萜烯类、醇类、酮类等。

这些挥发油类成分赋予了夏枯草特殊的香气和味道，同时也具有一定的药理作用，如抗菌、抗炎等。

另外，夏枯草中还含有多种微量元素，如铁、锌、铜、锰等。

这些微量元素对于维持人体正常生理功能具有重要作用，同时也具有一定的营养保健价值。

夏枯草的化学成分复杂多样，这些成分共同构成了其独特的药理作用和生物活性。

未来随着对夏枯草研究的深入，相信会有更多关于其化学成分和生物活性的新发现，为夏枯草的应用和开发提供更多科学依据。

生物碱类植物化学物治疗和预防阿尔茨海默病的研究进展李宝龙;单毓娟;刘旭;贾博宇;周忠光【摘要】Alzheimer disease (AD) is the most common type of senile dementia, a neurodegenerative disease without effective therapeutic drugs. At present, some phytochemicals with excellent bioactivities in preventing and treating AD have been targeted in the field of new drugs exploitation. This review summarizes the related literatures published recently which mainly show the latest and resegrch progress of a variety of alkaloids such as galanthamine, physostigmine, huperzine, vinca -derived alkaloids, nicotine in the prevention and therapy for AD.%阿尔茨海默病(AD)是最常见的老年痴呆型神经退行性疾病,目前尚无特效药.研究与开发防治阿尔茨海默病的有效植物化学物是当今医药学研究领域的重要课题之一.通过对近年来有代表性的文献进行分析归纳,总结了加兰他敏、毒扁豆碱、石杉碱、长春花属以及烟碱等生物碱类植物化学物治疗和预防阿尔茨海默病的研究进展.【期刊名称】《中医药学报》【年(卷),期】2012(040)003【总页数】3页(P145-147)【关键词】阿尔茨海默病;植物化学物;生物碱【作者】李宝龙;单毓娟;刘旭;贾博宇;周忠光【作者单位】黑龙江中医药大学,黑龙江哈尔滨 150040;哈尔滨工业大学,黑龙江哈尔滨 150090;黑龙江中医药大学,黑龙江哈尔滨 150040;黑龙江中医药大学,黑龙江哈尔滨 150040;黑龙江中医药大学,黑龙江哈尔滨 150040【正文语种】中文【中图分类】R741.05植物化学物(phytochemicals)是植物中存在一类生物活性成分，由种类繁多的化学物质组成。

青蒿素生物化学-概述说明以及解释1.引言1.1 概述概述青蒿素是一种来自于青蒿属植物（Artemisia）的天然化合物，被广泛应用于抗疟疾领域。

自从20世纪70年代青蒿素的抗疟活性被发现以来，青蒿素已经成为了目前治疗疟疾的重要药物之一。

青蒿素的独特结构和药理作用使其具有优秀的抗疟效果，特别是对于多药耐药性疟疾的治疗效果显著。

本文将介绍青蒿素的生物化学特性和药理作用，探讨其在抗疟疾领域的重要性，同时对青蒿素近年来的研究进展和未来展望进行分析和归纳。

文章的目的是为读者提供关于青蒿素的全面了解，并展望其在医药领域的应用前景。

在本文的正文部分，我们将先介绍青蒿素的发现与历史背景，包括植物来源的发现和早期研究成果。

然后我们将详细探讨青蒿素的生物化学特性，包括其化学结构和生物合成途径。

接下来，我们将阐述青蒿素的药理作用，包括其抗疟机制和其他可能的药理活性。

通过对这些方面的描述，读者将能够更好地理解青蒿素在抗疟疾领域的重要性。

在结论部分，我们将总结青蒿素在抗疟疾领域的重要性，并展望其未来的研究进展和应用前景。

我们将讨论青蒿素的局限性以及可能的改进途径，以期为疟疾治疗提供更有效的方法。

通过本文的阐述，我们希望能够为读者提供有关青蒿素的全面了解，同时为未来的研究和应用提供指导和启示。

青蒿素作为一种重要的抗疟疾药物，其在临床治疗中的应用前景仍然值得期待。

1.2文章结构文章结构本文主要分为引言、正文和结论三个部分。

引言部分主要对文章进行概述，介绍青蒿素这一主题的背景和意义。

首先，青蒿素作为一种重要的抗疟疾药物，在全球范围内应用广泛，具有极高的疗效和安全性。

其发现和研究不仅对抗击疟疾具有重要意义，也为天然产物药物研究提供了范例。

然后，本文将介绍青蒿素的生物化学特性和药理作用，深入探讨其在抗疟疾领域中的重要性和研究进展。

最后，文章将对青蒿素的未来展望和应用前景进行展望，以期为相关领域的研究和应用提供参考。

正文部分将着重介绍青蒿素的发现与历史背景、生物化学特性和药理作用。

瑞香属植物化学成分的研究综述(Ⅰ)朱慧贤*(玉溪师范学院资源环境学院云南玉溪 653100)摘要：本文对瑞香属植物香豆素、木脂素和二萜原酸酯类化学成分及其生物活性进行了研究。

关键词：瑞香属；化学成分；生物活性中图分类号：R284.1 文献标识码：A 文章编号：CHEMICAL STUDY ON DAPHNE (THYMELAEACEAE) (Ⅰ)Zhu Huixian(Department of Chemistry, Yuxi Teacher’s Colle ge, Yuxi 653100) Abstract: Constituents (coumarins, lignans and diterpene orthoesters) from Daphne genus and their bioactivities were reviewed.Key words: Daphne; constituents; bioactivity瑞香属(Daphne)植物约70种，分布于欧洲、北非和亚洲温带和亚热带地区至大洋洲，我国有35种，大部分产于西南部和西北部，他处少见，有些种类的韧皮纤维为制纸原料，有些供观赏[1]。

瑞香属的主要化学成分为香豆素类、木脂素类、萜类、黄酮类化合物，大多具有较显著的生理活性，如抗生育、抗白血病、镇静、镇痛及镇咳祛痰等作用[2]，因而对该属植物的化学成分和药理作用方面的研究受到各国学者的瞩目。

本文就该属的香豆素类、木脂素类、二萜原酸酯类化学成分和生物活性进行了综述。

1 香豆素类化学成分及其生物活性香豆素类化合物是瑞香属植物中发现最早且分布最普遍的一类有生物活性的化合物，目前已知的有20多种。

该属中的香豆素按结构可分为以下5类：单香豆素、双香豆素、三香豆素、香豆木脂素和香豆素甙(表1)。

瑞香素(daphnetin)具有镇痛、镇静、抗菌、抗炎、抗缺氧、麻醉、抗血栓等作用[3]。

瑞香素的免疫药理学和组织代谢方面亦有研究。

植物多糖结构复杂，种类多样，分子量大，极性大，且常与蛋白质、脂质等结合成多糖复合物，生物活性也因其糖基的组成、排列顺序、连接方式、分支的位置等不同而相异，多糖骨架链间以氢键结合的各种聚合体，糖单位的羟基、羧基、氨基以及硫酸基之间的非共价键相互作用，多聚链间非共价键结合形成的聚集体，这些给多糖的提取分离带来了困难，加之多糖的提取方法和工艺尚未成熟和效率、成本等多方面的考虑，所以选择一种合适的提取分离方法对多糖的研究具有重大意义。

提取的多糖常混有蛋白质、色素等杂质，需进一步分离纯化，提高多糖纯度后，再对多糖组分进行分级。

2.1多糖中蛋白质的去除蛋白质遇有机溶剂变性，常用氯仿与正丁醇按一定体积比组成的Sevage试剂，和三氯乙酸去除蛋白。

也可根据酶的专一性选用蛋白酶，可除去大部分蛋白。

蔡永红等〔25〕分别采用了Sevage法、三氯乙酸法和蛋白酶法去除栀子多糖中的蛋白质。

Sevage法除蛋白后蛋白质含量为7.51%，三氯乙酸法为2.13%，蛋白酶法为4.23%。

三氯乙酸作用强烈，除蛋白率较高。

Sevage试剂需重复多次，每次至少静置30min，时间较长，且有机试剂毒性较大及用量较多，多糖损失较高，还会对多糖的结构有破环。

蛋白酶法作用温和，除蛋白效率高。

欧文等〔26〕在除去荠菜多糖中的蛋白质时，采用Sevage法和三氯乙酸去除蛋白，蛋白去除率分别为80%、85.52%，而多糖损失率分别为20%、25.08%。

而用木瓜蛋白酶法在酶用量为2.0%、pH5.5时作用2h，蛋白去除率为88.21%，多糖损失率为7.43%。

蛋白酶法除蛋白率最高，多糖损失率最小。

2.2多糖中色素的去除常用活性炭、过氧化氢、大孔吸附树脂除去多糖中的色素。

活性炭吸附法一般去除鞣质色素。

因活性碳疏松多孔无选择性，使多糖损失较多。

李向东等〔29〕采用氧化氢去除黄芪多糖中的色素，并优化出最佳条件：每50mL样液用过氧化氢5~20mL脱色2~4h，色素除去率为92.05%。

REVIEWThe genus Codonopsis (Campanulaceae):a review of phytochemistry,bioactivity and quality controlJing-Yu He •Na Ma •Shu Zhu •Katsuko Komatsu •Zhi-Yuan Li •Wei-Ming FuReceived:7May 2014/Accepted:18July 2014/Published online:7August 2014ÓThe Japanese Society of Pharmacognosy and Springer Japan 2014Abstract Codonopsis ,in the family Campanulaceae,is a genus containing 42species of dicotyledonous herbaceous perennial plants,predominantly found in Central,East and South Asia.Several Codonopsis species are widely used in traditional medicine and are considered to have multiple medicinal properties.Among the Codonopsis species,Codonopsis pilosula (Franch.)Nannf.and nceolata (Sieb.et Zucc.)Benth.&Hook.f.ex Trautv.are more popular than others according to the findings,especially phytochemical and bioactive studies.Phytochemical research shows that Codonopsis species contain mainly polyacetylenes,phenylpropanoids,alkaloids,triterpenoids and polysaccharides,which contribute to multiple bioac-tivities.However,the mechanisms of their bioactivities need to be further elucidated.The less popular Codonopsis species remain to be studied and exploited.In addition,although a series of methods for the quality evaluation of Codonopsis species have been developed,a feasible and reliable approach to the efficacious and safe use of various Codonopsis species is still needed,with considering botanical origin,chemical constituents and bioactive effects.This review aims to provide up-to-date and com-prehensive information on the phytochemistry,bioactivity and quality control of medicinal plants in the genus Codonopsis and to highlight current gaps in knowledge,which is useful for the wider development of the Codon-opsis genus.Keywords Codonopsis ÁPhytochemistry ÁBioactivity ÁQuality controlIntroductionCodonopsis ,which is a dicotyledonous genus of herba-ceous perennial plants in the family Campanulaceae,has 42species predominantly distributed in Central,East and South Asia;40Codonopsis species can be found in China [1].However,Codonopsis pilosula (Franch.)Nannf.,C.pilosula Nannf.var.modesta (Nannf.)L. D.Shen, C.tangshen Oliv.and nceolata (Sieb.et Zucc.)Benth.&Hook.f.ex Trautv.are the only species widely used,of which the fresh or dried roots are collectively regarded as famous herbal medicines and have been used in folk medicine for hundreds of years.Codonopsis Radix is pre-scribed as the dried roots of C.pilosula ,C.pilosula var.modesta and C.tangshen in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (2010edition)[2].It is called ‘‘Dangshen’’in Chinese and ‘‘Tojin’’in Japanese,and has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for replenishing qi (vital energy)defi-ciency,strengthening the immune system,improving poor gastrointestinal function,gastric ulcer and appetite,decreasing blood pressure,etc.,and is sometimes used as a substitute for Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A.Mey.)[3,4].The roots of other Codonopsis species,including C.tu-bulosa ,C.subglobosa ,C.clematidea and nceolata ,are reported to be used as substitutes for Codonopsis Radix in some regions [3]. nceolata ,commonly called bonnet bellflower,is a herb with high value in traditional Chinese medicine and its root is also becoming popular as aJ.-Y.He ÁN.Ma ÁZ.-Y.Li ÁW.-M.Fu (&)Guangzhou Institute of Advanced Technology,Chinese Academy of Sciences,1121Haibin Rd.,Nansha Dist.,511-458Guangzhou,People’s Republic of China e-mail:wm.fu@S.Zhu ÁK.KomatsuDivision of Pharmacognosy,Department of MedicinalResources,Institute of Natural Medicine,University of Toyama,2630Sugitani,Toyama 930-0194,JapanJ Nat Med (2015)69:1–21DOI10.1007/s11418-014-0861-9special vegetable in some Asian countries[5]nceo-lata has been used for the treatment of bronchitis,asthma, cough,tuberculosis,dyspepsia and psychoneurosis[6–8]. Phytochemical researches have revealed that the roots of Codonopsis species contained alkaloids,phenylpropanoids, triterpenoids,polyacetylenes,flavones,organic acid,poly-saccharides,etc.[9–54].Among them,polyacetylenes, phenylpropanoids,alkaloids,triterpenoids and polysac-charides are considered to be the major constituents and responsible for most of the activities found in the plants of this genus.The chemical profile varied greatly between species and sample collections may cause these Codon-opsis species to possess diverse bioactivities.Some com-pounds belonging to thesefive chemotypes have been evaluated for potential biological activity and pharmaco-logical mechanisms.However,the pharmacological mechanisms of these Codonopsis species related to bio-logical activity and clinical application remain largely unexplained.Additionally,the toxicity of Codonopsis has not been reported in the scientific literature.As many investigations indicated that a variety of chemical constituents contributed to the effects of Codon-opsis species,the quantitation of bioactive components becomes urgent for ensuring the efficacy of Codonopsis species.In the Chinese Pharmacopoeia(2010edition),only lobetyolin is used as the chemical marker for identification of Codonopsis Radix,which seems useless for many Codonopsis species involved[2].Hence,a number of studies have attempted to develop accurate,sensitive and selective analytical methods for qualitative and quantitative evaluation of Codonopsis materials.To provide information benefiting traditional uses and scientific studies,this review summarizes and evaluates the available phytochemical and bioactive properties of Codonopsis genus reported by the literature.In addition, for the efficacious and safe uses of Codonopsis,the pro-gress of research on quality evaluation of various Codon-opsis species is also presented.Chemical constituents of genus Codonopsis Phytochemical studies have been performed on Codonopsis species plants over the last30years all around the world. Only some of the different Codonopsis species plants have been explored for obtaining information on chemo-taxo-nomical identification,isolation and identification of vari-ous important chemicals from this genus and comparison of the chemicals in different plants or species.C.pilosula,C.tangshen,nceolata and C.clemati-dea have been widely investigated in their phytochemistry; more than100compounds have thereby been isolated and identified.On the other hand,few compounds in C.cordifolioidea,C.nervosa,C.thalictrifolia,C.xundian-ensis and C.tubulosa are reported because they are found only in selected regions.The components in other Codonopsis species have not yet been reported since these Codonopsis species may be difficult to collect and/or be scarce.To date,polyacetylenes,phenylpropanoids,alka-loids,triterpenoids,etc.have been isolated and character-ized from the different parts of these Codonopsis species plants.The names of these constituents,the plant and the parts from which they are derived are summarized in Table1.The structures of the compounds are shown in Figs.1,2,3,4,5,6and7.AlkaloidsThe pyrrolidine alkaloids codonopsine(1),codonopsinine (2),codonopsinol(3)and radicamine A(4)were isolated from the aerial parts of C.clematidea[9,10].Two pyr-rolidine alkaloids,codonopyrrolidiums A(5)and B(6), were isolated from the roots of C.tangshen[13],and were also found in the roots of C.pilosula and C.pilosula var. modesta[12,14].In addition,the pyrrolidine alkaloids codonopsinols A(7),B(8),C(9)and the glycoside,cod-onopiloside A(10)were obtained from the roots of C. pilosula[11].Codotubulosine B(11)was found in the roots of C.tubulosa[15].Other alkaloids,n-9-formyl harman(12),norharman (13),1-carbomethyl carboline(14),1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-b-carboline-3-carboxylic acid(15)and tryptophan(16),were isolated from the roots of nceolata[16,17,19]. Tryptophan(16),perlolyrine(17)and nicotinic acid(18) were obtained from the roots of C.pilosula[18,20,21]. The common compounds uracil(19)and adenosine(20) were found in the roots of C.pilosula and the roots of C. pilosula and C.tangshen,respectively[13,18,22]. PhenylpropanoidsThe phenylpropanoids tangshenosides I(21),II(22),III (23)and IV(24)werefirst isolated from C.tangshen[23, 25].Tangshenoside V(25),tangshenoside VI(26)and codonosides A(27)and B(28),considered to be the characteristic components,were isolated from C.tangshen [13,26].Tangshenoside VI(26)was also isolated from the aerial parts of C.nervosa[27].Recently,tangshenoside VIII(29)has been obtained from the roots of nceolata [24].In addition,12phenylpropanoids,cordifoliketones A (30)and B(31),sinapinaldehyde(32),coniferaldehyde (33),coniferoside(34),isoconiferin(35),nervolans B(36) and C(37),dillapiole(38),1-allyl-2,6-dimethoxy-3,4-methylenedioxybenzene(39),4-allyl-2-(3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl)phenol(40)and sachaliside(41),were isolated from the roots of C.cordifolioidea[28,29].Syringin(42)has been commonly found in5Codonopsis species[21,23,30–32].TriterpenesThree new triterpenyl esters,codonopilates A(43),B(44) and C(45),together with seven known triterpenoids, 24-methylenecycloartanyl linolate(46),24-methylene-cycloartan-3-ol(47),friedelin(48),1-friedelen-3-one(49), stigmast-7-en-3-one(50),taraxerol(51)and stigmast-7-en-3-ol(52),were isolated from the CHCl3-soluble fraction of the methanol extract of C.pilosula[14].Additionally,a-spinasterol(53)was obtained from C.pilosula,C.tang-shen,nceolata and C.thalictrifolia[32–35],and tar-axeryl acetate(54)was obtained from C.pilosula, C. tangshen and C.clematidea[10,34,35].The oleanan-type bisdesmoside with sugars at C-3and C-28,codonolaside (55),codonolasides I(56),II(57)and III(58),and their prosapogenins,eclalbasaponin XIII(59)and echinocystic acid3-O-b-D-glucuronopyranoside(60),were isolated from the roots of nceolata[36].The triterpene saponins, lancemasides A(61),B(62),C(63),D(64),E(65),F(66) and G(67),have also been isolated from the roots of C. lanceolata cultivated in Korea[19].Codonolaside IV(68), codonolaside V(69),foetidissimoside A(70),aster saponin Hb(71),oleanolic acid(72),echinocystic acid(73)and stigmasterol(74)were found in the roots of nceolata [19,30,34,37–39].Foetidissimoside A(70)and rubiprasin B(75)were isolated from the aerial parts of C.clematidea [10].For the aerial parts of C.thalictrifolia,isolation of a-spinasterol(53)and b-amyrin acetate(76)was reported [32].Zeorin(77)and lupeol(78)were isolated from the whole plants of C.nervosa[40].PolyacetylenesIsolation and identification of lobetyolin(79),lobetyolinin (80)and lobetyol(81)from the roots and aerial parts of plants belonging to the genus Codonopsis have also been reported[10,12,18,25,27,29,32,34,41,42].Three new polyacetylene glucosides,cordifolioidynes A(82),B(83) and C(84),were isolated from a95%ethanol extract of the roots of C.cordifolioidea[29].Recently,cordifoli-oidynes B(83)has also been found in C.pilosula,C. pilosula var.modesta and C.tangshen,which are the botanical sources of Codonopsis Radix[12].FlavonesChrysoeriol(85),tricin(86),wogonin(87)and luteolin (88)were isolated from the roots of C.xundianensis Wang ZT and Xu GJ,which grows in Yunnan Province,China [43].Luteolin(88),kaempferol(89),luteolin-5-O-b-D-glucopyranoside(90),luteolin-7-O-b-D-gentiobioside(91), apigenin-7-O-b-D-glucopyranoside(92)and luteolin-7-O-Table1Compounds in Codonopsis speciespound names Species Part of the plant ReferencesAlkaloids1Codonopsine C.clematidea Aerial parts[9]2Codonopsinine C.clematidea Aerial parts[9]3Codonopsinol C.clematidea Aerial parts[10]4Radicamine A C.pilosula Roots[11]C.clematidea Aerial parts[10]5Codonopyrrolidium A C.pilosula Roots[12]C.pilosula var.Roots[12]modestaC.tangshen Roots[13]6Codonopyrrolidium B C.pilosula Roots[14]C.pilosula var.Roots[12]modestaC.tangshen Roots[13]7Codonopsinol A C.pilosula Roots[11]8Codonopsinol B C.pilosula Roots[11]9Codonopsinol C C.pilosula Roots[11]10Codonopiloside A C.pilosula Roots[11]11Codotubulosine B C.tubulosa Roots[15]12n-9-Formyl harman nceolata Roots[16]13Norharman nceolata Roots[16]141-Carbomethyl carboline nceolata Roots[16] 151,2,3,4-Tetrahydro-b-carboline-3-carboxylic acid nceolata Roots[17]16Tryptophan C.pilosula Roots[18]nceolata Roots[19]17Perlolyrine C.pilosula Roots[20]18Nicotinic acid C.pilosula Roots[21]19Uracil C.pilosula Roots[18]20Adenosine C.pilosula Roots[22]C.tangshen Roots[13]Phenylpropanoids21Tangshenoside I C.pilosula Roots[12]Roots[12]C.pilosula var.modestaC.tangshen Roots[23]nceolata Roots[24]22Tangshenoside II C.tangshen Roots[23]nceolata Roots[24]23Tangshenoside III C.tangshen Roots[25]nceolata Roots[24]24Tangshenoside IV C.tangshen Roots[25]nceolata Roots[24]25Tangshenoside V C.tangshen Roots[26]26Tangshenoside VI C.tangshen Roots[26]C.nervosa Aerial parts[27]27Codonoside A C.tangshen Roots[13]28Codonoside B C.tangshen Roots[13]29Tangshenoside VIII nceolata Roots[24]30Cordifoliketone A C.cordifolioidea Roots[28]31Cordifoliketone B C.cordifolioidea Roots[28] 32Coniferaldehyde C.cordifolioidea Roots[29] 33Sinapinaldehyde C.cordifolioidea Roots[29] 34Coniferoside C.cordifolioidea Roots[29] 35Isoconiferin C.cordifolioidea Roots[29] 36Nervolan B C.cordifolioidea Roots[28] 37Nervolan C C.cordifolioidea Roots[28] 38Dillapiole C.cordifolioidea Roots[28] 391-Allyl-2,6-dimethoxy-3,4-methylenedioxybenzene C.cordifolioidea Roots[28] 404-Allyl-2-(3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl)phenol C.cordifolioidea Roots[28] 41Sachaliside C.cordifolioidea Roots[29] 42Syringin C.pilosula Roots[21]C.tangshen Roots[23]nceolata Roots[30]C.nervosa Aerial parts[31]C.thalictrifolia Aerial parts[32]Triterpenes43Codonopilate A C.pilosula Roots[14] 44Codonopilate B C.pilosula Roots[14] 45Codonopilate C C.pilosula Roots[14] 4624-Methylenecycloartanyl linolate C.pilosula Roots[14] 4724-Methylenecycloartan-3-ol C.pilosula Roots[14] 48Friedelin C.pilosula Roots[14]C.tangshen Roots[12]nceolata Roots[33] 491-Friedelen-3-one C.pilosula Roots[14] 50Stigmast-7-en-3-one C.pilosula Roots[14] 51Taraxerol C.pilosula Roots[14]C.tangshen Roots[34] 52Stigmast-7-en-3-ol C.pilosula Roots[14] 53a-Spinasterol C.pilosula Roots[35]C.tangshen Roots[34]nceolata Roots[33]C.thalictrifolia Aerial parts[32] 54Taraxeryl acetate C.pilosula Roots[35]C.tangshen Roots[34]C.clematidea Aerial parts[10] 55Codonolaside nceolata Roots[36] 56Codonolaside I nceolata Roots[36] 57Codonolaside II nceolata Roots[36] 58Codonolaside III nceolata Roots[36] 59Eclalbasaponin XIII nceolata Roots[36] 60Echinocystic acid-3-O-(60-O-methyl)-b-D-glucuronopyranoside nceolata Roots[36] 61Lancemaside A nceolata Roots[19] 62Lancemaside B nceolata Roots[19] 63Lancemaside C nceolata Roots[19] 64Lancemaside D nceolata Roots[19] 65Lancemaside E nceolata Roots[19]66Lancemaside F nceolata Roots[19] 67Lancemaside G nceolata Roots[19] 68Codonolaside IV nceolata Roots[37] 69Codonolaside V nceolata Roots[38] 70Foetidissimoside A nceolata Roots[19]C.clematidea Aerial parts[10] 71Aster saponin Hb nceolata Roots[39] 72Oleanolic acid nceolata Roots[30] 73Echinocystic acid nceolata Roots[30] 74Stigmasterol C.tangshen Roots[34]nceolata Roots[33] 75Rubiprasin B C.clematidea Aerial parts[10] 76b-Amyrin acetate C.thalictrifolia Aerial parts[32] 77Zeorin C.nervosa Whole plants[40] 78Lupeol C.nervosa Whole plants[40] Polyacetylenes79Lobetyolin Codonopsis pilosula Roots[18]Roots[12]C.pilosula var.modestaC.tangshen Roots[25]nceolata Roots[41]C.clematidea Aerial parts[10]C.cordifolioidea Roots[29]C.nervosa Whole plants[27]C.thalictrifolia Aerial parts[32] 80Lobetyolinin C.pilosula Roots[18]Roots[12]C.pilosula var.modestaC.tangshen Roots[12]C.clematidea Aerial parts[10] 81Lobetyol C.pilosula Roots[42]Roots[12]C.pilosula var.modestaC.tangshen Roots[34]C.cordifolioidea Roots[29] 82Cordifolioidyne A C.cordifolioidea Roots[29] 83Cordifolioidyne B C.pilosula Roots[12]Roots[12]C.pilosula var.modestaC.tangshen Roots[12]C.cordifolioidea Roots[29] 84Cordifolioidyne C C.cordifolioidea Roots[29] Flavones85Chrysoeriol C.xundianensis Roots[43] 86Tricin C.xundianensis Roots[43] 87Wogonin C.xundianensis Roots[43]88Luteolin C.nervosa Whole plants[40]C.thalictrifolia Aerial parts[32]C.clematidea Aerial parts[10]C.xundianensis Roots[43] 89Kaempferol C.nervosa Whole plants[40] 90Luteolin-5-O-b-D-glucopyranoside C.nervosa Aerial parts[27]C.thalictrifolia Aerial parts[32] 91Luteolin-7-O-b-D-gentiobioside C.nervosa Aerial parts[27]C.thalictrifolia Aerial parts[32] 92Apigenin-7-O-b-D-glucopyranoside C.nervosa Aerial parts[31]93Luteolin-7-O-b-D-glucopyranosyl(1?6)-[(6000-O-caffeoyl)]-b-D-glucopyranoside C.nervosa Whole plants[40] C.clematidea Aerial parts[10]94Hesperidin C.pilosula Roots[35] Organic acids95Succinic acid C.pilosula Roots[44]C.nervosa Aerial parts[31] 963-O-caffeoylquinic acid C.nervosa Aerial parts[31]C.thalictrifolia Aerial parts[32] 975-O-caffeoylquinic acid C.nervosa Aerial parts[31] 984-(b-D-Glucopyranosyl)-benzoic acid C.nervosa Aerial parts[31] 99Caffeic acid C.thalictrifolia Aerial parts[32] 100Linoleic acid C.thalictrifolia Aerial parts[32] 1019,10,13-Trihydroxy-(E)-octadec-11-enoic acid C.pilosula Roots[35] 102Shikimic acid nceolata Roots[33] 103Vanillic acid C.tangshen Roots[34] Other compounds104Atractylenolide III C.pilosula Roots[21] 1055-Hydroxymethyl-2-furaldehyde C.pilosula Roots[14]C.tangshen Roots[34] 106Angelicin C.pilosula Roots[44] 107Psoralen C.pilosula Roots[44] 108Emodin C.pilosula Roots[18] 109Geniposide C.pilosula Roots[17] 110Hexyl-b-D-glucopyranoside C.pilosula Roots[18] 111Butyl-b-D-fructournanoside C.pilosula Roots[18] 112b-Sitosterol C.pilosula Roots[35]C.nervosa Whole plants[40] 113b-Daucosterol C.pilosula Roots[35] 114Hexyl-b-gentiobioside C.tangshen Roots[25] 115Hexyl-b-sophoroside C.tangshen Roots[25] 116(E)-2-hexenyl-b-sophoroside C.tangshen Roots[25] 117(E)-2-hexenyl-a-L-arabinopyranosyl(1?6)-b-D-glucopyranoside C.tangshen Roots[25]C.clematidea Aerial parts[10] 118Cordifoliflavane A C.cordifolioidea Roots[45] 119Cordifoliflavane B C.cordifolioidea Roots[45] 120Lanceolune A nceolata Roots[46] 121Lanceolune B nceolata Roots[46] 122Lanceolune C nceolata Roots[46]b-D-glucopyranosyl(1?6)-[(6000-O-caffeoyl)]-b-D-gluco-pyranoside(93)were obtained from C.nervosa[27,31,40],and luteolin(88),luteolin-5-O-b-D-glucopyranoside(90)and luteolin-7-O-b-D-gentiobioside(91)were alsofound in the aerial parts of C.thalictrifolia[32].In addi-tion,luteolin(88)and luteolin-7-O-b-D-glucopyrano-syl(1?6)-[(6000-O-caffeoyl)]-b-D-glucopyranoside(93)were isolated from the aerial parts of C.clematidea[10].Hesperidin(94)was only isolated from the roots of C.pilosula[35].Organic acidsTo date,succinic acid(95),3-O-caffeoylquinic acid(96),5-O-caffeoylquinic acid(97)and4-(b-D-glucopyranosyl)-benzoic acid(98)have been found in C.nervosa[31].Caffeic acid(99),linoleic acid(100)and3-O-caffeoyl-quinic acid(96)were isolated from C.thalictrifolia[32].Succinic acid(95)and9,10,13-trihydroxy-(E)-octadec-11-enoic acid(101)were isolated from C.pilosula[35,44].Shikimic acid(102)and vanillic acid(103)were onlyobtained from the roots of nceolata and C.tangshen,respectively[33,34].Other compoundsAtractylenolide III(104),5-hydroxymethyl-2-furaldehyde(105),angelicin(106),psoralen(107),emodin(108),ge-niposide(109),hexyl-b-D-glucopyranoside(110),butyl-b-D-fructournanoside(111),b-sitosterol(112)and b-dau-costerol(113)were isolated from the roots of C.pilosula[14,17,18,21,35,44].Hexyl-b-gentiobioside(114),hexyl-b-sophoroside(115),(E)-2-hexenyl-b-sophoroside(116),(E)-2-hexenyl-a-L-arabinopyranosyl(1?6)-b-D-glucopyranoside(117)and5-hydroxymethyl-2-fur-aldehyde(105)were isolated from the roots of C.tangshen[25,34].Cordifoliflavanes A(118)and B(119)were iso-lated from the roots of C.cordifolioidea[45].Three newbenzofuranylpropanoids,lanceolunes A(120),B(121)andC(122),as well as a new cerebroside,codonocerebrosideA(123),have been isolated from the roots of nceolata[41,46].(E)-2-Hexenyl-a-L-arabinopyranosyl(1?6)-b-D-glucopyranoside(117),3-oxo-a-ionol-b-D-glucopyranoside (124)and1,6-hexanediol,3,4-bis(4-hydroxy-3-methox-yphenyl)(125)were isolated from the aerial parts of C. clematidea[10].In addition,sweroside(126)and b-sitos-terol(112)were obtained from the whole plants of C. nervosa[40].Nutritive constituents including amino acids and trace elements in C.pilosula have been reported[47]. Essential oilsAs one of the important compositions,essential oils of several Codonopsis species have been reported.In the essential components from C.pilosula,50of66separated components were identified by GC–MS,mainly containing 1,2-benzonedicarboxylic acid dibatyl-ester(12.45%), heptedecanoic acid(8.10%)and2,4,5-triisopropyl styrene (7.62%)[48].Using the GC–MS method,54peaks were separated and37of them were identified in the essential components extracted from C.clematidea,in which the most abundant component was methyl hexadecanoate(30.40%)[49].The essential oils from the whole plants ofC.thalictrifolia,as a traditional Tibetan medicine,were analyzed by GC–MS,and45of60separated components were identified by comparing their mass spectra,in which the main principles were palmitic acid(43.5%)and linolic acid(18.3%)[50].In the essential oils extracted from the fresh and dried roots of C.cordifolioidea,63compounds were identified by GC–MS analysis,indicating that linolic acid(21.9%),retene(11.4%),pentadecane(7.4%), methyl9,12,15-octadecatrienoate(6.8%)and heneicosyl-cyclopentane(3.8%)were the main components[51]. PolysaccharidesLarge-molecule components in Codonopsis species were also studied.A water-soluble polysaccharide with a molecular mass of1.19104Da was obtained from the roots of C.pilosula and its structure investigation revealed that this polysaccharide had a backbone consisting of (1?3)-linked-b-D-galactopyranosyl,(1?2,3)-linked-a-D-galactopyranosyl and(1?3)-linked-b-D-rhamnopyr-anosyl residues and were branched with two glycosyl123Codonocerebroside A nceolata Roots[41] 1243-Oxo-a-ionol-b-D-glucopyranoside C.clematidea Aerial parts[10] 1251,6-Hexanediol,3,4-bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl) C.clematidea Aerial parts[10] 126Sweroside C.nervosa Whole plants[40]residues composed of a-L-arabinose-(1?5)-a-L-arabi-nose,whose C-1linked residues at the O-2position of galactosyl along the main chain in the ratio of1:1:2:1:1[52].Another polysaccharide with a molecular mass of 7.49104Da was isolated from C.pilosula and its com-ponents were galactose,arabinose and rhamnose in themolar ratio of1.13:1.12:1.Its main chain was shown to be (1?3)-linked-b-GalpNAc,(1?3)-linked-a-Rhap and (1?2,3)-b-Galp[53].Furthermore,a pectic polysac-charide with a molecular mass of1.459105Da was at first isolated from C.pilosula,and its structural analysis revealed that this polysaccharide is composed of rhamnose, arabinose,galactose and galacturonic acid in the molar ratio of0.25:0.12:0.13:bined with chemical and spectroscopic analyses,its structure was proposed to be 1,4-linked-a-D-GalpA and1,4-linked-a-D-GalpA6Me interspersed with rare1,2-linked-b-L-Rhap,1,2,6-linked-a-D-Galp and terminal a-L-Arap[54].BioactivitiesAlthough there is information on the uses of many Codonopsis species in traditional medicine,only bioactiv-ity studies on C.pilosula and nceolata have been reported frequently,which proved their importance as medicinal plants.Bioactivity studies on other Codonopsis species such as C.clematidea and C.cordifolioidea were scarce.The studies generally referred to the bioactive effects of aqueous,methanol and ethanol extracts,as well as their further purified fractions,flavones,saponins and polysaccharides.Codonopsis pilosulaAnti-tumor activityThe polysaccharide from C.pilosula(10l g/mL)was able to inhibit the activities of human gastric adenocarcinoma cells and hepatoma carcinoma cells[55].A pectic poly-saccharide(50,100,200and400l g/mL)exhibited marked cytotoxicity to human lung adenocarcinoma A549cells,in a dose-dependent manner[54].Anti-diabetic activityAfter mice were orally administered the polysaccharide from C.pilosula for a week,Fu et al.[56]found that three different doses of polysaccharide(100,200and300mg/ kg/day)could effectively decrease fasting blood glucose and insulin in serum,enhance superoxide dismutase(SOD)activity and reduce the content of malondialdehyde(MDA) in serum.It was therefore considered to possess a signifi-cant hypoglycemic effect in diabetic mice by improving insulin resistance.He et al.[57]showed that the aqueous extract of the roots of C.pilosula(equal to4.5g raw material/kg/day)might retard the progression of diabetesby reducing the blood glucose level and preventing the increase of aldose reductase activity in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice after3days of oral administration.Anti-aging activityXu et al.[58]found that after mice were orally administrated the polysaccharide from C.pilosula for8weeks,the poly-saccharide(50and150mg/kg/day)was able to increase the thymus index and spleen index as well as the activities of SOD in serum and liver,glutathione peroxidase and nitric oxide synthase particularly in kidney,while decreasing MDA in serum and liver and lipofuscin in brain.Its post-ponement of senility might be related to raising immunity, eliminating free radicals and anti-lipoperoxidation. Effects on gastric mucosaLiu et al.[59,60]found that the water-soluble fraction from the roots of C.pilosula(equal to10g raw material/ kg)had a significant protective effect on gastric mucosal damage caused by alcohol,0.6N HCl and0.2N NaOH, and suggested that the pharmacological mechanism was related to the synthesis and/or release of prostaglandins in gastric mucosa.To date,Song et al.[61]found that lob-etyolin at the oral dose of1.5mg/kg had an effect on decreasing the ulcer index and the level of gastrin and increasing the level of6-keto-prostaglandin F1a in rats with gastric ulcer induced by ethanol,and suggested that lobetyolin played a protective role in gastric mucosa injury. Effects on blood systemAqueous extracts of C.pilosula(500l g/mL)potently inhibited erythrocyte hemolysis[62].In addition,after ischemia–reperfusion injury rats received8mg/100g body weight of a solution of saponins via intraperitoneal injec-tion,the results showed that the increase in SOD levels was accompanied by decreases in MDA,serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen levels;bcl-2mRNA and protein levels were raised in transplanted kidneys from treated animals, while bax mRNA and protein levels were reduced.The apoptosis index was significantly decreased in transplanted kidneys from treated animals relative to untreated controls. These results clearly demonstrated protective effects on ischemia–reperfusion injury after kidney transplantation, which might be explained by decreasing lipid peroxidation and inhibition of apoptosis[63].Effects on immunityZhang and Wang[64,65]found that6days of oral administration of the polysaccharide from C.pilosula (800mg/kg/day)had effects on immunosuppressed mice induced by cyclophosphamide,including increasing the thymus and spleen index and the phagocytic activity of peritoneal macrophages and recovering the activity of a-naphthyl-acetate esterase in peripheral lymphocytes.In an immunological study in vitro,a water-soluble polysaccha-ride(50,100and200l g/mL)could stimulate concanavalin A-or lipopolysaccharide(LPS)-induced lymphocyte pro-liferation in a dose-dependent manner[52].In addition,the methanol extract of C.pilosula(1mg/mL)inhibited inducible nitric oxide synthase and protein oxidation in LPS-stimulated murine RAW264.7macrophage cells[66].Effects on nervous systemTotal alkaloids(30l g/mL)caused a significant enhancement of nerve growth factor-induced neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells as well as an increase in the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase[67].Moreover,Pan et al.[68]orally administered alkaloids from C.pilosula(1mg/kg/day)to mice for4days after they suffered from amnesia by scopol-amine,and found that the alkaloids were effective against the decrease in acetylcholine.Other chemicals,saponins from Codonopsis Radix,were reported to have protective effects on the damage to astrocytes induced by hypoxia/hypoglycaemia and reoxygenation,and were able to inhibit the necrosis of astrocytes at three different concentrations(5.2,52and 520l g/mL)[69].Additionally,the polysaccharide from C. pilosula(1.1mmol/mL)also had marked protective effect on neural stem cell injury induced by sodium thiosulphate[70]. Other bioactivitiesThe extract of C.pilosula(20,40and60l g/mL)signifi-cantly attenuated angiotensin II(AngII)-induced insulin-like growth factor II receptor(IGFIIR)promoter activity.C.pilosula also reversed Ca2?influx,mitochondrial outer-membrane permeability and apoptosis increased by AngII plus Leu27-IGFII which was applied to enhance the AngII effect.Molecular markers in the IGFIIR apoptotic pathway and IGFIIR-Gaq association were down-regulated by C. pilosula.However,p-BadSer136and Bcl-2were increased. The results suggested that C.pilosula could suppress the AngII plus Leu27-IGFII-induced IGFII/IGFIIR pathway in myocardial cells[71].Codonopsis lanceolataAntioxidant activityThe water-soluble fraction and the n-butanol-soluble frac-tion of ethanol extract of nceolata showed。