四、术语解释1. connotation（中山大学2018研）【答案】In the philosophers’usage, connotation, opposite to denotation, means the properties of the entity a word denotes. For example, the connotation of human is “biped”, “featherless”，“rational”, etc. Some connotations may be shared by a group of people of the same cultural or social background, sex, or age; others may be restricted to one or several individuals and depend on their personal experience.2. morpheme（武汉大学2013研）【答案】Morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. For example, in boys, there are two morphemes: “boy”and “-s”; in international, there are three morphemes: “inter-”“nation”and “-al”.3. implicature（南开大学2012研）【答案】According to Grice, it refers to the extra meaning not contained in the utterance, but understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or he knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the fourmaxims of CP.4. arbitrariness（四川大学2006研）【答案】Arbitrariness is one of the design features of language. It refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. There is no reason, for example, why English should use the sounds /dɒg/ to refer to the animal dog, or why Chinese should use “gou”to refer to the same animal. The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental.5. cohesion（中山大学2018研）【答案】Cohesion refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text. The cohesive devices usually include: conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collocation, lexical repetition, reference, substitution, and so on.6. cooperative principle（北师大2003研）【答案】Cooperative principle was proposed and formulated by Grice. It expresses that in making a conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. It goes like this: “make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged”. This principle can be further specified as the four followingmaxims: Quantity, Quality, Relation; Manner.7. conceptual meaning (of a word)（上海交大2006研）【答案】Conceptual meaning. According to Leech, conceptual meaning refers to the logical, cognitive, or denotative content of the meaning of a word. It is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to. For example, the conceptual meaning of “human”is any person such as John and Mary.8. initialism（人大2008研）【答案】Some new words are composed of the first letters of a series of words, esp. the name of an organization when it has a heavily modified head words. Words of this kind are called initialisms. Initialism is different from acronym in that the former cannot be pronounced as a new word, but has to be pronounced by saying each letter in them. For example, VIP, WTO, BBC etc.9. deep structure（上外2000研）【答案】Deep structure is a central theoretical term in generative grammar opposed to surface structure. It is the abstract syntactic representation of a sentence—an underlying level of structural organization which specific all the factors governing the way the sentence should be interpreted.10. constituent analysis（北外2015研）【答案】a. Definition: Constituent analysis (also called Immediate constituent analysis or IC Analysis) refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.b. Advantages: Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, and ambiguities, if any, will be revealed.c. Problems:①It is not always possible to cut any construction, at any level into two parts.②Discontinuous constituents will be hard to deal with in IC analysis and there are structural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis.11. langue（华南理工2017研）【答案】Langue is proposed by Saussure to distinguish from parole. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue. Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech. Langue is the code, and parole is the message. Parole is the concrete manifestation of language either through speech or writing. Langue is the abstract knowledge necessary for speaking, listening, writing and reading. It is relatively stable and systematic, whereas parole is more variable and may change according to contextual factors.Langue and parole together constitute language.12. linguistic determinism（中山大学2018研）【答案】Linguistic Determinism is a theory which believes that our language will influence or decide our way of looking at the world. In a loose sense, linguistic determinism, linguistic relativity, and the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis can be regarded as synonyms.13. manner of articulation（武汉大学2010研）【答案】manner of articulation: It refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract. The manner of articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: (a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instance or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other. For example, in English, [p, b, t, d, k, g] are stops.14. Pidgins and Creoles（上海交大2007研）【答案】It is a language which develops as a contact language when groups of people who speak different languages try to communicate with one another on a regular basis. The language Tok Pisin is an example of pidgin. Creole is a pidgin language which has become the native language of a group of speakers, beingused for all or many of their daily communicative needs. For example, a French-based creole is spoken by the majority of the population in Haiti.15. error analysis（人大2008研）【答案】Error Analysis (EA) refers to the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners in order to identify causes of errors of common difficulties in language learning. It is an alternative to contrastive analysis since not all learners’mistakes or errors occur because of the inter-language influence that contrastive analysis can explain. By using error, analysis, linguists can analyze intra-language error such as over-generalization.16. polysemy（中山大学2018研）【答案】Polysemy means a single word having several or many meanings. According to Crystal: Polysemy is a term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings. Polysemic words are signs of an advanced culture. Polysemy is also an essential feature of a language’s economy and efficiency.17. blending（北外2015研）【答案】Blending is a kind of word formation. It means a process in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words, such as faction。
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