Mathematical Induction

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The Well-Ordering Property
•The validity of the inductive inference rule can also be proved using the well-ordering property, which says:
–Every non-empty set of non-negative integers has a minimum (smallest) element. – S N: m S: n S : m n
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Example of Strong Induction
•Show that every n>1 can be written as a product p1p2…ps of some series of s prime numbers. Let P(n)=“ n has that property”
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Generalizing Induction
•Can also be used to prove n c P(n) for a given constant c Z, where maybe c 0.
–In this circumstance, the base case is to prove P(c) rather than P(0), and the inductive step is to prove k c (P(k)P(k+1)).
k 1
(k 1) 2
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Another Induction Example
•Prove that n>0, n<2n. Let P(n)=(n<2n)
–Base case: P(1)=(1<21)=(1<2)=T. –Inductive step: For k>0, prove P(k)P(k+1).
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Domino Effects (骨牌效應)
First principle Base case: 證明第一張骨牌會倒下。 Inductive step: 證明如果第 k 張骨牌會倒下, 則第 k+1 張骨牌也會倒下。 Conclusion: 得證所有骨牌都會倒下。 Second principle Base case: 證明第一張骨牌會倒下。 Inductive step: 證明如果前 k 張骨牌會倒下, 則第 k+1 張骨牌也會倒下。 Conclusion: 得證所有骨牌都會倒下。
•A powerful, rigorous technique for proving that a predicate P(n) is true for every natural number n, no matter how large. •Essentially a “ domino effect” principle. •Based on a predicate-logic inference rule: P(0) “ The First Principle k 0 (P(k)P(k+1)) of Mathematical n 0 P(n) Induction”
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Another 2nd Principle Example
•Prove that every amount of postage of 12 cents or more can be formed using just 4cent and 5-cent stamps. •Base case: 12=3 4), 13=2 4)+1(5), 14=1(4)+2(5), 15=3(5), so 12 n 15: P(n). •Inductive step: Let k 15, assume 12 j k P(j). Note 12 k 3 k, so P(k 3), so add a 4-cent stamp to get postage for k +1 P(k+1).
• Assuming k<2k, prove k+1 < 2k+1. • Note k + 1 < 2k + 1 (by inductive hypothesis) < 2k + 2k (because 1<2=2 2 2 2k-1= 2k) k +1 =2 • So n + 1 < 2n+1, and we’ re done.
•Implies {n| P(n)} has a min. element m, but then P(m-1)P((m-1)+1) contradicted.
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•Inductive inference rule then gives n P(n).
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Induction Example (1st Principle)
•Prove that the sum of the first n odd positive integers is n2. That is, prove:
n 1: (2i 1) n2
i 1
n
•Proof by induction.
P(n)
–Base case: Let n=1. The sum of the first 1 odd positive integer is 1 which equals 12. (Cont…)
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•It is reasonable to guess that the sum of the first n positive odd integers is n2 •But how to prove it?
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2004/11/5ຫໍສະໝຸດ Mathematical Induction (數學歸納法)
18 = 2 3 3; 30 = 2 3 5; 50 = 2 5 5;
•Base case: n=2, let s =1, p1=2. •Inductive step: Let k 2. Assume 2 j k: P(j). Consider k+1. If prime, let s=1, p1=k+1. Else k+1=ab, where 1 a k and 1 b k. Then a = p1p2…pt and b = q1q2…qu. Then k+1= p1p2…pt q1q2…qu, a product of s = t + u primes.
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Example cont.
•Inductive step: Prove k 1: P(k)P(k+1).
–Let k 1, assume P(k), and prove P(k+1).
k ( 2 i 1 ) ( 2 i 1 ) (2(k 1) 1) i 1 i 1 By inductive k2 2k 1 hypothesis P(n)
•Want to prove n P(n)… •Base case (or basis step): Prove P(0). •Inductive step: Prove k P(k)P(k+1).
–use a direct proof: 假設 –Let k N, assume P(k). (inductive hypothesis) –Under this assumption, prove P(k+1).
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Mathematical Induction
Rosen 5th ed., §3.3
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What it is for? An Example
•What is the sum of the first n positive odd integers?
1=1 1+3=4 1+3+5=9 1+3+5+7=16 1+3+5+7+9=25
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Validity of Induction
k 0 (P(k)P(k+1)) (P(0)P(1)) (P(1)P(2)) (P(2)P(3)) … P(0) n 0 P(n)
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Outline of an Inductive Proof
•Induction can also be used to prove n c P(an) for an arbitrary series {an}.
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Strong Induction (Second Principle of Induction)
•Characterized by another inference rule: P is true in all previous cases P(0) k 0: ( 0 j k P(j)) P(k+1) n 0: P(n) •Difference with 1st principle is that the inductive step uses the fact that P(j) is true for all smaller j < k+1, not just for j = k.