1.phonetics(语音学) A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. e.g:p. bilabial, stop.：（1）articulatory phonetics(发音语音学), from the speakers’ point of v iew（2）acoustic phonetics(声学语音学), from the hearers’ point of view（3）auditory phonetics(听觉语音学), from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.2.pragmatics(语用学)，a field of study to take care of that part of meaning of language in use.In many ways, pragmatics is the study of speakers intended meaning, or even the “invisible meaning”. Pragmatics can also be defined as the study of speaker meaning.Micropragmatics(微观语用学)：The research on the analyses of larger chunks of language, such as a whole conversation, an article or even a chapter of a novel or one act of a play in the user interaction concerning the mechanisms by which speakers encode their message in skilful ways and how hearers arrive at the intended meanings in spite of the differences between the literal meaning and the intended meaning is called macropragmatics. To study the meaning of such pieces of language in smaller contexts is called micropragmatics.” R eference(指称)，deixis（指示），anaphora(回指) and presupposition(预设)” are all topics in this field.3.phonology(音位学)：phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language（1）phonemes, the smallest phonological unit that can distinguish meaning(eg:sip\zip)2.minimal pairs and sets minimal pairs: a pair of words, identical in every way except for one sound segment in the same position minimal set：a group of words differential by one sound segment in the same position3. free variation(自由变体) when two or more sounds occur in the same position without any apparent change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation (eg: either 的两种发音)Cooperative principle there is a set of assumptions guiding the conduct of conversation this is what called cooperative principle. It means that we should say what is true in a clear and relevant manner.4.Syntax(句法) If we focus on the structure and ordering of components within a sentence, we are studying what is known as the syntax of a language. It means the rules governing the combination of words into sentence.Every sentence is a sequence of words, but not every sequence of words is a sentence.The prescriptive Approach（规定的方法）: This view ofgrammar as a set of rules for the “proper” use of a language is st ill to be found today and may be best characterized as the prescriptive approach.The Descriptive Approach（描述性的方法）: Linguists collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language as it is used, not according to some view of how it should be used. This is called the descriptive approach1.Structural analysis:its main objective is to study the distribution of linguistic forms in a language.2.Immediate constituent analysis(直接成分分析法): Language is linear and hierarchical. We can analyze language from its largest level to the smallest level, that is from its construction to its constituents by means of substitutability and expansion. The first divisions or cuts of a construction are called immediate constituents and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents. The approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis.5.Variations of the same phonemes（音位变体）means any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments.6. Descriptive and prescriptive grammars: descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in thelanguage.most modern linguistics are descriptive, it attempts to describe what people accurat ely say. Traditional grammars told people how to use a language. As traditional grammar trie d to lay down rules,they are often called prescriptive. To put it simple, description tells people what it is in a language while prescription tells people what should be in a language.Descripti ve---describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use(modern linguistic)Prescriptive---lay down rules for correct linguistic behavior in usinglanguage(traditional grammar)7. duality(二重性) L anguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels at the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words.8. arbitrariness(任意性) one design feature of human language,which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.9.morphology(形态学) Morphology, as a branch of linguistics, is thus the study of theinternal structure forms and classes of words.(unfriendly: unhappily, unkindly, unlonely)A morpheme（词素,形态素）is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. eg: tourists(tour,ist,s)Free morphemes（自由词素）: A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is, a free morpheme, such as talk, car, friend.Lexical morphemes（open class of word）：词汇语素(look, love, happy)Functional morphemes(closed class of words)：功能语素(but, when, the)Bound morphemes: bound morphemes are actually affixes(词缀)Derivational morphemes(派生词缀) which are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.(-er, -ness, -ly)Inflectional morphemes(曲折词缀)：which are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical functional of a word.(-’s, -s, -ed, -ing, -er, -est)10. assimilation(同化) sounds belonging to one word or one syllable (音节)can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables，this is called assimilation. 11. tone language(声调式语言)language in which the meaning of a word depends on the pitch at which it is uttered.Chinese is tone language while English is not. In English, tone is regarded as a phonological f eature distinguish meaning.12.diacritics(变音符号) a sign placed above or below a character or letter to indicate that it has a different phonetic phonetic value, is stresses, or for some other reason.13. root(词根) A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is, a free morpheme, such as talk. Such an element is called a root. A word may contain more than one root, in which case it is a compound word , eg: bookshop, blackbird14. Blending(混成构词法) A single new word can also be formed by combing two separate forms. This process is usually called blending. Typically, blending is finished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word.15. Acronym(首字母组合词) some new words are formed from the first letters of a series of words. They are pronounced as single words. Words of this kind are called acronym. Such as UNESCO, NATO16.Derivation(派生法), Which is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes. In contrast to compounding, a derivational word consists of at least a free morpheme and abound morpheme.17. compounding（复合法). Words like typewriter, workshop, tractor-driver are formed by putting two words together. This way of building new words is called compounding. Compounding is a productive way of word formation. By means of compounding, two free morphemes are combined to form a compound.18. Stress(重音) when a word has more than one syllables, one of them will be pronounced with more prominence than others. This brings us to another speech sound phenomenon, that of stress.Nouns have first syllable stress, verbs second.19. syllable(音节) these units, which are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole world, are called syllables.20. prototype(原型) the members of a particular community which are considered as the best examples of a lexical category are said to be prototype. According to prototype theory, people decide whether an en tity belongs to a category by comparing that entity with the prototype. For example, sparrow c an be said the prototype of birds.21. lexical gap(词汇空缺) the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic field of a language is called lexical gap. For instance, in English there is no singular noun that covers both cow and bull.22. semantic field (语义场) a set of words with an identifiable semantic connection23. sense and reference(意义和指称) sense and reference are two different, though related, aspects of meaning.Sense is to be defined in terms of relationships which hold between the linguistic elements themselves(mostly words), it is concerned with intralinguistic(语言内部的关系) relations eg: bachelor and married have the sense relationship of bachelor=never married Reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements ( words, sentences ,etc) and the non-linguistic world of experience. Eg: things, actions, events and qualities.24. suffix(后缀) The suffix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.25. recursiveness(递归性)Recursion is the process a procedure goes through when one of the steps of the procedure involves invoking the procedure itself. Recursion in linguistics enables 'discrete infinity' by embedding phrases within phrases of the same type in a hierarchicalstructure.26. cohesion(衔接) cohesion is an important field of study in discourse(谈话，谈论) analysis. it refers to the grammatical and \or lexical relationships between the different elements of a discourse. This may be the relationship between different sentences or between different parts of a sentence.Five types of cohesive devices: reference, substitution(替代,替换), ellipsis(省略), conjunction, lexical cohesion27. coherence(连贯性) coherence refers to the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse.28. reflective meaning(反射意义) is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.(the nuclear family, the nuclear age)29. associative meaning(联想意义)Is the essential and inextricable part of what language is,and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communicatiIs the essential and inextricable part of what language is,and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication.It means the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to.30. ambiguity (消解歧义)The lexical ambiguity of a word or phrase pertains to its having more than one meaning in the language to which the word belongs.31. iconicity(象似性，形象性) iconicity is the conceived similarity or analogy between the form of a sign (linguistic or otherwise) and its meaning, as opposed to arbitrariness. Iconicity of order (顺序的象似性)refers to the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of elements in a linguistic construction. It reflects the consistency of language with human cognition and the objective world..eg: I came, I saw, I conquered.(a.He opened the bottle and poured himself a glass of wine. b. He poured himself a glass of wine and opened thebottle.)Iconicity of distance accounts for the fact that things which belong together conceptually tend to be put together linguistically, and things that do not belong together are put at a distance.(a. I killed the chicken. B. I caused the chicken to die.) Iconicity of distance can also give a satisfactory explanation to the sequence of multi-adjectives before a noun.Iconicity of complexity. The phenomenon that linguistic complexity reflects conceptual complexity. Iconicity of complexity accounts for our tendency to associate more from withmore meaning and, conversely, less form with less meaning. This idea has long been an important aspect of markedness theory. Marked forms and structures are typically more complex than unmarked ones.(a. On the Brighten train from Victoria I met her. b. On the Brighten train from Victoria I met the girl from next door.)32. Allomorpheme(语素变体)some morphemes are realized by more than one morphemes depending on the context they occur. Allomorphemes are phonological variants of the same morpheme.33.Tree diagram: S=NP(Art+N)+VP(V+NP[Art+N])34. Illocutionary acts: the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its literal meaning.35. language: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.36. linguistics: the scientific and systematic study of language. 37. elision: the leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech.38.pragmatics:a branch of linguistics that studies language in use. 39. stem:the base to which one or more affixes are attached to create a more complex form that may be another stem or a word.40.semetic role: the way in which the referent of a noun phrase is involved in the situation described or represented by the clause, for example as agent, patient, or cause.。
第一章1.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2.Design features of language①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)②Duality（二层性）:The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.③Productivity/creativity(创造性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.④Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication. (p7)3.Functions of language①Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status)③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive(情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (health, weather)⑥Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.4. What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.5. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive & prescriptiveSynchronic & diachronicLangue & paroleCompetence & performance6.Descriptive(描写/述性)—describe and analyze linguistic facts or the language people actually use (modern linguistic)Prescriptive(规定性)—lay down rules for“correct and standard”linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar:“never use a double negative”)7.Synchronic study(共时)—description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study (历时)—description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of language over a period of time)第四章1．What is Syntax（句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to formsentences.句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2．Four Approaches :The traditional approach传统语言观(Parts of speech、Syntactic Function 不考、Category范畴、Concord and government一致关系和支配关系)、The structural approach 结构语言观、The generative approach、The functional approach功能语言观3．The traditional grammar regards sentences as a sequence of words , so it pays great attention to the study of words, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of function of words in terms of subject, predicate , etc.4. Parts of speechTraditional grammar defines 8 parts of speech: nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.5．The term Category范畴in some approaches refers to word classes and functions in its narrow sense,范畴这一术语狭义上是指词类和功能eg. Noun, Verb, Subject, Predicate. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units:the categories of the noun名词的范畴, include number, gender, case and countability（case）; the categories of the verb动词的范畴: tense, aspect, voice, etc.6．Number is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun名词和不可数名词.Two terms of number in nouns: singular and plural单数和复数Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs7. Gender is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.In English, the gender distinctions are on the whole natural, determined by the biological gender of the creature.8. Case is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.在词类分析中，格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系In English, pronouns have three cases of nominative主格, accusative受格, and genitive与格. Nouns have two of general and genitive所有格In English, the case of noun is realised in three channels:(a) inflection(b) following a preposition(c) word order9. Tense时态: the absolute location of an event or action on time. It is marked by an inflection of the verb. As a result, there are only two tenses recognized now: past and present.Since the fut ure time does not involve any inflection of the verb, we do not refer to a “future tense”, even though in many different ways we can talk about the future.10. Aspect体: It has nothing with time, and it tells us whether an action is ongoing or completed. Perfective（完成体）and Imperfective（进行体）Perfective and Progressive (in English)11. Voice语态: describe the relationship between verb and subjectPassive被动语态and active主动语态12. Concord and government①Concord (一致关系)refers to agreement between words, especially between a verband the subject of a sentence.②Government (支配关系)is a type of grammatical relationship between two or more elements ina sentence.In traditional grammar, the term government has typically been used to refer to the relationship between verbs and nouns or between prepositions and nouns.13.The Structural Approach，由Ferdinand de Saussure提出14.Syntactic Relations：Positional relations位置关系、Relations of substitutability替代关系、Relations of co-occurrence同现关系15.Immediate constituent(直接成分)is any meaningful constituent at the first step in an analysis.16.An endocentric construction(向心结构)is a construction that contains:1) a head, which is the single obligatory element in the construction;2) one or more optional elements subordinate to the head.17.them e(主位) refers to the known information which is not new to the reader or listener Rheme(述位)refers to the information that is new. The new information is what is to be transmitted to the reader or listenerThe linguists of the Prague school believed that sentence may be analyzed from the functional side as well as the grammatical side.subject, predicate (grammatical side)theme, rheme (functional side)第五章1.What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning ofwords,phrases andsentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2．Geoffrey Leech利奇Seven types of meaning7种意义类型:①Conceptual meaning概念意义②Connotative meaning内涵意义③Social meaning社会意义④Affective meaning感情意义Associative Meaning联想意义（②——⑥）⑤Reflected meaning反射意义⑥Collocative meaning搭配意义⑦Thematic meaning主位意义3.Conceptual meaning(概念意义)is also called “denotative”（外延义）and it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary.4.Associative meaning (联想意义)is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the wordAssociative meaning is the meaning which a word suggests or implies.5.Thematic meaning (主位意义)is“what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of orde r and emphasis.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的6.The Referential Theory（指称理论）：①The Referential Theory②The Semantic Triangle③Sense and Reference7.The referential theory指称理论is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论8. The semantic triangle语意三角is the indirectrelation between a word and a thing it refers to and it is mediated by concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的9.Sense (涵义) is a set of properties possessed by a name.10.Reference (指称) is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object.11. The sense of an expression is the thought it expresses, while its reference is the object it representsEvery word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.12.Sense Relations涵义关系①Synonymy（同义关系）②Antonymy（反义关系）（Gradable、Complementary、Converse）③Hyponymy（上下义关系）13.But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style, connotations and dialect.14.Gradable antonymy (等级反义关系)、Complementary antonymy (互补反义关系)、Converse antonymy (反向反义关系)15. Componential analysis is an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaning components.16. Sentence Meaning17.Sense relations between sentences①Synonymity (同义)a. He was a bachelor all his life.b. He never married all his boy.Sentences a and b are in a synonymous relationship: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the truth of another sentence②Inconsistency(矛盾)a. Elizabeth II is Queen of England.b. Elizabeth II is a man.Sentences a and b are in a relationship of contradiction: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence.③Entailment (蕴涵)a. He married a blonde heiress.b. He married a blonde.Entailment refers to a kind of meaning inclusion. If x entails y, the meaning of x is included in y.④Presupposition(前提预设)It is what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already knows.⑤Contradiction(矛盾)⑥Semantic anomaly(语义反常)18. An integrated theory﹡Compositionality(组合性原则)：the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words and the way they are combined.﹡This semantic theory is the integration of syntax and semantics﹡Their basic idea is that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules﹡The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words﹡The projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings of words together.19.Logical semantics（逻辑语义学）﹡A proposition(命题) is what is to be expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.﹡It is the basic meaning which a sentence express.﹡A very important property of the proposition is that it has a truth value.第七章nguage and Culture：①Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis②Evidence Given by Whorf ③Implication of SWH ④Relation between Language and Culture2．SHW can be broken down into two basic principles:Linguistic determinism (语言决定论):the language we use determines the way we view about the world around us.Language may determine our thinking patterns. (语言决定思维) P1623. Relation between Language and CultureLanguage influences thought and culture，Language varies in categories and concepts, thus reflecting the different world views of different language users, that is, culture and thought are conditioned by languageCulture influences language，Every language is a part of a culture. As such, it can not but serve and reflect cultural needs. When a culture experience radical changes, the vocabulary also undergoes corresponding alterationsnguage and SocietyRelation between Language and SocietyVarieties of language（Dialects、Registers）Bilingualism and DiglossiaPidgin and Creole5.Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers.6.Dialectal Varieties：Regional dialect、Social dialect（Sociolect、Language and gender、Language and age、Idiolect、Ethnic dialect）7.Social dialect refers to a variety of language associated with a particular social group, such as a particular social class, or ethnic group, or those based on age, gender and occupation.8.An ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation.9.Idiolect refers to the speech variety of an individual. Every speaker has his own way of expressing his or her idea.10.Register refers to the functional variety of language that is defined according to its use in a context of situation.11.Halliday’s Register TheoryLanguage varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.Halliday distinguishes 3 variables that determine the register:field of discourse (语场)、tenor of discourse (语旨)、mode of discourse (语式)12.Bilingualism (双语制): the use of two languages, esp with equal or nearly equal fluency.13.Diglossia (双语体现象): when two varieties of a language exist side by side; and each is used for different purposes, this is called diglossia.14．A pidgin: it is a special language variety that mixes and blends languages used for communicative purposes by groups of people who do not know each other’s language.15.A creole :when a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole.第八章1.What is PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of language in context / use / communication.2 Semantics and PragmaticsSimilarity：Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic study of meaningDifference：Semantic meaning: the more constant, inherent side of meaning；Pragmatic meaning: the more indeterminate, the more closely related to context；Pragmatic = meaning - semantics 3.Three Contents :Speech Act Theory、The Theory of Conversational Implicature、Post-Gricean Developments4.Speech Act Theory(言语行为理论)：①Performatives and Constatives②A theory of the illocutionary act5.The utterance which performs an act is calleda performative(行事话语)。
1.1.1填空判断：①linguisticscanbedefinedasthescientificorsystematicstudyoflanguage.Itisas ciencestudiestherulessystemsandprinciplesoflanguage.3cannons(标准):exhaustiveness全面性consistency一致性economy.②linguisticsstudytheorigin,growth,organization.Natureanddevelopmentoflang uageanddiscoversthegeneralrulesandprinciplesgoverninglanguage.2purposes: studythenature,establishatheoryanddescribelanguagebythattheory;examinesa lllanguageandseeksunderstandingwaystofulfilltheneedshumanneed.1.1.2填空判断选择：Linguisticsdifferfromtraditionalgrammar:①linguisticsdescribeslanguagesanddoesnotlaydownrulesofcorrectness.②linguistsregardspokenasprimarynotwritten.Speechcameearlierthanwritingsys tem.③traditionalgrammarbasedonLatinwhilelinguisticsdescribeseachlanguageonits ownmerits.1.1.4名词解释Microlinguistics:Phonetics(语音学),phonology(语音学),morphology(形态学),syntax(句法学),semantics(语义学),pragmatics(语用学). Macrolinguistics:sociolinguistics(社会语言学),psycholinguistics(心理语言学),stylistics(文体学),discourseanalysis(话语分析),computationallinguistics(计算语言学),cognitivelinguistics(认知语言学)1.2.1全especially判断Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication. Languageisasystem,arbitrary,nguageisusedforhumancommunication.1.2.3Arbitrariness(任意性):referstothefactthatthereisnologicalorintrinsicconnectionbetweenapart icularsoundandthemeaningitisassociatedwith.Duality(二元性):organizationoflanguageintotwolevels-alevelofsoundswhichcombineintoas nguageworksontwolevels:1havenom eaningbutcombinetoformunitesatanotherlevelhavemeaning.Productivity(创造性):linguisticabilityenablestoproduceandunderstandsentences. Interchageability(可交换性):mancanbothproduceandreceivemessageseasily. Displacement(移位性):enablepeopletotalkathinginotherspaceandtime. Specialization:mandoesnothaveatotalphysicalinvolvementintheactofcommunic ation.Culturaltransmission(文化传递):languageisculturallytransmitted.Cannotbetransmittedthroughheredity.1.2.4Phaticfunction交际功能,directivefunction指示功能,informativefunction信息功能,interrogativefunction询问功能,expressivefunction表情功能,evocativefunction召唤功能,performativefunction施为功能,recreationalfunction娱乐功能,metalingualfunction元语言功能（languagecantalkitself）1.3.1descriptiveandprescriptivegrammar描写式&规定式Descriptivedescribeswhatactuallysay,descriptivegrammarsattempttotellwhat isinthelanguagewhileprescriptivegrammarstellpeoplewhatshouldbeinthelangu age.1.3.2synchronicanddiachroniclinguistics共时性和历时性1.3.3langueandparole语言和言语LangueParoleAbstractknowledgeconcretemanifestationSocialconventionalindividualizedCodemessageStableandsystematicsubjecttopersonalandsituational1.3.4competenceandperformance语言能力和应用Competencereferstotheknowledgethatnativespeakerhaveoftheirlanguageasasys temofabstractrelations,whileperformancereferstotheiractuallinguisticbeha vior,thatis,theactualuseofthisknowledge.1.3.5syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelations功能主义和形式主义2.2.2voicedandvoicelesssound浊音和清音2.2.3nasalandoralsounds鼻音和口腔音22.2.4Frontvowels:/i://TheheightofthetongueCentralvowels:/з://?//?/Backvowels:/u://u//?://?//ɑ:/Roundedvowels:/u://u//?://?/TheshapeofthelipUnroundedvowels:/i://?//e//?//?//ɑ//з://?//?//ɑ:/Openvowels:/?//ɑ//?//ɑ:/ThewidthofthemouthClosevowels:/i://?//u://u/Semi-openvowels:/?://e//?//з://?//?/2.2.5Liaison:Thephenomenonofthelinkingoftwowordsinspeech,inparticularwhenthes econdwordbeginswithavowel,iscal ledliaison.Thephrase“anegg”isoftenprono unced/?’neg/.Elision:thelossofasoundorsoundsinspeechiscalledelision.Theword“suppose ”isoftenpronouncedas/sp??z/,“factory”as/’f?ktr?/.Assimilation:thewaythatsoundsbelongingtoonewordoronesyllablecancausechan gesinsoundsbelongingtoneighboringwordsorsyllablesiscalledassimilation.In Englishthenegativeprefixoccursas“im-”beforewordssuchas“possible”---”impossible”.2.3Phonology:isthedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalan guage.2.3.1Phonemeisthephonologicalunitsoflanguage,anditisanabstractcollection ofphoneticfeatureswhichanddistinguishmeaning.Forexample,sipandzipissignaledbythefactthattheinitialsoundofthefirstword iss/s/andtheinitialsoundofthesecondwordisz/z/./s/and/z/canthereforedisti nguishorcontrastwords.Suchdistinctivesoundsarecalledphonemes.最小对立体Minimalpairsaretwowordswhichareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegme ntthatoccursinthesameplaceinthestring Minimalpairsarepairsofwordswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound. Whenagroupofwordscanbedifferentiatedeachonefromtheothers,bychangingoneph oneme(alwaysinthesameposition),thenwehaveaminimalset.2.3.3freevariation whentwoormoresoundsoccurinthesamepositonwithoutanyapparentchangeofmeanin g,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.Forexample,therearetwopronunciationofthewordeither,wecansay/i:δ?r/and/’a?δ?r/.2.3.4distinctivefeatures Whenafeaturedistinguishesonephonemefromanotheritisadistinctivefeature(or aphonemicfeature).Forexample,sealandzealdistinguishesby/s/ad/z/,/s/isvoi celessand/z/isvoiced,so/s/and/z/isavoicingdifference.2.3.5syllablesandconsonantcluster音节和辅音丛Syllablestructuresyllableonsetrime(rhyme)nucleus(peak)codaconsonant(s)vowelconsonant(s)consonantcluster:InEnglishsomewordsmaycontainasequenceoftwoormoreconsonantsinonesyllable,forexample,/spl/in/’splendid/.Sequenceso fconsonantslikethisarecalledconsonantclusters.Initialcluster:/spl/in/’spl??/splashFinalcluster:/st/in/test/testMedialcluster:/str/in/’pe?str?/pastry Awordwhichbeginswiththree-consonantclustersalwaysobservesthreestrictrules:Thefirstconsonantmustbe/s/Thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/Thethirdconsonantmustbe/l/or/r/or/w/or/j/3.2amorphemeisaminimalunitofmeaningorgrammaticalfunction awordmustcontainanelementthatcanstandbyitself,thatis,amorpheme. ThefreemorphemescanbegenerallyconsideredasthesetofseparateEnglishword-fo rms.Freemorphemescanbedividedintotwocategories:1lexicalmorphemes,thesetoford inarynouns,verbsandadjectiveswhichcarrythecontentofmessageweconvey.2func tionalmorphemes,consistsofthefunctionalwordsinthelanguagesuchasconjuncti ons,articles,prepositionsandpronouns. Somemorphemescannotnormallystandalone,butfunctiononlyaspartofwordsarecal ledboundmorphemes.Boundmorphemesareactuallyaffixes.Prefixes:affixesatthebeginningoftherootorstemSuffixes:affixedattheendoftherootorstem2categories:①derivationalmorphemes:usedtomakenewwordinthelanguageandareoftenusedtomak ewordsofadifferentgrammaticalcategoryfromthestem.②inflectionalmorphemes:arenotusedtoproducenewwords,butrathertoshowaspects ofthegrammaticalfunctionofawordfreemorphemesfreerootmorphemesboundrootboundmorphemesinflectionalaffixesprefixesderivationalaffixessuffixes3.3morphsandallomorphs Morphsarethesmallestmeaningfulphoneticsegmentsofanutteranceinthelevelofp arole. Allomorphisamemberofasetofmorphswhichrepresentthesamemorpheme.3.4typesofwordformationCompound合成构词法：收尾词什么词性复合词就是什么词性Derivation派生构词法：addingaffixedtootherwordsormorphemesConversion转类构词法：nounbecomeverborverbbecomenounBackformation逆向构词法Clipping截断构词法Blending混成构词法e.g.gasohol=gasoline+alcholmotel=motor+hotel Acronym首字母拼音词pronounceassinglewordsInitialism首字母拼写词pronouncebysayingeachletter。
