B2.6 Aerobic and anaerobic respiration有氧呼吸和无氧呼吸

糖酵解糖无氧氧化过程生理意义1.糖酵解是生物体内将葡萄糖分解为乳酸或酒精和二氧化碳的过程。

Glycolysis is the process of breaking down glucose into lactic acid or alcohol and carbon dioxide inside the body.2.糖酵解是糖代谢的起始阶段，为细胞提供能量。

Glycolysis is the initial stage of sugar metabolism, providing energy for cells.3.糖酵解过程中，葡萄糖经过多个酶的作用被分解成丙酮酸。

During glycolysis, glucose is broken down into pyruvicacid by a series of enzymes.4.糖酵解是细胞有氧呼吸和无氧呼吸的过程中不可或缺的一部分。

Glycolysis is an essential part of both aerobicrespiration and anaerobic respiration in cells.5.糖酵解是糖分解的第一步，它在没有氧气的情况下也能产生少量ATP。

Glycolysis is the first step in sugar breakdown and can produce a small amount of ATP even in the absence of oxygen.6.糖酵解产生的ATP可以直接为细胞提供能量。

The ATP produced by glycolysis can directly provideenergy for cells.7.糖酵解还会产生NADH，将它转运至线粒体进一步参与能量产生。

Glycolysis also produces NADH, which is transported tothe mitochondria to further participate in energy production.8.糖酵解过程产生的乳酸和酒精需要进一步的代谢才能被细胞利用。

植物生理学名词中英文对照（按汉字笔画排序）一画乙醛酸体glyoxysome乙醛酸循环glyoxylate cycle，GAC乙醇酸glycolate，glycolic acid乙醇酸氧化酶glycolate oxidase乙醇酸氧化途径glycolic acid oxidation pathway乙醇脱氢酶alcohol dehydrogenase乙烯ethylene乙烯利ethrel二画二型性别dimorphism二苯脲diphenylurea二酰甘油diacylglycerol，DG，DAG二硝基酚dinitrophenol，DNP11,3-二磷酸甘油酸1,3-bisphosphoglycerate二氧化碳猝发CO2outburst二氧化碳饱和点CO2saturation point二氧化碳补偿点CO2compensation point二氨丙烷diaminopropane2，4-二氯苯氧乙酸2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid,2,4-D二氢玉米素dihydrozeatin二氢吡咯pyrroline二氢红花菜豆酸dihydrophaseic acid二羟丙酮磷酸dihydroxyacetone phosphate，DHAP人工种子artificial seeds儿茶酚氧化酶catechol oxidase三画三十烷醇1-triacontanol三碘苯甲酸2，3，5-triiodobenzoic acid，TIBA三氯苯氧乙酸trichlorophenoxyacetic acid三重反应triple response293三羧酸循环tricarboxylic acid cycle，TCAC干旱drought干旱胁迫drought stress土壤—植物—大气连续体soil-plant-atmosphere continuum,SPAC 下调作用down regulation大纤丝macrofibril大量元素major element，微量元素macroelement小孔扩散律small pore diffusion law尸胺cadaverine299己糖磷酸途径hexose monophosphate pathway，HMP己糖激酶hexokinase马来酰肼maleic hydrazide,MH四画开放体系open system天然单性结实natural parthenocarpy天冬氨酸aspartate,Asp天冬氨酸转氨酶aspartate amino transferase天线色素antenna pigment无土栽培soilless culture无融合生殖apomixis无辐射退激radiationless deexcitation无氧呼吸anaerobic respiration1无氧呼吸消失点anaerobic respiration extinction point 无籽果实seedless fruit无限生长indeterminate growth无孢子生殖apospory无丝分裂amitosis木酮糖5磷酸xylulose-5-phosphate木质素lignin支链淀粉amylopectin区域化compartmentation瓦伯格效应Warburg effect日中性植物day neutral plant中日照植物intermediate day length plant中央液泡central vacuoleＣ3－Ｃ4中间植物Ｃ3－Ｃ4intermediate plant中间丝intermediate filament中层middle lamella水培hydroponics水培法water culture method水势water potential水杨基氧肟酸salicylhydroxamate，SHAM水杨酸salicylic acid,SA水生植物hydrophytes水氧化钟water oxidizing clock水合补偿点hydration compensation point水分亏缺water deficit水分平衡water balance水分临界期critical period of water水分代谢water bolism水溶清蛋白albumin水通道蛋白water channel protein水孔蛋白aquaporins内吞endocytosis内聚力cohesion内聚力学说cohesion theory内在蛋白intrinsic protein内酯酶lactonase内转换internal conversion内向K +通道inward K +channel，内质网endoplasmic reticulum,ER内膜endomembrane内能internal energy贝壳杉烯kaurene气培法aeroponics气相色谱gas chromatography气腔网络air space netwotk气穴现象cavitation气孔开度stomatal aperture气孔运动stomatal movement气孔蒸腾stomatal transpiration气孔下腔substomatal cavities气孔频度stomatal frequency毛管水capillary water毛细作用capillarity长日植物long day plant长短日植物long short day plant片层lamellae化学势chemical potential化学信号chemical signal化学渗透学说chemiosmotic theory反向传递antiport反馈抑制feedback inhibition反馈调节feedback regulation反应中心reaction center，反应中心色素分子reaction center pigment介电常数dielectric constant分支酶branching enzyme分化differentiation分泌囊泡secretory vesicles比热容specific heat比集运转速率specific mass transfer rate，SMTR比久B9,二甲胺基琥珀酰胺酸 dimethyl aminosuccinamic acid巴斯德效应Pasteur effect双“S”形生长曲线double sigmoid growth curve双光系统two photosystem双向运输bidirectional transport双受精double fertilization五画末端氧化酶terminal oxidase玉米素zeatin，ZT玉米素核苷zeatin riboside玉米素顺反异构酶zeatin cistrans isomerase玉米赤霉烯酮zearaienone正常性种子orthodox seed正化学信号positive chemical signal正向重性positive gravitropism正效应物positive effector去春化作用devernalization去极化depolarization去镁叶绿素pheophytin，Pheo甘氨酸甜菜碱glycine betaine甘油三酯triacylglycerols,TAG甘油3磷酸glycerol-3-phosphate甘油3磷酸脱氢酶glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase甘油醛3磷酸glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate，GAP甘油醛3磷酸脱氢酶ghyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase 甘油酸激酶glycerate kinase可溶性氧化酶soluble oxidase可溶性淀粉合成酶soluble starch synthase丙酮酸pyruvate丙酮酸磷酸二激酶pyruvate phosphate dikinase PPPk丙酮酸脱氢酶复合体pyruvic acid dehydrogenase complex丙酮酸脱羧酶pyruvic acid decarboxylase丙酮酸激酶pyruvate kinase丙氨酸甜菜碱alaninebetaine丙糖磷酸异构酶triose phosphate isomerase戊糖磷酸途径pentose phosphate pathway，PPP平衡压力balance pressure平衡石statolith平衡溶液balance solution平衡细胞statocyles灭光信号light off signal卡尔文循环Calvin cycle叶黄素xanthophyll叶面营养foliar nutrition叶面积系数leaf area index，LAI叶肉细胞mesophyll cell叶绿素chlorophyll,Chl叶绿体chloroplast叶绿体被膜chloroplast envelope5′-甲硫基核苷5′-methylthioribose甲硫氨酸methionine甲瓦龙酸甲羟戊酸mevalonic acid电中性electroneutrality电化学势electrochemical potential电负性electronegative田间持水量field capacity四氢吡喃苄基腺嘌呤 tetrahydropyranyl benzyladenine 生理碱性盐physiologically alkaline salt生理酸性盐physiologically acid salt生理中性盐physiologically neutral salt生理钟physiological clock生理休眠physiological dormancy生殖生长reproductive growth生殖细胞无孢子生殖generatine apospory生物大分子biomacromolecule生物固氮biological nitrogen fixation生物钟biological clock生物氧化biological oxidation生物分子biomolecule生物膜biomembrane生长growth生长素auxin生长素梯度学说auxin gradient theory生长素 赖氨酸合成酶IAA lysinesynthetase生长素结合蛋白auxin binding protein生长抑制剂growth inhibitor生长大周期grand period of growth生长呼吸growth respiration生长延缓剂growth retardant生长的周期性growth periodicity生长效率growth efficiency生长发育growth and development生命周期life cycle生色团chromophore代谢bolism代谢库bolic sink代谢源bolic source外排exocytosis外植体explant外在蛋白extrinsic protein外连丝ectodesmata外向K＋通道outward K +channel外膜outer membrane饥饿基因famine gene主动转运active transport主动吸水active absorption of water主动吸收active absorption主宰酶master enzyme主导库dominant sink半醌semiquinone半支莲醛potulai半透膜semipermeable membrane半自主性细胞器semiautonomous organelle半月苔酸lunlaric acid半纤维素hemicellulose它感化合物allelochemical必需元素essential element永久萎蔫permanent wilting永久萎蔫系数permanent wilting coefficient皮孔蒸腾lenticular transpiration发酵fermentation发育development对氯汞苯磺酸parachloro-mercuribenzene sulfonate幼年期juvenile phase丝状亚基fibrous subunits丝氨酸serine丝氨酸羟甲基转移酶 serine glyoxylate aminotransferase六画动作电位action potential，AP动力蛋白dynamin老化aging共振传递resonance transfer共价键covalent bond共向传递体symport共质体symplast共质体运输symplastic transport共质体装载symplastic phloem loading共质体途径symplast pathway亚硝酸还原酶nitrite reductase，NiR亚胺环已酮cycloheximide亚麻酸linolenic acid亚精胺spermidine亚油酸linoleic acid过氧化氢酶catalase，CAT过氧化物酶peroxidase，POD过氧化物体peroxisome过敏反应hypersensitive reaction再春化现象revernalization再生阶段regeneration phase再分配redistribution再分化redifferentiation扩散作用diffusion，协助扩散facilitated diffusion西罗血红素sirohaem压力探针pressure probe压力势pressure potential压力流学说pressure flow hypothesis压力室法pressure chamber有氧呼吸aerobic respiration有益元素beneficial elements有限生长determinate growth有丝分裂reduction mitosis灰分ash灰分元素ash element死亡激素death hormone成花素florigen成花决定态floral determinated state成花启动floral evocation成花诱导floral induction成膜体phragmoplast成熟maturation光形态建成photomorphogenesis光呼吸photorespiration光呼吸碳氧化循环photorespiration carbon oxidation cycle 光敏色素phytochrome，PHY光保护作用photoprotection光化学烟雾photochemical smog光反应light reaction光合速率photosynthetic rate光合有效辐射photosynthetically active radiation，PAR光合碳还原循环photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle光合磷酸化photophosphorylation光合链photosynthetic chain光合午睡现象midday depression of photosynthesis光合作用photosynthesis光合作用的光抑制photoinhibition of photo synthesis 光合膜photosynthetic membrane光合产物photosynthetic yield光合单位photosynthetic unit光合滞后期lag phase of photosynthesis光合细菌photosynthetic bacteria光受体photoreceptor光周期photoperiod光周期现象photoperiodism光周期诱导photoperiodic induction光饱和点light saturation point光系统ⅠphotosystemⅠ，PSⅠ光系统ⅡphotosystemⅡ，PSⅡ光亲和标记photoaffinity labling光滑性内质网smooth endoplasmic reticulum光补偿点light compensation point光调节因子light regulated element光能利用率efficiency for solar energy utilization 早熟发芽precocious germination早前期带preprophase band，PPB，吐水guttation同型二聚体homodimer同化物assimilate同化物运输assimilate transportation同化作用assimilation同化力assimilatory power同源异型基因homeotic gene同源异型突变homeotic mutation吸胀吸水imbibing absorption of water吸胀作用imbibition，吸收光谱absorption spectrum吸附作用absorption回补机制replenishing mechanism传递体transporter休眠dormancy休眠素dormin伤呼吸wound respiration伤流bleeding伤流液bleeding sap自动催化作用autocatalysis自花授粉self pollination自由基free radical自由水free water自由空间free space自由能free energy自交不亲和性self incompatibility自交不育self infertility自养性autotropism自溶作用autolysis向光性phototropism向重性gravitropism向化性chemotropism向触性thigmotropism向性运动tropic movement后熟作用after ripening近似昼夜节奏circadian rhythm杀粉蝶菌素A piericidin A合子zygote肌动蛋白actin肌醇三磷酸inositol-1,4,5-triphophate，IP3肌醇磷脂lipositol负化学信号negative chemical signal负向重性negative gravitropism负效应物negative effector多元酚氧化酶polyphenol oxidase多聚核糖体polyribosome多聚化截留机理polymerization trap mechanism 多聚半乳糖醛酸酶polygalacturonase多克隆抗体polyclonal antibody多胺ployamines,PA色素pigment色素蛋白复合体pigment protein complex色氨酸tryptophan色氨酸单加氧酶thyphophan monooxygenase色胺tryptamine交替氧化酶alternative oxidase交替途径alternative pathway交叉适应现象cross adaptation交叉忍耐cross tolerances次生壁secondary wall次级共运转secondary cotransport次级电子供体secondary electron donor次级电子受体secondary electron acceptor次级库subordinate sinks异花授粉allogamy异构酶isomerase异柠檬酸裂解酶isocitratelyase异柠檬酸脱氢酶isocitric acid dehydrogenase异戊烯基腺苷isopentenyl adenosine,iPA 异戊烯基腺嘌呤isopentenyladenine,ip异戊烯转移酶isopentenyl transferase 异戊烯焦磷酸isopentenyl pyrophosphate 异化作用disassimilation阳生植物sun plant阴生植物shade plant红花菜豆酸phaseic acid红光red light红降red drop纤维素cellulose纤维素酶cellulase七画麦芽糖酶maltase形态发生morphogenesis远红光far red light运动反应motor response运转器translocator韧皮部装载phloem loading韧皮部卸出phloem unloading韧皮蛋白P 蛋白phloem protein坏死性死亡necrosis death赤藓糖4磷酸erythrose-4-phosphate赤霉素gibberellin，GA赤霉烷gibberellane抑制剂depressant抗坏血酸氧化酶ascorbate oxidase抗盐性salt resistance抗热性heat resistance抗蒸腾剂antitranspirant抗旱性drought resistance抗虫性pest resistance抗氰呼吸cyanide resistant respiration 抗氰氧化酶cyanide resistant oxidase 抗冻性freezing resistance抗冷性chilling resistance抗病性disease resistance抗性resistance,hardiness抗涝性flood resistance抗张强度tensile strength壳梭孢菌素fusicoccin，FC拟核体nucleoid拟脂体lipid body芽休眠bud dormancy花芽分化flower bud differentiation花的发端initiation of flower花熟状态ripeness to flower state花粉pollen花粉粒pollen grain6-苄基腺嘌呤6-benzyl adenine，BA克隆clone极性polarity极性运输polar transport极性分子polar molecule束缚型赤霉素conjugated gibberellin束缚型生长素bound auxin束缚水bound water两极光周期植物amphophotoperiodism plant还原阶段reduction phase旱害drought injury旱生植物xerophytes吲哚丁酸indole-3-butyric acid，IBA吲哚丙酮酸indole pyruvic acid吲哚丙酸indole propionic acid吲哚乙醛indole acetaldehyde吲哚乙酰天冬氨酸indole acetyl aspartic acid吲哚乙酰葡萄糖indole acetyl glucose吲哚乙酰肌醇indole acetyl inositol吲哚乙酸indole-3-acetic acid，IAA吲哚乙酸氧化酶IAA oxidase吲哚乙腈indole acetonitrile别藻蓝蛋白allophycocyanin延胡索酸酶fumarase体细胞无孢子生殖somatic apospory体细胞胚somatic embryo伸展蛋白extensin低温诱导蛋白low temperature induced protein希尔氧化剂Hill oxidant希尔反应Hill reaction谷氨酰胺合成酶glutamine synthetase，GS谷氨酸合酶glutamate synthase,GOGAT谷氨酸脱氢酶glutamate dehydrogenase，GDH谷氨酸乙醛酸转氨酶glutamate glyoxylate aminotransferase 谷胱甘肽glutathione谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶glutathione peroxidase，GPX谷胱甘肽还原酶glutathione reductase，GR邻香豆酸ocoumaric acid邻近细胞neighbouring cell免疫immune角质蒸腾cuticular transpiration系统获得性抗性systemic acquired resistance 系统肽systemin冻害freezing injury库sink库强sink strength应变素allergens冷击蛋白cold shock protein冷响应蛋白cold responsive protein冷害chilling injury间质stroma泛醌ubiquinone,UQ泛醌氧化还原酶ubiquinone oxidoreductase完熟ripening初生壁primary wall初级共运转primary cotransport识别recognition层积处理stratification张力tension阿拉伯半乳糖蛋白arabinogalactan protein阿斯匹林aspirin驱动蛋白kinesin纺锤体spindle八画环式光合磷酸化cyclic photophosphorylation 环式电子传递cyclic electron transport环境污染environmental pollution环腺苷酸cyclic adenosine monophosphate,cAMP 环脂肪酸cyclic fatty acid环割试验girdling experiment表面张力surface tension，表异构酶epimerase表观光合速率apparent photosynthetic rate表观库强apparent sink strength顶端优势apical dominance茉莉酸jasmonic acid，JA茉莉酸甲酯methyl jasmonate，MeJA茉莉酸类jasmonates苯丙氨酸phenylalanine苯丙氨酸解氨酶phenylalanine ammonia lyase 苯乙酸phenylactic acid苹果酸malate,Mal苹果酸酶malic enzyme苹果酸代谢学说malate bolism theory苹果酸合成酶malate synthetase苹果酸脱氢酶malic acid dehydrogenase，直链淀粉amylose板块镶嵌模型plate mosaic model刺激感受stimulus perception刺激性单性结实stimulative parthenocarpy矿质元素mineral element矿质营养mineral nutrition转运肽transit peptide转基因植物transgenic plant转醛醇酶transaldolase转酮酶transketolase转移细胞transfer cell,TC转化酶invertase，转录因子tranion factors非环式光合磷酸化non cyclic photophosphorylation非环式电子传递noncyclic electron transport非堆叠区nonappressed region果胶pectin果胶物质pectic substances果胶酶pectinase果胶酸pectic acid果糖1，6二磷酸fructose-1,6-bisphosphate,FBP果糖1，6二磷酸酯酶fructose-1,6-bispho sphate phosphatase 果糖-6-磷酸fructose-6-phosphate,F6P果糖激酶fructokinase固氮酶nitrogenase固定化细胞immobilized cells呼吸速率respiratory rate呼吸电子传递链respiratory electron transport chain呼吸跃变respiratory climacteric呼吸链respiratory chain呼吸作用respiration呼吸系数respiratory coefficient呼吸底物respiratory substrate吸呼效率respiratory ratio呼吸商respiratory quotient，RQ岩棉栽培rockwool culture罗汉松内酯podolactone物理信号physical signal物候期phenological period质蓝素plastocyanin，PC质体plastid质体醌plastoquinone，PQ，质体小球plastoglobulus质壁分离plasmolysis，质壁分离复原deplasmolysis质子动力proton motive force，pmf质子泵proton pump质外体apoplast质外体运输apoplastic transport质外体装载apoplasmic phloem loading质外体途径apoplast pathway受体receptor，，受精作用fertilization乳酸脱氢酶lactic acid dehydrogenase乳酸发酵lactate fermentation胁迫stress胁迫激素stress hormone胁变strain周期性growth periodicity鱼藤酮rotenone饱和蒸气压saturation vapor pressure夜间断night break底物水平磷酸化substrate level phosphorylation 放热呼吸thermogenic respiration放氧复合体oxygen evolving complex，放射免疫检测法radioimmunoassay放线菌素actinomycin D净光合速率net photosynthetic rate净同化率net assimilation rate,NAR，育性转化fertility change性别表达sex expression单“S”形生长曲线single sigmoid growth curve 单盐毒害toxiciy of single salt单克隆抗体monoclonal antibody单酚氧化酶monophenol oxidase单倍体无配子生殖haploid apogamr单倍体孤雄生殖haploid androgenesis单倍体孤雌生殖haploid parthenogenesis单向传递体uniport单性结实parthenocarpy法呢基焦磷酸farnesyl pyrophosphate，油菜素brassin油菜素内酯brassinolide，BR油菜素甾体类化合物brassinosteroids油酸oleic acid油体oil body油体蛋白oleosins泥炭培养peat culture空种皮技术empty seed coat technique衬质matrix衬质势matrix potential衬质水势matrix water potential降解breakdown线性期linear phase线粒体mitochondria，细菌叶绿素bacteriochlorophyll细胞克隆cell clone细胞板cell plate细胞松弛素B cytochalasin B细胞融合cell fusion细胞浆cytosol细胞器cell organelle细胞骨架cytoskeleton细胞繁殖cell reproduction细胞质环流cyclosis细胞质基质cytoplasmic matrix细胞质膜plasma membrane细胞全能性totipotency细胞分裂素cytokinin，CTK细胞分裂素氧化酶cytokinin oxidase细胞分化cell differentiation细胞膜cell membrane细胞周期cell cycle细胞色素cytochrome，Cyt细胞色素氧化酶cytochrome oxidase细胞衰老cellular aging细胞液cell sap细胞学说cell theory细胞壁cell wall孤立体系isolated system孢粉素pollenin孢子体型不亲和sporophyric self incompatibility,SSI九画春化素vernalin春化作用vernalization封闭体系closed system指数期logarithmic phase草酰乙酸oxaloacetic acid，OAA荧光fluorescence荧光猝灭剂fluorescence quencher，胡萝卜素carotene枯斑necrotic spot相互竞争allelospoly相生相克它感作用allelopathy相关性correlation相对生长速率relative growth rate，RGR相对自由空间relative free space,RFS柠檬酸循环citric acid cycle柠檬酸合成酶citrate synthase砂培sand culture砂基培养法sand culture method砂砾栽培gravel culture临界日长critical daylength临界暗期critical dark period钙调蛋白钙调素calmodulin,CaM，氢醌hydroquinone氢化酶hydrogenase选择吸收selective absorption种子劣变seed deterioration种子生活力seed viability种子休眠seed dormancy种子的寿命seed longevity种子活力seed vigor秋水仙素colchicine，重力势gravitational potential重力水gravitational water复种指数multiple crop index复合脂类complex lipids顺乌头酸酶aconitase保卫细胞guard cell信号转导signal transduction，信息传递message transportation胚芽鞘coleoptile胚柄suspensor胚状体embryoid胚胎萌发viviparous germination，vivipary胚胎晚期丰富蛋白late embryogenesis abundant protein,LEA 胚胎发生embryogenesis胞间连丝plasmodesma胞间层intercellular layer亲和性compatibility亲和力affinity类胡萝卜素carotenoid类胡萝卜素途径carotenoid pathway类囊体thylakoid前质体proplastid，前馈活化feedforward activation逆境environmental stress逆境逃避stress avoidance逆境乙烯stress ethylene逆境蛋白stress protein逆境忍耐stress tolerance总光合速率gross photosynthetic rate活化酶activase活性氧active oxygen，染色体chromosome染色质chromatin染色单体chromatid穿梭运动shuttle streaming诱导酶induced enzyme，诱导性单性结实induced parthenocarpy昼夜节律circadian rhythm昼夜周期性daily periodicity结构酶constitutive enzyme结合态淀粉合成酶granule bound starch synthase 结合蛋白binding protein绝对生长速率absolute growth rate，AGR十画顽拗性种子recalcitrant seed载体carrier载色体chromatophore盐碱土saline and alkaline soil盐逆境蛋白salt stress protein盐溶清蛋白globulin盐害salt injury热电偶thermocouple热休克蛋白热激蛋白heat shock proteins,HSPs热害heat injury热力学thermodynamics莽草酸shikimic acid真核生物eukaryote真核细胞eukaryotic cell真光合速率true photosynthetic rate核基质nuclear matrix核酮糖1，5二磷酸ribulose BF-1,5-bisphosphate,BFQ RuBP核酮糖1，5二磷酸羧化酶/加氧酶BFQ ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxyla se/oxygenase，Rubisco核酮糖-5-磷酸ribulose-5-phosphate,Ru5P核酮糖-5-磷酸表异构酶 ribulose-5-phosphate epimerase核酮糖-5-磷酸激酶ribulose-5-phosphate kinase,Ru5PK核小体nucleosome核仁nucleolus核质nucleoplasm核膜nuclear membrane核糖=5-磷酸ribose-5-phosphate,R5P核糖-5-磷酸异构酶ribose-5-phosphate isomerase核糖体ribosome核液karyolymph核孔nuclear pore根压root pressure根冠比root top ratio,R/T砾培gravel culture原核生物prokaryote原核细胞prokaryotic cell原果胶protopectin原生质protoplasm原生质体protoplast原初电子供体primary electron donor原初电子受体primary electron acceptor1原初反应primary reaction原初主动运转primary active transport原发优势primigenic dominance配子体型不亲和gametophytic self incompatibility,GSI致电泵electrogenic pump圆球体spherosome铁硫黄素蛋白iron sulfur flavoprotein铁硫蛋白iron sulfur protein铁氧还蛋白ferredoxin,Fd铁氧还蛋白-NADP+还原酶 ferredoxin-NADP+reductase，FNR氧化磷酸化oxidative phosphorylation氧自由基oxygen free radical氧饱和点oxygen saturation point1-氨基环丙烷-1-羧酸1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid,ACC氨基酮戊酸aminolevulinic acid氨基氧乙酸aminooxyacetic acid,AOA氨基乙氧基乙烯基甘氨酸 aminoethoxyvinyl glycine,AVG缺绿症chlorosis敌草隆Diuron,DCMU爱默生增益效应Emerson enhancement effect脂氧合酶lipoxygenase,脂肪酸fatty acid胶体colloid胼胝质callose衰老senescence衰老相关基因senescence associated gene衰老特定基因senescence specific gene衰减期senescence phase高尔基体Golgi body高效液相层析high performance liquid chromatography 高温胁迫high temperature stress病原菌disease producing germ病原相关蛋白pathogenesis related proteins,PRs，病原物causal organism病害disease离区abscission zone离层abscission layer离子载体抑制剂ionophore depressant离子颉颃ion antagonism离子交换ion exchange离子通道ion channel凋亡apoptosis凋亡小体apoptotic body涝害flood injury酒精发酵alcohol fermentation流动镶嵌模型fluid mosaic model被动运输passive transport被动吸水passive absorption of water被动吸收passive absorption能荷energy charge能量梯度energy gradient通道channel继代培养subculture十一画堆叠区appressed region授粉pollination培养基medium接触态建成thigmomorphogenesis接触交换contact exchange基态ground state基因组genomes基质matrix基质片层stroma lamella基质类囊体stroma thylakoid基粒granum基粒片层grana lamella基粒类囊体grana thylakoid基细胞basal cell黄素腺嘌呤二核苷酸flavin adenine dinucleotide,FAD黄素单核苷酸flavin mononucleotide,FMN黄化现象etiolation黄质醛xanthoxin,萘基邻氨甲酰苯甲酸naphthyphthalamic acid萘氧乙酸naphthoxyacetic acid萘乙酸naphthalene acetic acid,NAA,萌发germination萝卜酰胺raphanusamide萝卜宁raphanusanin萎蔫wilting菊芋素heliangint营养转移nutrient diversion营养生长vegetative growth营养膜技术nutrient film technique,NFT梅勒反应Mehler's reaction副卫细胞subsidiary cell酚氧化酶phenol oxidase辅酶A coenzyme A,CoA辅助色素accessory photosynthetic pigments悬浮培养suspension culture甜菜碱betaines第二信使second messenger敏感性sensitivity偶联因子coupling factor偶联部位coupled site偏向受精preferential fertilization假环式光合磷酸化pseudocyclic photopho sphorylation 假环式电子传递pseudocyclic electron transport脯氨酸proline,Pro，脯氨酸甜菜碱prolinebetaine脱落abscission脱落素abscisin脱落酸abscisic acid,ABA脱支酶debranching enzyme脱分化dedifferentiation脱羧作用decarboxylation阈时presentation time羟基丙酮酸还原酶hydroxypyruvate reductase羟脯氨酸hydroxyproline，Hyp粘性plasticity粘附力adhesionJP粗糙型内质网rough endoplasmic reticulum,RER JP烯醇化酶enolase液晶态liquid crystalline state液泡膜tonoplast淀粉酶amylase淀粉磷酸化酶starch phosphorylase淀粉体amyloplast，淀粉合成酶starch synthase淀粉粒starch grain渗透势osmotic potential渗透吸水osmotic absorption of water渗透作用osmosis渗透胁迫osmotic stress渗透调节osmotic adjustment寄主host寄主特异毒素host specific toxin密度density弹性胁变elastic strain蛋白磷酸酯酶protein phosphatase蛋白激酶protein kinase，隐花植物cryptogamia隐花色素cryptochrome，维持呼吸maintenance respiration维管束鞘细胞bundle sheath cell，BSC绿色荧光蛋白green fluorescent protein绿色硫细菌green sulfur bacteria十二画琥珀酸硫激酶succinic thiodinase琥珀酸脱氢酶succinic dehydrogenase琥珀酸:泛醌氧化还原酶 succinate:ubiquinone oxidoreductase 超氧化物歧化酶superoxide dismutase,SOD颉颃作用antagonism插入蛋白integral protein葡聚糖ployglucosan葡萄糖-6-磷酸glucose-6-phosphate,G6P葡萄糖6磷酸脱氢酶 glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase植醇phytol植物生长物质plant growth substance植物生长调节剂plant growth regulator植物激素plant hormone植物组织培养plant tissue culture植保素phytoalexin硝酸还原酶nitrate reductase，NR硫氧还蛋白thioredoxin硫胺素焦磷酸thiamine pyrophosphate硫脂sulpholipid硫辛酸lipoic acid雄性素androecious line雄性生殖单位male gerem unit，MGU暂时萎蔫temporary wilting紫黄质violaxanthin紫外线诱导蛋白UV induced protein紫色硫细菌purple sulfur bacteria紫色非硫细菌purple nonsulfur bacteria量子需要量quantum requirememt量子效率quantum efficiency量子产额quantum yield喷灌spray irrigation景天科酸代谢crassulacean acid bolism,CAM景天庚酮糖-1，7-二磷酸sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphate，SBP景天庚酮糖-1，7-二磷酸酯酶sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphate phosphatase，SBPase景天庚酮糖-7-磷酸sedoheptulose-7-phosphate，S7P蛭石栽培vermiculaponics短日植物short-day plant短 长日植物short-long day plant氰化物cyanide氯丁唑多效唑，PP333,paclobutrazol4-氯吲哚乙酸4-chloroindole-3-acetic acid氯氟代烃chlorofluorocarbous2-氯乙基膦酸2-chloroethyl phosphonic acid稀土元素rare earth element筛管sieve tube筛管装载sieve loading筛管分子sieve element筛管分子 伴胞复合体sieve element companion cell，CC集光色素light harvesting pigment集体效应group effect集流mass flow焦磷酸磷酸果糖激酶 pyrophosphate phosphofructokinase湿害waterlogging温周期现象thermoperiodicity温度补偿点temperature compensation point游离型生长素free auxin270富含羟脯氨酸的糖蛋白hydroxyproline rich glycoprotein，HRGP强迫休眠epistotic dormancy十三画蓝光效应blue light effect蒸气压梯度vapor pressure gradient蒸腾拉力transpirational pull蒸腾速率transpiration rate蒸腾作用transpiration蒸腾系数transpiration coefficient蒸腾效率transpiration ratio蒸腾流-内聚力-张力学说 transpiration-cohesion tension theory蒸发vaporizationα-酮戊二酸脱氢酶复合体α-ketoglutaric acid dehydrogenase complex 酪氨酸酶tyrosinase感震性seismonasty感受perception感受蛋白sensor protein感夜性nyctinasty感性运动nastic movement感温性thermonasty4-碘苯氧乙酸4-iodo phenoxy acetic acid雾培spray culture暗呼吸dark respiration暗反应dark reaction跨膜蛋白transmembrane protein蜂蜡醇myricylalcohol嵴cristae锯木培sawdust culture矮壮素氯化氯胆碱chlorocholine chloride，CCC微量元素minorelement微团micell微管microtubule微管蛋白tubulin微体microbody微注射法microinjection technique微梁系统microtrabecular system微纤丝microfibril微丝microfilament愈伤组织callus腺苷三磷酸酶adenosine triphosphatase，ATPase腺苷酸激酶adenylate kinase解偶联剂uncoupler新黄质neoxanthin2羧基3酮基阿拉伯糖醇1，5二磷酸2-carboxy-3-ketoarabinitol-1,5-bispho sphate2羧基D阿拉伯糖醇1磷酸 2-carboxy-D-arabinitol1phosphate羧化效率carboxylation efficiency羧化阶段carboxylation phase塑性胁变plastic strain源source源-库单位source-sink unit源强source strength溶酶体lysosome溶质势solute potential溶胶sol溶液培养法solution culture method叠氮化物azide十四画聚光色素复合体light harvesting pigment complex蔗糖磷酸磷酸酯酶sucrose phosphate phosphatase蔗糖磷酸合成酶sucrose phosphate synthase,SPS蔗糖－质子共运输蛋白sucrose-H＋symporter,蔗糖合成酶sucrose synthase,SS碱土alkaline soil碳酸酐酶carbonic anhydrase,CA碳同化carbon dioxide assimilation酶联免疫吸附检测法enzyme linked immunoso rbent assay酶复合体enzyme complex198酶放大的免疫鉴定法enzyme amplified immunoassay酸生长理论acid growth theory酸化作用acidification需水量water requirement雌蕊pistil雌雄同株同花植物hermaphroditic plant雌雄同株异花植物monoecious plant雌雄异株植物dioecious plant雌性生殖单位female germ unit雌性系gynoeciousline锻炼hardening膜动转运cytosis膜不饱和脂肪酸指数unsaturated fatty acid index膜片钳patch clamp,PC膜间空间intermembrane space腐胺putrescine精胺spermine漫灌wild flooding irrigation滴灌drip irrigation滴漏式hourglass寡霉素oligomycin寡糖素oligosaccharin缩合酶condensing enzyme十五画增效作用synergism醇溶谷蛋白prolamin潜在库强potential sink strength缬氨霉素valinomycin十六画操纵子operon燕麦试法avena test薄层层析thin layer chromatography整形素morphactin整合integration醛缩酶aldolase膨压turgor pressure膨压素turgorins膨压运动turgor movement凝聚condensation凝集素lectins凝胶gel糖酵解glycolysis糖脂glycolipid激素受体hormone receptor激动素kinetin，KT激发态excited state激发子elicitor激子传递exciton transfer十七画磷酸运转器pi translocator，PT3-磷酸甘油醛脱氢酶 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde dehydrogenase 磷酸甘油酸phosphoglycerate，PGA磷酸甘油酸变位酶phosphoglyceromutase磷酸甘油酸激酶phosphoglyceric kinase,PGK磷酸葡萄糖酸phosphogluconate6-磷酸葡萄糖酸内酯6-phosphogluconolactone6-磷酸葡萄糖酸脱氢酶 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase磷酸葡萄糖变位酶phosphoglucomutase磷酸蔗糖合成酶sucrose phosphate synthetase,SPS磷酸丙糖运转器triose phosphate translocator磷酸丙糖异构酶phosphotrioseisomerase磷酸酯酶phosphatase磷酸水解酶phosphorhydrolase磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸phosphenolpruvate，PEP磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸羧化酶 phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase，PEPC 磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸羧激酶PEP carboxykinase磷酸乙醇酸磷酸脂酶phosphoglycolate phosphatase磷酸己糖异构酶phosphohexoseisomerase磷光phosphorescence磷脂phospholipid磷脂酰甘油phosphatidylglycerol磷脂酰胆碱phosphatidylcholine磷脂酰肌醇phosphatidylinositol,PI磷脂酰乙醇胺phosphatidylethanolamine磷脂酰丝氨酸phosphatidylserine磷脂酶phos pholipase十九画藻蓝蛋白phycocyanin藻胆素phycobilin藻红蛋白phycoerythrin二十二画囊腔lumen。

ATP合成的生物学机制ATP（adenosine triphosphate）是生命体系中重要的化学物质之一，被称为生命的能量货币。

所有的生物过程，如肌肉收缩、细胞代谢、神经传导等都需要ATP的能量来推动。

本文将介绍ATP 的合成机制，即细胞色素系统（Electron Transport Chain, ETC）。

1. ETC的作用细胞色素系统是指通过一系列蛋白质复合物将电子从NADH和FADH2等还原型辅酶中断裂，将电子流质子转运到跨膜蛋白质复合物中，并将最终的电子传递到氧分子上，供氧还原成水。

电子流产生的高能质子梯度用于细胞外膜下丘脑肽（Proton-motive force, PMF）的产生，这种PMF的存在促使磷酸化作用将ADP磷酸化成ATP，从而使ATP合成和能量产生背靠背地作用。

2. ETC的结构人体内每个细胞中都有细胞色素系统。

ETC的复合物可被分为五个复合物I-V，并且复合物之间有特定的电子传递途径。

质子泵能够从复合物I、III、IV中形成跨膜质子梯度，而ATP合成酶（ATP synthase）则利用这种梯度将ADP磷酸化成ATP。

复合物I、III、IV中的三个含铁色素（FeS）的质子接收者会接受电子，并将其传递到另一个与之相连的复合物上。

复合物IV是细胞色素C氧化酶，包含两个铜离子（CuA和CuB），还有一个氧分子接受电子并还原为水。

尽管细胞色素C被看作是色素质子接收者，但它具有另一种强烈作用，即需要将一个电子传递给复合物IV的直接接收器，细胞内呼吸激励蛋白（cytochrome oxidase subunit）。

3. ATP合成ATP合成酶（ATP合酶）是一个含有旋转部分和固定部分的酶复合物。

固定部分中的阳离子流通过PMF通道，将ADP磷酸化为ATP。

ATP生成部分通过其转子部分将力转化为能量，将ADP磷酸化为ATP，释放能量，使旋转子转动。

4. ETC与代谢作用的关系细胞色素系统与代谢作用之间存在着密不可分的关系。

名词解释自由水:不被原生质胶体吸附的，能自由移动并起溶剂作用的水。

束缚水:被原生质胶粒紧密吸附的或存在于大分子结合空间的水，不能自由移动，也不起溶剂作用的水。

扩散: 以浓度为动力,物质从浓度高的区域向浓度低的区域移动的现象。

集流：液体中成群的原子或分子在压力梯度作用下共同移动。

生理需水：直接满足植物生命活动的所需的水。

生态需水：通过改变栽培环境，特别是土壤条件，从而间接地对植物产生影响的水分。

水孔蛋白aquaporin, AQP是指细胞膜上能选择性地高效转运水分子的水通道蛋白。

水势：在相同温度、压力下，体系中水与纯水之间每mol体积水的自由能之差。

用ψw表示，单位为帕（Pa）。

标准状态下，纯水水势=0。

渗透作用：osmosis以压力和浓度两者为动力,水分子透过半透膜从水势高的系统向水势低的系统移动的作用称渗透作用。

渗透势ψs，是由于溶质的存在而引起水的自由能下降的值，为负值，ψS＝-iCRT。

ψp：由于压力存在而增加的水势。

(在细胞中是细胞壁压力)一般压力势为正值，只有在特殊情况下如质壁分离时ψp=0，强烈蒸腾时ψp＜0。

ψm：(衬质势)：由于衬质存在而引起水势降低的数值。

一般为负值。

衬质：亲水层表面能吸附水的物质。

根压：是指植物根系的生理活动使液流从根部上升的压力（叶片未展开时，是主要动力）。

主动吸水——由于根系生理活动而引起的吸水过程叫主动吸水。

被动吸水：由于枝叶蒸腾引起的根部吸水，叫被动吸水。

被动吸水是植物吸水的主要方式。

蒸腾拉力：由于蒸腾作用产生一系列水势梯度使导管中水分上升的力量称为蒸腾拉力。

蒸腾拉力-内聚力-张力学说(内聚力学说):由于水的内聚力大于张力，还由于水与输导组织间有强的附着力，所以水柱不会中断而使水分向上运输。

蒸腾作用:水分以气态形式通过植物体表面散失到体外的过程。

蒸腾速率(蒸腾强度):单位时间单位叶面积蒸腾的水量。

蒸腾比率TR (蒸腾效率）表示指植物在一定生长期内所积累的干物质与蒸腾失水量之比。

植物生理学答案（1）第一章植物的水分生理一、名词解释。

渗透势(solute potential):由于溶液中溶质颗粒的存在,降低了水的自由能而引起的水势低于纯水水势的值,此值为负值.其也称为溶质势.质外体途径(apoplast pathway): 指水分通过细胞壁、细胞间隙等没有细胞质部分的移动，阻力小，移动方式速度快。

共质体途径(symplast pathway): 指水分从一个细胞的细胞质经过胞间连丝，移动到另一个细胞的细胞质，形成一个细胞质的连续体，移动速度较慢。

渗透作用(osmosis):物质依水势梯度而移动,指溶液中的溶剂分子通过半透膜扩散的现象.对于水溶液而言,就是指水分子从水势高的系统通过半透膜向水势低的系统移动的现象.蒸腾作用(transpiration): 指水分以气体状态,通过植物体的表面，从体内散失到体外的现象。

二、思考题1、将植物细胞分别放在纯水和1mo l／L蔗糖溶液中，细胞的渗透势、压力势、水势及细胞体积各会发生什么变化？答：在正常情况下，植物细胞的水势为负值，在土壤水分充足的条件下，一般植物的叶片水势为-0.8～-0.2MPa。

将植物细胞放在纯水中时，纯水的水势为0，故植物细胞会吸水，渗透势、压力势及水势均上升，细胞体积变大。

当吸水达到饱和时，细胞体积达最大，水势最终变为0，渗透势和压力势绝对值相等、符号相反，各组分不再变化。

当植物细胞放于1mo l ／L蔗糖溶液中时，根据公式计算蔗糖溶液的水势（设温度为27 ℃，已知蔗糖的解离系数i＝1）＝-icRT＝-1mol ／L×0.0083L·MPa／（mol·K）×(273+27)K＝-2.49MPa,由于细胞的水势大于蔗糖溶液的水势，因此细胞放入溶液后会失水，渗透势、压力势及水势均减少，体积也缩小，严重时还会发生质壁分离现象。

如果细胞处于初始质壁分离状态，其压力势为0，水势等于渗透势。

关于呼吸作用的英语小作文英文回答：Respiration is a vital process that occurs in allliving organisms, allowing them to convert energy from nutrients into usable forms. There are two main types of respiration: aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.Aerobic respiration is the process of breaking down glucose in the presence of oxygen, releasing energy in the form of ATP. This process occurs in the mitochondria ofcells and is much more efficient than anaerobic respiration. The overall equation for aerobic respiration is:C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (ATP)。

Anaerobic respiration is the process of breaking down glucose in the absence of oxygen, releasing energy in the form of ATP. This process occurs in the cytoplasm of cells and is less efficient than aerobic respiration. The overallequation for anaerobic respiration is:C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + energy (ATP)。

第一部分：糖酵解（glycolysis，EMP）：是将葡萄糖降解为丙酮酸并伴随着ATP生成的一系列反应，是生物体内普遍存在的葡萄糖降解的途径。

该途径也称作Embden-Meyethof途径。

柠檬酸循环（citric acid cycle，tricarboxylic acid cycle，TCA cycle）：也叫三羧酸循环，又叫做TCA循环，是由于该循环的第一个产物是柠檬酸，它含有三个羧基，故此得名。

乙酰辅酶A与草酰乙酸缩合成六碳三羧酸即柠檬酸，经过一系列代谢反应，乙酰基被彻底氧化，草酰乙酸得以再生的过程称为三羧酸循环。

生物氧化（biological oxidation）：糖类、脂肪、蛋白质等有机物质在细胞中进行氧化分解生成CO2和H2O并释放出能量的过程称为生物氧化，其实质是需氧细胞在呼吸代谢过程中所进行的一系列氧化还原反应过程，所以又称为细胞氧化或细胞呼吸。

质子梯度（gradients of protons）：化学渗透学说认为，电子传递释放的自由能驱动H+从线粒体基质跨过内膜进入到膜间隙，从而形成跨线粒体内膜的H+电化学梯度即质子梯度。

这个梯度的电化学势驱动ATP合成。

Fe -S蛋白：(简写为Fe-S)是一种与电子传递有关的蛋白质，它与NADH Q还原酶的其它蛋白质组分结合成复合物形式存在。

它主要以(2Fe-2S) 或(4Fe-4S) 形式存在。

(2Fe-2S)含有两个活泼的无机硫和两个铁原子。

铁硫蛋白通过Fe3+ Fe2+ 变化起传递电子的作用。

细胞色素（cytochrome)：是一类含有血红素辅基的电子传递蛋白质的总称。

因为有红颜色，又广泛存在于生物细胞中，故称为细胞色素。

血红素的主要成份为铁卟啉。

根据吸收光谱分成a、b、c三类，呼吸链中含5种（b、c、c1、a和a3)。

Q循环：是指在线粒体内膜中电子传递链上QH2分别传递一个电子到细胞色素中，即共使2个细胞色素得到电子，从而被氧化。

电子传递链（eclctron transfer chain)：线粒体基质是呼吸底物氧化的场所，底物在这里氧化所产生的NADH和FADH2将质子和电子转移到内膜的载体上，经过一系列氢载体和电子载体的传递，最后传递给O2生成H2O。

The ability to move is a fundamental property by which weoften define animal life. Although rarely proven, logic dictates that the ability to move factors into the Darwinian fitness of most animals. Accordingly, the study of locomotor performance in populations of feral vertebrates has undergone explosive growth over the past 20 years as investigators attempt (1) to partition a polygenic trait such as locomotor performance into key component processes (Bennett et al.,1984, 1989; Johnson et al., 1993); (2) to establish the heritability of measures of locomotor performance (Laurie-Ahlberg et al., 1985; Garland and Bennett, 1990); (3) to demonstrate selection for locomotor performance in the field (Huey et al., 1990; Jayne and Bennett, 1990); and (4) to establish the efficacy of laboratory measures of locomotor performance (van Berkum et al., 1989; Huey et al., 1990). For a variety of reasons, the fishes have largely been left out of this arena of experimentation. Although the study of locomotor capacity in fishes has a long history (for reviews, see Beamish,1978; Randall and Brauner, 1991), most of this work hasfocused on the mechanism of propulsion by fish and the use of exercise performance as a gauge of fish health or stress level,while little attention has been given to the raw material of natural selection: variation in performance among individual fish.Large variations in swimming ability exist among teleosts.Scombroids have been recorded swimming at over 10m s −1(Magnuson, 1978), while males of the Ceratioidei suffer complete atrophy of their axial musculature and become parasitic appendages of the female (Pietsch, 1976).Morphological and physiological specialization are considered to be the main determinants of this diversity of locomotor capacities. Many fish species, depending upon prey type and habitat, have evolved specialist locomotor strategies, often at the expense of another type of locomotion (Webb, 1978, 1984).For example, a generalist swimmer, such as rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss ), specializes in neither endurance nor acceleration swimming, yet performs both reasonably well (Webb, 1978, 1984), while an acceleration specialist, such as347The Journal of Experimental Biology 203, 347–357 (2000)Printed in Great Britain ©The Company of Biologists Limited 2000JEB2128Individual Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua ) were exercised using three different measures of swimming performance.(1) An endurance test (critical swimming speed, U crit ,protocol) designed to assess predominantly aerobic endurance swimming (duration hours). (2) An acceleration test (U burst ), in which the fish were required to swim against a rapidly increasing current until exhausted (duration minutes). This test was designed to assess predominantly glycolytic-based swimming capacity. (3) A sprint test that examined the animals’ ability to swim away from a sudden stimulus (duration seconds). Rates of oxygen consumption (M ˙O 2) during the endurance test and various morphological variables of the individual fish were also measured. Both aerobic and anaerobic swimming performance of individual cod were found to be significantly repeatable over a 3 month period. M˙O 2during the U crit protocol was also significantly repeatable at intermediate to high swimming speeds, but not at low speeds. Our resultssupport extrapolation from metabolic rates at incrementedswimming speeds to zero activity as the best way to measure standard metabolic rate in cod. While performance in the U crit test and the sprint test were positively correlated, there was a negative correlation between performance in the U crit test and performance in the U burst test. This implies a potential trade-off in individual cod between stamina and the ability to use glycolytic-based locomotion. Inter-individual variation in swimming performance during these protocols, while substantial, was not correlated with individual variation in fin surface areas, age or morphology. However, U burst performance was dependent upon the sex of the animals,while performance during the U crit protocol was significantly correlated with their aerobic scope for activity.Key words: Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua , metabolic rate, oxygenconsumption, fish, locomotion, morphology, critical swimming speed, swimming.SummaryIntroductionAEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC SWIMMING PERFORMANCE OF INDIVIDUALATLANTIC CODS. P. REIDY*, S. R. KERR AND J. A. NELSON‡Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 4J1*Present address: Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1N 6N5‡Present address: Department of Biological Sciences, Towson University, Towson, MD 21252.0001, USAAccepted 14 October; published on WWW 22 December 1999348northern pike (Esox lucius), has much higher swimming velocities during acceleration tests than do rainbow trout (Harper and Blake, 1990) yet is a poor endurance swimmer. The Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) is another example of a species that employs a generalist locomotor strategy. This species participates in seasonal migrations of over 1000km (Harden-Jones, 1968), spawns in currents (Rose et al., 1995; Rose, 1993), as a juvenile can capture prey in currents flowing at 8body length s−1(Lough et al., 1989) and avoids trawls. Variation in swimming capacity is also manifest within a fish species. Kolok has demonstrated that the inter-individual variation in critical swimming speed (U crit) exceeds individual performance variability for two species: largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides; Kolok, 1992a) and northern squawfish (Ptchocheillus oregonensis; Kolok and Farrell, 1994). Nelson et al. (1992) found that inter-individual variation in U crit also exceeded individual performance variability in Atlantic cod. They presented evidence that individual cod were relying on anaerobic metabolism to different degrees while reaching U crit(Nelson et al., 1994, 1996). In general, it is poorly understood how inter-individual variation in critical swimming performance is related to the physiological variables that might determine locomotor prowess in fish. Kolok and Farrell (1994) provide strong evidence that individual variation in cardiac output does not account for individual variation in critical swimming performance of squawfish, and Kolok (1992b) was unable to relate several morphological characters and enzyme V max measurements to performance in a hatchery-reared stock of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). This is in contrast to the state of knowledge for a number of other ectotherms (e.g. Garland, 1984; Laurie-Ahlberg et al., 1985) and for animals whose exercise performance is of direct interest to humans (e.g. Thoroughbred racehorses; Gaffney and Cunningham, 1988), in which the determinants of exercise performance have been heavily studied. In addition to our poor state of knowledge concerning what accounts for intraspecific differences in swimming performance in fish, it is also poorly understood how the most commonly measured type of swimming performance (critical swimming speed, U crit) is related to other types of swimming performance in the same individual. Because fish under different environmental conditions can use varying degrees of anaerobic metabolism in reaching U crit (Nelson, 1990; Nelson et al., 1996), more than one performance test is needed to characterize the swimming potential of an individual fish adequately.The present study was designed to examine the possible relationships among primarily aerobically fuelled swimming performance, primarily anaerobically fuelled swimming performance and the ability to sprint in a generalist fish species. The swimming performance of a group of Atlantic cod was measured using three different exercise protocols designed to assess these capacities. To identify some possible underlying sources of variation in the swimming performance of fish, we also investigated the relationship between each swimming performance capacity and morphology, fin surface areas and rates of oxygen consumption. In addition, to determine whether swimming performance and metabolic rate are stable over time, we measured the repeatability of individual swimming performances and rates of oxygen consumption of the cod over a 3 month period.Materials and methodsAnimalsTwenty-five adult Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.) were selected from our laboratory stock of wild-captured Scotian Shelf cod, individually tagged and held in 6m3insulated circular holding tanks. These tanks were continuously supplied with temperature-regulated (5±0.5°C), air-saturated and filtered sea water. The tanks contained submersible pumps which maintained a water current of approximately 15cm s−1. The fish were exposed to their natural photoperiod (adjusted monthly) and fed a diet of chopped mackerel (Scomber scombrus L.) and chopped squid (Illex illecebrosus L.) on 3 days each week. The fish did not receive food for 4 days prior to an experimental trial. All swimming performance tests were conducted without investigator knowledge of that particular individual’s performance in any previous test.Aerobic swimming performanceSwimming performance of cod in a critical swimming speed (U crit) protocol (Brett, 1964) has previously been shown to depend largely upon aerobic capacity, even though anaerobic metabolism is recruited during the swim (Nelson et al., 1996). Two days before a fish was to begin swimming, it was placed in a 1m long opaque tube of identical cross-sectional area to the Brett-type swim-tunnel/respirometer used to determine U crit. The conditioning tube was supplied with a continuous 15cm s−1flow of sea water at 5°C and had a light suspended above its downstream end, which contained a transparent window. This apparatus required the fish to swim against the current to remain in their preferred low light levels. This pre-conditioning to swimming against a current while inside a tube had produced more robust swimming trials with earlier groups of cod. After 24h in this tube, the fish were gently slid from the tube without handling into the swim-tunnel/respirometer, where they remained for an additional 24h at a flow speed of 15cm s−1and at 5°C. The respirometer was designed by the Department of Engineering at Guelph University, Canada, had a total volume of 84.5l, a swimming section of 110.0cm length and 19.2cm in diameter, and was powered by an adjustable-speed hydraulic drive.The U crit protocol began with an increase in the water velocity to 20cm s−1from the 15cm s−1acclimation velocity; water velocity was subsequently raised in 10cm s−1increments every 30min until the fish was exhausted. A 12V, manually activated, electronic grid was located at the rear of the swimming section to prevent the fish from resting. This was usually used only at high speeds and was only activated as a brief pulse when the fish was actually resting at the back of theS. P. R EIDY, S. R. K ERR AND J. A. N ELSON349 Swimming performance of individual Atlantic codsection. The grid provided a way to exhaust each fish uniformlyby considering the experiment finished when the fish did not move away from the grid after receiving a shock. Subsequently, the water velocity was reduced to 15cm s−1; after 0.5h of recovery, the fish was returned to its holding tank. The critical swimming velocities (U crit, cm s−1) of the fish were calculated as described by Brett (1964). Three months later, this protocol was repeated on a subgroup of the cod (N=12) to test for individual performance repeatability over an extended period. For these cod, the highest U crit from the two trials was used for comparison with other swimming tests.Metabolic rateThe respirometer was sealed during the middle 20min of each velocity increment of the U crit test and for 10min immediately following exhaustion to measure oxygen tension in the water with a Radiometer 5046 P O∑electrode. Output from this electrode, which was maintained at 5°C and calibrated daily for both zero and saturated oxygen levels, was recorded both on a chart recorder and on an IBM-compatible computer. The computer collected P O∑data at a rate of 50measurement s−1. The average of 20 P O∑measurements was written to disk every 2s (modified from Webber and O’Dor, 1986). The temperature in the respirometer was regulated by the computer at 5±0.1°C throughout the experiments.The rate of oxygen consumption (M˙O2; µmol kg−1min−1) was calculated according to the following equation:M˙O2= [(∆P O∑/∆T)(V−M)αO∑]/M,(1) where ∆P O∑is the change in the partial pressure of oxygen in the water (mmHg), ∆T is the time interval (min), V is the respirometer volume (l), M is the mass of the fish (kg) and αO∑is the solubility coefficient of oxygen at the experimental temperature and salinity taken from Boutilier et al. (1984). Salinity was measured daily using a refractometer. To account for variations in oxygen consumption rate due to sizedifferences among the fish, M˙O2was adjusted to a standard body mass of 1kg using a mass exponent of 0.8 (Saunders, 1963; Reidy et al., 1995):X s = (1/M)0.8×X m, (2) whereX s is the standardized value and X m is the the measuredvalue. When M˙O2was not being measured (first 5min and last 5min of each velocity increment), the respirometer was continuously flushed with air-saturated sea water (5°C). Oxygen levels in the water never fell below 85% of saturation during any of the experiments. A measured ‘scope for activity’was calculated by subtracting the maximal rates of oxygen consumption measured for each individual cod from their lowest rates of oxygen consumption.Burst swimming performance (U burst) Individual cod were placed in the swim-tunnel/respirometer 24h prior to this swimming performance test. The following day, the water velocity was increased from 15 to 20cm s−1to initiate the swimming test. The water velocity in the swim tunnel was then steadily increased at a rate of 0.1667cm s−2 (10cm s−1min−1). The water was accelerated at this rate until the fish was exhausted. The water velocity at which the fish exhausted was used as the measure of swimming performance (U burst). Fish became exhausted during this test in less than 5% of the time it took to exhaust the fish during the U crit test. Reidy et al. (1995) discuss further the differences between the U burst and the U crit protocol. Of the 25 cod, 17 had their swimming performance measured with this protocol.Because a fish’s body has a solid blocking effect and narrows the cross section of water flow, thereby increasing the water velocity around the fish, both the critical swimming speeds (U crit) and maximum velocities reached during the acceleration test (U burst) were mathematically corrected to account for this (Nelson et al., 1994). Briefly, the length, mass and maximal cross-sectional area of each fish were used to calculate shape factors using equations from Pope and Harper (1966) and the velocities were corrected according to Webb (1975).Sprint swimming performanceThe sprint velocity of the 25 fish was measured in a chamber modelled after that described by Huey et al. (1981) for terrestrial animals. Our aquatic version (Fig.1) consisted of a runway (2.2m×0.3m×0.3m; length×width×height) connectinga holding chamber and a receiving chamber (both1.1m×0.3m×0.4m). The entire apparatus had filtered sea water flowing slowly through it (2cm s−2) to maintain constant O2 tension, temperature (5°C) and waste levels. Five laser diodes, with beams projected as vertical planes of laser light through clear Plexiglas windows on one side of the runway, were lined up with five vertical banks of photodetectors on the other side of the runway. The photodetectors were connected to light-detection and computer timing circuitry which sensed when the connection between the laser beams and the photodetectors was broken (i.e. when a fish swam through the beam).Twenty-four hours prior to initiation of a sprint trial, a fish was placed in the holding section of the chamber. A lowered gate separated the holding section of the chamber from the runway. The following morning, the gate was raised and the fish was startled by touching its caudal peduncle. This caused the fish to accelerate down the runway into the receiving chamber. The swimming section was traversed in under 2s. Velocity and acceleration profiles were calculated from the time elapsed between successive photocell bank activations and the distance between the banks. After approximately 15min, the fish was returned to the holding chamber and allowed to rest for 3h. This whole procedure was subsequently repeated twice more for a total of three different trials on the same fish in a period of 1 day. Three months later, this protocol was repeated on all but two of the cod (N=23). As with the U crit protocol, this was to test for repeatability of individual performance over an extended period. For this study, the maximum velocity recorded for a fish in any trial was used as a measure of its sprint performance.350Morphology and fin surface areasThe mass (g) and fork length FL(cm) of each fish were measured prior to each of the three performance tests as well as at the end of the experiment when the animals were killed with an overdose of the anaesthetic MS-222. From these measurements, a condition factor (K f; 100Μ/FL3) was calculated for each fish. Mean K f, fork length and mass of the cod throughout the experiments are presented in Table1;however, for correlations between morphology and swimming performance, we used the individual measurements made at the time of each trial.After the fish had been killed, all their fins were stretched out and outlined on paper. An Apple graphics tablet/stereometric image-processing program (AGT-SIP) was used to determine the surface area of each fin (cm2). The surface areas of the three dorsal fins were summed to comprise one group, as were theS. P. R EIDY, S. R. K ERR AND J. A. N ELSONABDetection circuitsPhoto Darlington detectorsHolding chamberLaser diode modulesReceivingchamberPlexiglas windows H2OFig.1. Schematic diagram of the chamber used to measure the sprint performance of Atlantic cod. (A) Side view;(B) top view.351 Swimming performance of individual Atlantic codareas of the two anal fins and of the pelvic and pectoral fins. Thus, the fin surface areas were treated as four groups: dorsal, anal, pelvic/pectoral and tail. In addition, the cod otoliths were removed and sectioned, and their yearly rings were counted under a microscope to age 17 of the fish.Statistical analysesCorrelations between two variables may be incorrect or artificially inflated if they are, in turn, both correlated with a third variable (Slinker and Glantz, 1985; Bennett, 1987). Because the fin surface areas were correlated with body size (see Table2), the confounding effects of body size were removed as follows: the residuals from the allometric regressions of size versus the variable in question were added to the mean of the uncorrected data. Adding the residuals to the mean of the uncorrected data converts the data back into the correct units (e.g. cm2) while still eliminating all effects of size.In addition, because both critical swimming speeds and the rates of oxygen consumption reached by the cod at high speeds during the U crit protocol are reduced by the parasite burden of Learnocera branchialis(Copepoda) (S. P. Reidy, J. A. Nelson and S. R. Kerr, in preparation) and eight of the cod were naturally infected with L. branchialis, aerobic swimming performance and those rates of oxygen consumption affected by parasite burden were regressed on parasite load of L. branchialis(coded as 1 if absent and 2 if present). Again, the residuals were saved and added to the original means to correct for the effects of the parasite load.Subsequently, all statistical analyses of these variables that were correlated to either size or parasite burden were performed using these corrected data. In addition, all these data presented in both the tables or figures are the corrected data. Inter-individual correlations among the variables were then examined using both Pearson product-moment correlations (r p) and Spearman rank-order correlations (r s). These two tests produced very similar results in our analysis, so only Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients are presented in the tables. Tests examining the repeatability of individual measurements (trial 1 versus trial 2 separated by a 3 month period) employed a one-tailed design, while all other correlations were performed using a two-tailed design.ResultsVariabilityMaximum sprint velocity was the most variable of the three measures of swimming performance (CV=35.4%), while acceleration (U burst) performance was the least variable (CV=9.9%; Table1). The means, ranges and variability of cod swimming performance, fin surface areas, aerobic scope for activity, morphology and age are given in Table1.RepeatabilityBoth U crit and sprint swimming performance were found to be significantly repeatable for individual cod (all P<0.05;Fig.2). M˙O2of individual fish during the U crit protocol werealso found to be significantly repeatable at swimming speeds of 30, 40 and 50cm s−1(all P<0.05; Fig.3). Of the 10 fish that were used to measure the repeatability of rates of oxygen consumption, only four swam at 60cm s−1so a correlation analysis was not performed for that speed. The repeatabilitycorrelations between M˙O2at a swimming speed of 20cm s−1 and during recovery were also significant using Pearson product-moment correlations (20cm s−1, r p=0.579, P<0.05; recovery, r p=0.841, P<0.05); however, the data were not normally distributed. This was demonstrated when the non-parametric Spearman rank correlation indicated non-significant relationships (20cm s−1, r s=0.309, P>0.05; recovery, r s=0.679, P>0.05). Only correlations found to be significant using both Pearson and Spearman tests are presented in Fig.3.Fig.2. Repeatability of Atlantic cod swimming performance (corrected for fish size and parasite load) over a 3 month period.(A)Critical swimming speed (U crit; y=2.08+1.03x; r p=0.771, r s=0.715; P<0.05) and (B) maximum sprint speed (y=58.12+0.585x; r p=0.697, r s=0.756; P<0.05). r p, Pearson product-moment correlation; r s, Spearman rank-order correlation.352MorphologyThe fin surface areas of the cod were the only variables that were significantly correlated to fork length (Table 2). Almost all the fin surface areas were significantly correlated to one another even following adjustment for differences in the length of the fish (Table 3). The only fins whose areas were not significantly inter-related were the pelvic/pectoral fins and thethe fin surface areas, we tested for relationships between swimming performance and total fin surface area rather than each set of fins individually. U crit , U burst and sprint swimming performance were not correlated with total fin surface area or K f (Table 4).Metabolic rateThe mean rates of oxygen consumption during the U crit protocol are presented in Fig.4. Aerobic scope for activity correlated significantly with U crit swimming performance (r p =0.525,P <0.05; r s =0.532, P <0.05; Fig.5), although not with U burst or sprint performance.S. P. R EIDY , S. R. K ERR AND J. A. N ELSONFig.3. Repeatability of Atlantic cod rates of oxygen consumption over a 3 month period at different velocities during the critical swimming speed (U crit ) protocol. Rates of oxygen consumption at 20cm s −1and at rest were not significantly repeatable. r p , Pearson product-moment correlation; r s , Spearman rank-order correlation.Fig.4. Corrected oxygen consumption rates (M˙O 2; means ±S .E .M .) of Atlantic cod during the critical swimming speed (U crit ) protocol and at 10min post-exhaustion (PE). N =19 at all times except 50cm s −1(N =16) and 60cm s −1(N =11) because some fish exhausted sooner than others.353 Swimming performance of individual Atlantic codAge and sexThe mean age of the cod was 6 years, and 64% of them weremale. Age was not significantly correlated with any of theperformance tests (Table4); however, female cod hadsignificantly lower U burst results than did male cod (male107.31±2.49cm s−1; female 95.84±4.89; P=0.033; mean ±S.E.M.; Fig.6). There was no effect of gender on either U crit or sprint performance, nor was there an effect of age or genderon any of the measurements of metabolic rate.Relationships between performance testsThere was a significantly positive correlation between U critperformance and sprint performance (r p=0.453, P<0.05;r s=0.558, P<0.05; Fig.7). There was also a significantnegative correlation between U crit and U burst performance(r p=−0.530, P<0.05; r s=−0.574, P<0.05; Fig.7). U burstperformance and sprint performance were not significantly correlated (r p=−0.268, P>0.05).DiscussionRepeatability of performance and metabolic rateBoth aerobic and anaerobic swimming performance were found to have substantial inter-individual variability and to be significantly repeatable among individual cod. Earlier studies had also found U crit performance to be repeatable in cod (Nelson et al., 1992) and in other fishes such as northern squawfish (Ptychocheilus oregonesis; Kolok and Farrell, 1994) and juvenile largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides; Kolok, 1992b). To our knowledge, this is the first report of a repeatable sprint performance by feral fish. Recently, McDonald et al.Fig.5. Relationship between Atlantic cod critical swimming speed(U crit) performance and aerobic scope for activity (r p=0.525,r s=0.532; P<0.05). r p, Pearson product-moment correlation; r s,Spearman rank-order correlation.Fig.7. Relationship between (A) aerobic critical swimming speed(U crit) swimming performance and anaerobic sprint swimmingperformance (y=47.76+0.073x, r p=0.453, r s=0.558; P<0.05) and (B)U crit swimming performance and anaerobic acceleration (U burst)performance (y=105.83−0.446x, r p=−0.530, r s=−0.574; P<0.05). Allvalues have been corrected for any effects of fish size or parasiteload. r p, Pearson product-moment correlation; r s, Spearman rank-order correlation.354(1998) have shown sprint performance to be reproducible inindividual hatchery-reared juvenile salmonids. These results parallel the repeatability of sprint performance in tiger salamanders (Ambystoma californiense) (Austin and Shaffer, 1992), garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) (Garland, 1988) and lizards (Sceloporus spp.) (Huey and Dunham, 1987; van Berkum et al., 1989). The significance of these findings is that laboratory studies into the mechanistic bases of variation in swimming performances of cod and possibly other wild fishes can proceed with confidence.Metabolic rate was also significantly repeatable at high sustainable swimming speeds (Fig.3). Large inter-individual variation in M˙O2during swimming protocols is typical of Atlantic cod (Tang et al., 1994) and other fish species (Farmer and Beamish, 1969; Febry and Lutz, 1987) and may, in part, be attributed to stress and/or measurement or equipment error. However, our results show that not only does some of this variation come from intrinsic differences in metabolic rate between animals, but also confirm the commonly held suspicion that much of the variation in resting metabolic rates may be attributed to a variable response to confinement and/orhandling of the animals. M˙O2in the present study was found to be significantly repeatable over a 3 month period among individual cod, but only under our most rigorous of handling criteria (the fish had no visual or physical contact with humans for 2 days prior to swimming or during the procedure) and then only at intermediate to high swimming speeds. Measurements of metabolic rate at low swimming speeds and during recovery from exercise, when the animal had the most flexibility in available movements, were less repeatable. Presumably this variation in ‘experiment-induced metabolic rate’ would diminish as the number of experimental trials increased. This result implies that, despite the statistical and physiological concerns, estimates of standard metabolic rate made by extrapolation of changes in rates of oxygen consumption with increased work load to zero swimming speed will be more robust for cod than actual measurements of resting metabolic rate made in a static respirometer, especially if regressions from replicate trials at high swimming speeds are averaged. Nonetheless, the significantly repeatable measurements of metabolic rate over a 3 month period demonstrate that inter-individual variation in the rate of oxygen consumption of cod is at least partially due to inherent differences between individuals. Maximum metabolic rate has also been found to be repeatable in exercising garter snakes (Garland and Bennett, 1990) and, interestingly, Walton (1988) found metabolic rate to be significantly repeatable in exercising, but not resting, Fowler’s toads (Bufo woodhousei fowleri), mirroring our results with Atlantic cod.Sources of variation in performance and metabolism Having established that our measurements of performance and metabolic rate are repeatable and, therefore, properties of the animal and not artefacts of our methods, we need to address the approximately twofold variation in all performance measurements made on our study population. These cod were captured in a single location over a period of less than 1 day and are, therefore, most likely representative of a single population. The animals were treated in an identical manner throughout their laboratory acclimation period; all the animals were feeding well and were in excellent condition (see below). Despite this uniformity of background, these animals exhibited an approximately twofold difference between the best and worst performer for each of the swimming tests (Table1). Furthermore, the highest metabolic rate at a given swimming speed was also approximately twice the lowest value recorded at that speed (Fig.3). Considering that fish which did not survive capture or laboratory acclimation because they were either diseased or had a high parasite load would have performed poorly in the swimming tests, this large variance that we measured is probably under-representative of the variance found in nature. Nevertheless, can the measurements we made account for any of this variation?Differences in morphology were not responsible for the observed variance in performance in this analysis. Total size-corrected fin surface area was not correlated to either aerobic or anaerobic swimming performance. This finding supports that of Webb (1973), who found that U crit in sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) was unaffected by caudal fin removal, and by Kolok (1992a), who found no morphological correlates of locomotor performance in summer-acclimatized largemouth bass.Condition factor (K f) was also not related to the swimming performance of the cod. Fish that were robust did not swim better or worse during the performance protocols than did fish that were thin. Conversely, Kolok (1992a) found a significant positive correlation between K f and aerobic swimming performance of winter-acclimated largemouth bass. However, no correlation was detected between these two variables for summer-acclimated bass. The condition factor of bass is low during the winter because they go through periods of fasting; thus, it appears that variation in K f is only correlated to variation in swimming performance when K f is very low. The Atlantic cod used in this study had relatively high values of K f, with an average value of approximately 0.9. The condition factor of Atlantic cod in the wild ranges from 0.7 to 0.8 (Krohn et al., 1997); thus, although we did not observe a significant relationship between condition factor and swimming performance, this does not preclude such a relationship had starved cod been included in our analysis.Although cod use both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism during a U crit protocol (Nelson et al., 1994, 1996), performance during this test has been shown to depend primarily upon the animal’s aerobic capacity (Nelson et al., 1996). The present study further supports that hypothesis because the inter-individual relationship between aerobic scope for activity and performance during the U crit protocol was significant (Fig.5). Other studies have found maximal rates of oxygen consumption to be positively, although weakly, correlated to the inter-individual variation in garter snake stamina (Garland and Bennett, 1990) and the maximum aerobic speeds of toads (Longphre and Gatten, 1994). Walton (1988), however, foundS. P. R EIDY, S. R. K ERR AND J. A. N ELSON。

大学英语四级考试2024年6月真题(第一套)Part I Writing(30minutes) Directions:Suppose your university is seeking students'opinions on whether university libraries should be open to the public.You are now to write an essay to express your view.You will have30minutesfor the task.You should write at least120words but no more than180words.PartⅡListening Comprehension(25minutes) Section ADirections:In this section,you will hear three news reports.At the end ofeach news report,you will hear two or three questions.Both the news report and the questions will bespoken only once.Afier you hear a question,you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A),B),C)and D).Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet1with a single line through the centre.Questions1and2are based on the news report you have just heard.1.A)Due to a fire alarm in their apartments.B)Because of the smoke and heat damage2.A)Investigating the cause of the incident.B)Helping search for the suspect of the crime.C)Due to the water used to extinguish the flames.D)Becauseof the collapse of the three-story building.C)Rescuing the businessmen trapped in the building.D)Checking town records for the property developer.Questions3and4are based on the news report you have just heard.3.A)It plays a less important role in one's health than nutrient intake.B)It impacts people's health to a lesser degree than sun exposure.C)It is associated with people's mental health conditionsD)It is linked with older adults'symptoms ofdepression4.A)It was indefinite C)It was straightforward.B)It was systematic.D)It was insignificant. Questions5to7are based on the news report you have just heard.5.A)It has helped solve several murder cases.B)It has become a star police dog in Beijing6.A)To speed up investigation into criminal cases.B)To test the feasibility of cloning technology.7.A)Cloning is too complicated a processB)The technology is yet to be accepted C)It has surpassed its mother in performance.D)It has done better than naturally born dogs.C)To cut down training expensesD)To reduce their training time.C)Cloning is ethically controversial.D)The technology is too expensive.Section BDirections:In this section,you will hear two long conversations.At the end ofeach conversation,you will hear four questions.Both the conversation and the questions will bespoken only once.After you hear a question,you1·2024年6月四级真题(第一套)·must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A),B),C)and D).Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet I with a single line through the centre.Questions8to11are based on the conversation you have just heard.8.A)He read it somewhere online.B)He heard about it from a coworker.9.A)His publications.B)His first book.10.A)Collect a lot more data.B)Relax a bit less often.11.A)Find out the show's most interesting episodesB)Watch the series together with the woman.C)He read an article reviewing it.D)He watched a TV series based on it.C)His addressD)His name.C)Clarify many new conceptsD)Read more reference books.C)Get an e-Copy of the book to read.D)Check to see when the show starts.Questions12to15are based on the conversation you have just heard.12.A)To check the prices of his farm produce.B)To ask the way to the Newcastle City Hall.13.A)Bakers.B)Vendors14.A)The issuing of certificates to vendors.B)The completion of the baking task.15.A)The closing date of submission.C)To inquire about the vegetarian food festival.D)To seekthe man's help with her work on the farm.C)Vegetarians.D)OrganisersC)The festival they are organising.D)The deadline for application.C)The details of the ceremonyB)The website of his company.D)The organiser'saddressSection CDirections:In this section,you will hearthre passages.At the end ofeach passage,you will hear three or four questions.Both the passage and the questions will be spoken only once.Afteryou hear a question,you must choose the bestanswer from the four choices marked A),B),C)and D).Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet I with a single line through the centreQuestions16to18are based on the passage you havejust heard.16.A)Most scenic sites have been closed.B)Access to official campsites is limited17.A)It is strongly opposed by nearby residentsB)It leads to much waste of public money18.A)Look for open land in ScotlandB)Leave no trace of their camping C)Health experts advise going outdoors.D)People have more time during the summer.C)It has caused environmental concernsD)It has created conflicts among campers.C)Avoid getting close to wilderness.D)Ask for permission from authorities.Questions19to21are based on the passage you have just heard.19.A)They outcompete mythical creatures.B)They usually mind their own business.·2024年6月四级真题(第一套)·C)They truly exist in the AmazonregionD)They resemble alarmingly large snakes 220.A)Scar tissue from dolphins'fighting.B)Skin infection from water pollution.21.A)It has been shrinking at an astonishing pace.C)Unhealed wounds from snake bites.D)Swimming along in seasonal floods.B)It has been placed under international protection.C)It has been appealing to both freshwater and sea dolphinsD)It has been abandoned as a battleground for male dolphins.Questions22to25are based on the passageyou have just heard.22.A)About58%of young adults call parental support the new normal.B)Most adult children enjoy increasing sources of financial supportC)A full70%of the young adults cannot afford to buy a car by themselves.D)Most early adults cannot sustain their lifestyles without parental support23.A)It renders them dependent.C)It makes them mentally immature.B)It causes them to lose dignity.D)It hinders them from getting ahead.24.A)It challenges one's willpower C)It calls for due assistance.B)It results from education.D)It defines adulthood.25.A)Current lifestyles C)College loansB)Poor budgeting.D)Emergency expensesPartⅢReading Comprehension(40minutes) Section ADirections:In this section,there is a passage with ten blanks.You are required to select one wordfor each blank from a list of choices given in a word bank following the passage.Read the passage through carefully before making your choices.Each choice in the bank is identified by a letter:Please mark the corresponding letter for each item on Answer Sheet2with a single line through the centre.You may not use any of the words in the bank more than once.It's well known that physical exercise is beneficial not just to physical health but also to mental health.Yet whereas most countries have26evidence-backed guidelines on the type and intensity of exercise27for various physical health benefits,such guidelines do not yet exist for exercise and mood. This is28due to a lack of necessary evidence.However,a new systematic review brings us usefully up-to-date on the current findings in this area.Before29into some of the key take-aways,an important30made in the review is between aerobic exercise and anaerobic.The former31such things as walking,jogging and cycling and means exercising in such a way that your body is able to use oxygen to burn fat for energy.In contrast,anaerobic exercise—such as lifting heavy weights—is of such32intensity that your body does not have time to use oxygen to create energy and so instead it breaksdown glucose(葡萄糖)in your blood or muscles.Beginning first with the influence of exercise intensity on the mood benefits of aerobic exercise,the researchers,led by John Chan at Shenzhen University,found33resultsfrom19relevant studies.Some3·2024年6月四级真题(第一套)·favoured higher intensity,others low,while seven studies found that intensity made no34_to mood benefits.In relation to the intensity of anaerobic exercise,however,the results were far clearer—the optimum (最佳选择)for improving mood is35intensity,perhaps because low intensity is too dull while high intensity is too unpleasantA)constitutesB)contradictoryC)decisionD)detailedE)differenceF)dippingG)distinctionH)falling I)involves J)moderate K)notified L)partlyM)required N)traditionally O)vigorousSection BDirections:In this section,you are going to read a passage with ten statements attached to it.Each statement contains information given in one of the paragraphs.Identify the paragraph from which the information is derived.You may choose a paragraph more than once.Each paragraph is marked with a letter.Answer the questions by markingthe corresponding letter on Answer Sheet2.Why DoAmericans Work So Much?A)How will we all keep busy when we only have to work15hours a week?That was the question that worriedthe British economist John Maynard Keynes when he wrote his short essay“Economic Possibilities for Our Grandchildren”in1930.Over the next century,he predicted,the economy would become so productive that people would barely need to work at all.For a while,it looked like Keynes was right.In1930the average working week was47hours in the United States.But by1970,the number of hours Americans worked on average had fallen to slightly less than39.B)But then something changed.Instead of continuing to decline,the duration of the working week remainedstable.It has stayed at just below40hours for nearly five decades.So what happened?Why are people working just as much today as in1970?C)There would be no mystery in this if Keynes had been wrong about the power of technology to increase theeconomy's productivity,which he thought would lead to a standard of living“between four and eight times as high as it is today.”But Keynes got that right:Technology has made the economy massively more productive.According to Benjamin M.Friedman,an economistat Harvard,the U.S.economy is right ontrack to reach Keynes's eight-fold(八倍)multiple by2029.That is a century after the last data Keynes wouldhave had access to.D)In a new paper,Friedman tries to figure out why that increased productivity has not translated into increasedleisure time.Perhaps people just never feel materially satisfied,always wanting more money to buy the next ·2024年6月四级真题(第一套)·4new thing.This is a theory that appeals to many economists.“This argument is,at best,far from sufficient,”he writes.If that were the case,why did the duration of the working week decline in the first place?E)Another theory Friedman considers is that,in an era of ever fewer settings that provide effectiveopportunitiesfor personal connections and relationships,people may place more value on the socializing that happens at work.There is support for this theory.Many people today consider colleagues as friends.But Friedman argues that the evidence for this theory is far from conclusive.Many workers report that they would like to spend more time with family,rather than at work.Furthermore,this theory cannot explain the change in trend in the U.S.working week in the1970s.F)A third possibility proves more convincing for Friedman.That is:American inequality means that the gainsof increasing productivity are not widely shared by everyone.In other words,most Americans are too poor to work less.Unlike the other two explanations Friedman considers,this one fits chronologically(按年代).Inequality declined in America during the period following World War II,along with the duration of the working week.But since the early1970s it has risen dramatically.G)Keynes's prediction of a shorter working week rests on the idea that the standard of living would continuerising for everyone.But Friedman says that this is not what has happened.Although Keynes's eight-fold figure holds up for the economy as a whole,it is not at all the case for the median(中位数的)American worker.For them,output by2029is likely to be around3.5times what it was when Keynes was writing.This is a bit below his four-to eight-fold predicted rangeH)This can be seen in the median worker's income over this time period,complete with a shift in1973that fitsin precisely with when the working week stopped shrinking.According to Friedman,between1947and1973 the average hourly wage for normal workers(those who were not in management roles)in private industries other than agriculture nearly doubled in terms of what their money could buy.But by2013the average hourly wage for ordinary workers had fallen5percent from the1973level in terms of actual purchasing power.Thus,though American incomes may have gone up since1973,the amount that American workers can actually buy with their money has gone down.For most Americans,then,the magic of increasing productivity stopped working around1973.Thus,they had to keep working just as much in order to maintain their standard of livingI)What Keynes predicted was a very optimistic version of what economists call technological unemployment.This is the idea that less labor will be necessary because machines can do somuch.In Keynes's vision,the resulting unemployment would be distributed more or less evenly across society in the form of increased leisure.But Friedman says that,for Americans,reality is much darker.Americans now have a labor market in which millions of people—those with fewer skills and less education—are seeking whatever poorly paid work they can get.This is confirmed by a recent poll that found that,for half of hourly workers,their top concern is not that they work too much but that they work too little.This is most likely not because they like their jobs so much.Rather,we can assume it is because they need the money.J)This explanation leaves an important question.If the very rich—the workers who have reaped above-average gains from the increased productivity since Keynes's time—can afford to work less,why do they continue to work so much?(Indeed,research has shown that the highest earners in America tend to work the most.)5·2024年6月四级真题(第一套)·Friedman believes that for many top earners,work is a labor of love.They are doing work they care about and are interested in,and doing more of it is not necessarily a burden.For them,it may even be a pleasure.These top earners derive meaning from their jobs and work is an important part of how they think of themselves.And,of course,they are compensated for it at a level that makes it worth their while.K)Friedman concludes that the prosperity(繁荣)Keynes predicted is here.After all,the economy as a whole has grown even more brilliantly than he expected.But for most Americans,that prosperity is nowhere to be seen.And,as a result,neither are those shorter working weeks.36.Some people view socializing at the workplace as a chance to develop personal relationships.37.As ordinary American workers'average hourly pay had decreased despite increasing productivity,they had towork just as manyhours as before to keep their living standards.38.American workers'average weekly workingtime has not changed for nearly half a century.39.Friedman believes inequality in the rgely explains why increasing productivity has not resulted inreduced working hours.40.Many economists assume people's thirst for material things has prevented them from enjoying more leisuretime.41.An economist'sprediction about a shorter average working week seemed to be correct for a time in the20thcentury.42.In the bor market,the primary concern of people with less schooling and fewer skills is to secure anyemployment even if it is low-paid.43.Keynes was right in predicting that technology would make the economy much more productive.44.Many of the highest earners have a keen interest in and love for what they are doing45.According to Keynes,there would be a shorter working week with everyone's standard of living continuingtorise.Section CDirections:There are2passages in this section.Eachpassage is followed by some questions or unfinished statements.For each of them there are four choices marked A),B),C)and D).You should decide on the best choice and mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet2with a single line through the centre.Passage OneQuestions46to50are based on the following passage.Lao Zi once said,“Care about what other people think and you will always be their prisoner.”People-pleasing,or seeking self-worth through others'approval,is unproductive and an exhausting way to go through life.Why do we allow what others think of us to have so much power over how we feel about ourselves?If it's true that you can't please all people all of the time,wouldn't it make sense to stop trying?Unfortunately,sense often isn't driving our behavior.For social beings who desire love and belonging, wanting to be liked,and caring about the effect we have on others,is healthy and allows us to make connections.·2024年6月四级真题(第一套)·6However,where we get into trouble is when our self-worth is dependent upon whether we win someone's approval or not.This need to be liked can be traced back to when we were children and werecompletely dependent on others to take care of us:Small children are not just learning how to walk and communicate,they are alsotrying to learn how the world works.We learn about who we are and what is expected of us based on interactions with others so,to a four-year-old,if Mommy or Daddy doesn't like him or her,there is the danger that they will abandon them.We need to understand that when we desperately want someone to approveof us,it's being driven by that little kid part of us that is still terrified of abandonment.As you become more capable of providing yourself with the approval you seek,your need for external validation will start to vanish,leaving you stronger,more confident,and yes,happier in your life.Imagine how much time we lose each moment we restrainour authentic selves in an effort to be liked.If we base our worth on the opinions of others,we cheat ourselves of the power to shape our experiences and embrace life not only for others but also for ourselves,becauseultimately,there is no difference.So embrace the cliché(老话)and loveyourself as it's highly doubtful that you'll regret it.46.What can we conclude from Lao Zi's quotation?A)We should seethrough otherpeople's attempt to make a prisonerof us.B)We can never really please other people even if we try as hard as we can.C)We can never be truly free if taking to heart others'opinion of us.D)We should care about other people's view as much as they care about our own.47.What will happen if we base our self-worth on other people's approval?A)Our desire to be loved will be fulfilled.C)Our identity as social beings will be affected.B)Our life will be unfruitful and exhausting D)Our sense of self will be sharpened and enhanced.48.What may account for our need to be liked or approved of?A)Our desperate longing for interactions with others.C)Our knowledge about the pain of abandonment.B)Our understanding of the workings of the world.D)Our early childhood fear of being deserted.49.What can we do when we become better able to provide ourselves with the desired approval?A)Enjoy a happier life.C)Receive more external validation.B)Exercise self-restraint.D)Strengthen our power of imagination.50.What does the author advise us to do in the last paragraph?A)Embrace life for ourselves and for others.C)See our experiencesas assets.B)Base our worth on others'opinions.D)Love ourselves as we arePassage TwoQuestions51to55are based on the following passage.Some people have said aging is more a slide into forgetfulness than a journey towards wisdom.However,a growing body of research suggests that late-in-life learning is possible.In reality,education does an aging brain good.7·2024年6月四级真题(第一套)·Throughout life,people's brains constantly renovate themselves.In the late1960s,British brain scientist Geoffrey Raisman spied growth in damaged brain regions ofrats through an electron microscope; their brains were forging new connections.This meant brains may change every time a person learns something new.Of course,that doesn't mean the brain isn't affected by the effects of time.Just as height usually declines over the years,so does brain volume:Humans lose about4percent every decade starting in their40s.But that reduction doesn't necessarily make people think slower;as long as we are alive and functioning,we can alter our brains with new information and experiences.In fact,scientists now suspect accumulating novel experiences,facts,and skills can keep people's minds more flexible.New pathways can strengthen our ever-changing mental structure,even as the brain shrinks.Conventional fixes like word puzzles and brain-training apps can contribute to mental durability.Even something as simple as taking a different route to the grocery store or going somewhere new on vacation can keep the brain healthy.A desire for new life challenges can further boost brainpower.Research about aging adults who take on new enterprises shows improved function and memory as well as a reduced risk of mental disease.Openness—a characteristic defined by curiosity and a desire for knowledge—may also help folks pass brain tests.Some folks are born with this take-in-the-world atitude,but those who aren't as genetically gifted aren't necessarily out of luck.While genes can encourage an interest in doing new things,a2012study in the journal Psychology and Aging found completing reasoning tasks like puzzles and number games can enhance that desire for novel experiences,which can,in turn,refresh the brain.That's why brain scientist Richard Kennedy says“It's not that old dogs can't learn new tricks.It's that maybe old dogs don't realize why they should.”51.What do some people think of aging adults?A)Their wisdom grows as time goes by.C)They can benefit from late-in-life learning.B)Their memory gradually deteriorates D)They are likely to have mental health issues.52.What can we conclude from Geoffrey Raisman's finding?A)Brain damage seriously hinders one'slearning.C)Brains can refresh and improve with learning.B)Brain power weakens slower than we imagine D)Brains forge connections under new conditions53.What is one thing that helps maintain the health of our brain even as it shrinks?A)Doing daily routines by conventional means.C)Imitating old dogs'way of learning new tricksB)Avoiding worrying about our mental durability.D)Approaching everyday tasks in novel ways.54.What does the author say can contribute to the improvement of brain function?A)Being curious and desiring knowledge.C)Rising to life's challenges and avoiding risks.B)Being eager to pass brain tests at an old age.D)Boosting immunity to serious mental diseases55.What is the finding of the2012study in the journal Psychology and Aging?A)Wishing to solve puzzles enhances one's reasoning power.B)Playingnumber games unexpectedly stimulates one's memory.·2024年6月四级真题(第一套)·8C)Desiring new experiences can help to renovate thebrain.D)Learning new tricks shouldnot beconfined to old dogs only.Part IV Translation(30minutes) Directions:For this part,you are allowed30minutes to translate a passage from Chinese into English.You should write your answer on AnswerSheet2.四合院(siheyuan)是中国一种传统的住宅建筑，其特点是房屋建造在一个院子的四周，将院子合围在中间。

第四章植物呼吸感化一.英译中(Translate)1．respiratioin2．aerobic respiration3．anaerobic respiration4．fermentation5．pentose phosphate pathway6．biological oxidation7．respiratory chain8．glycolysis9．oxidative phosphorylation10．Pasteur effect11．respiratory rate12．respiratory quotient13．cytochrome14．intramolecular respiration15．protein complex16．alternate oxidase17．ubiquinone18．uncoupling agent19．temperature coefficient二.中译英(Translate)1．巴斯德效应2．有氧呼吸3．无氧呼吸4．呼吸速度5．呼吸商6．已糖磷酸门路7．生物氧化8．电子传递链9．细胞色素10．化学渗入渗出假说11．抗氰呼吸12．底物程度磷酸化感化13．呼吸链14．氧化磷酸化15．发酵16．分子内呼吸17．蛋白复合体18．瓜代氧化酶19．温度系数三.名词说明(Explain the glossary)1．呼吸感化2．有氧呼吸3．糖酵解4．三羧酸轮回5．生物氧化6．呼吸链7．P/O比8．氧化磷酸化9．巴斯德效应10．细胞色素11．呼吸速度12．呼吸商13．抗氰呼吸14．无氧呼吸15.ADP/O ratio16.electron transport chain (mitochonrion)17. oxidative phosphorylation18. glycolysis四.长短题(True or false)()1．所有生物的生计都须要O2.()2．糖酵解门路是在线粒体内产生的.()3．在种子吸水后种皮未决裂之前,种子重要进行无氧呼吸. ()4．戊糖磷酸门路在幼嫩组织中所占比例较大,在老年组织中所占比例较小.()5．戊糖磷酸门路是在线粒体膜长进行的.( )6．高级植物细胞将1mol葡萄糖完整氧化时,净生成38mol. ()7．细胞色素氧化酶广泛消失于植物组织中.()8．线粒体为单层膜的细胞器.()9．假如下降情形中的O2的含量,则糖酵解速度会减慢.()10．呼吸感化不一建都有氧的消费和CO2的释放.()11．糖酵解进程不克不及直接产生ATP.()12．巴斯德效应描写的是三羧酸轮回的问题.()13．氧化磷酸化是氧化感化和磷酸化感化相偶联进行的进程. ()14．当植物细胞内的NADPH过多时,不会对戊糖磷酸门路起反馈克制造用.()15．呼吸底物假如是蛋白质,呼吸商则等于1.()16．一般来说,跟着温度的升高,植物的呼吸感化随之升高.()17．呼吸感化的电子传递链位于线粒体的基质中.()18．由淀粉改变成G—1—P时,须要ATP感化.()19．对于植物来说,没有呼吸感化,光合感化也就进行不了.()20．涝害淹逝世植株是因为无氧呼吸进行过久,累积了酒精,而引起中毒.（）21．细胞质中1molNADH的电子传给呼吸链中的O2进程中,可产生3mol ATP.（）22. The final electron acceptor in glycolysis is oxygen.（）23. The carrier molecules of electron transport system are located in the cytosol.（）24. Glycolysis is linked to the krebs cycle when oxygen is not available.（）25.Fermentation follows glycolysis in some cells when oxygen is not available.（）26. The highest concentration of hydrogen ions in the mitochondria is in the intermitochondrial space.（）27. Each molecule of NADH produced in the mitochondria provides the enegy for 2.5 ATP molecules.（）28. The breakdown of glucose in cellular respiration is not a catabolic reaction五.选择题(Choose the best answer for each question)1．生果藏久了,会产生酒味,这很可能是组织产生().23456789210111213141516(1718.The transition reaction in the cellular respirationA connects glycolysis to the krebs cycle.B gives off CO2C All of these are correct.19. Substrate-level phosporylation takes place inA glycolysis and the krebs cycleB only glyolysisC only the Krebs cycleD the respiratory chain20. How many ATP molecules that are produced during the complete breadown of glucoseA30 B 36 C. 38D6021.The greatest contributor of electrons of electrons to the electron transport system isA oxygenB glycolysisC the Krebs cycleD all of these are correct22.which of these is not true of fermentation?A net gain of only two ATPB occurs in cytosolC NADH donates electrons to electron transport systemD begins with glucose23.Carbon dioxide co2 given off in respiration procegses.A glycolysisB Krebs cycleC electron transport systemD both A and C are correct.24.Fatty acids are broken down toA.pyruvate molecules, which take electrons to the electron transport systemB.acetyl groups, which enter the Krebs cycleC.amino acids which excrete ammoniaD.All of these are correct25.Oxidative phosphorylation takes place inA.glycolysisB.Krebs cycleC.electron transport system26.Which process produces both NADH and FADH2 ?A the Krebs cycleB glycolysisC the electron transport systemD fementation27.Which process reduces molecular oxygen to water?A.the krebs cycleB.glycolysisC.the electron transport systemD.fermentation28.One turn of the Krebs cycle producesA.2 NADH,2FADH2 , 2ATPB.3 NADH,1FADH2 , 1ATPC.1NADH,2FADH2 , 2ATPD.3NADH,3FADH2 , 1ATP29.About of the energy in the sucrose molecule is captured in ATP through the reaction of cellular respirationA.52%B.84%C.36%D.26%30.Which of these pairs of processes are anaerobic？A.fermentation and glycolysisB.fermentation and the Krebs cycleC.glycolysis and the krebs cycleD.glycolysis and the electron transport system.31.The process of splitting larger molecules into smaller ones is an aspect of metabolism calledA.fermentationB.chemiosmosisC.anabolismD.catabolism32.The pathway through which glucose is degraded to pyruvate is referred to asA.the citric acid cycleB.the oxidation of pyruvateC.glycolysisD.aerobic respiration33.The reaction of take place within the cytosol of eukaryotic cells.A.the electron transport chainB.chemiosmosisC.the citric acid cycleD.glycolysis34.In the first step of the citric acid cycle, acetyl CoA reacts with oxaloacetate to formA.NADHB.citrateC.pyruvateD.CO235.Which of the following is a major source of electrons for the electron transport chain in respiration？A.ATPB.NADHC.H2OD.coenzyme36.In the process of electron transport and ATP synthesis are coupled by a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane.A.glycolysisB.anaerobic respirationC.decarboxylationD.chemiosmosis37.Which of the following is a common energy stored in glucose？A.glucose→oxygen→NADH→waterB.glucose→NADH→ATP→electron transport chainC.glucose→NADH→electron transport chain→ATPD.glucose→electron transport chain→ATP→NADH38.Which multiprotein complex in the respiratory electron transport chain is responsible for reducing molecular oxygen？Ⅰ（NADH dehydrogenase）plex Ⅱ(succinate dehydrogenase) plex Ⅲ（cytochrome bc1 complex） plex Ⅳ(cytochrome oxidase) plex Ⅴ（ATP synthase）六.填空题(put the best word in the blanks)1．呼吸感化可分和两大类,有氧呼吸的反响式是. 2．三羧酸轮回和生物氧化是在进行的.3．呼吸感化的糖的分化门路有3种,分离是.和. 4．高级植物从呼吸为主,在特定前提下也可进行和.5．三羧酸轮回是英国生物化学家起首发明的.6．EMP门路产生于,PPP门路产生于,酒精发酵产生于,TCA轮回产生于中.7．三羧酸轮回中的各类酶是消失于线粒体的中.8．EMP和PPP的氧化还原辅酶分离为和.9．生成H2O时,会产生个ATP.10．戊糖磷酸门路重要受调节.11．线粒体电子传递链中电势跨度最大的一步是在之间. 12．在一准时光内,植物在呼吸感化中释放的CO2和接收的O2的物资的量的比称为.13．真核细胞中,1mol葡萄糖完整氧可产生mol ATP.14．构成呼吸链的传递体可分为和.15．呼吸克制剂重要有.16．假如呼吸底物为糖类,同时又完整氧化,呼吸商为.17．影响呼吸感化的外界身分有..和等.18．植物呼吸感化的最适温度一般在之间.19．早稻浸种催芽时,用温水淋种和时常翻种,其目标就是使. 20．当植物组织受伤时,其呼吸速度.21．呼吸感化生成ATP的方法有和.七.问答题(Answer the following question)1．试述呼吸感化的心理意义.2．在呼吸感化中,糖的分化代谢有几条门路？分离产生于哪个部位？3．呼吸感化与光合感化有何接洽？4．试述线粒体内膜上电子传递链的构成.5．陆生高级植物无氧呼吸过久就会逝世亡,为什么？6．食粮贮藏时要下降呼吸速度照样要进步呼吸速度？为什么？7．果实成熟时产生呼吸骤变的原因是什么？8．春天假如温渡过低,就会导致秧苗发烂,这是什么原因？9．三羧酸轮回的要点和心理意义是什么？10．试述氧化磷酸化感化的机理.11．植物细胞内1mol蔗糖完整氧化成CO2和H2O时,净得若干mol 的ATP？12．Describe how the processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration are linked, and what aspects they have in common.第四章参考答案(Answer key)一.英译中1．呼吸感化2．有氧呼吸3．无氧呼吸4．发酵5．戊糖磷酸门路6．生物氧化7．呼吸链8．糖酵解9．氧化磷酸化感化10．巴斯德效应11．呼吸速度12．呼吸商13．细胞色素14．分子内呼吸15．蛋白复合体16．瓜代氧化酶17．泛醌18．解偶联剂19．温度系数二.中译英1．Pasteur effect2．aerobic respiration 3．anaerobic respiration 4．respiratory rate 5．respiraton quotient 6．hexose monophosphate pathway 7．biological oxidation 8．electron transport chain 9．cytochrome 10．chemiosmotic hypothesis 11．cyanide resistant oxidase12．substrate-level phosporylation13．respiratory chain14．oxidative phosphorylation15．fermentation16．intramolecular respiration17．protein complex18. alternate oxidase19.temperature coefficient三.名词说明1．呼吸感化：指生涯细胞内的有机物资,在一系列酶的介入下,慢慢氧化分化,同时释放能量的进程.2．有氧呼吸：指生涯细胞在氧气的介入下,把某些有机物资完整氧化分化,放出CO2并形成水,同时释放能量的进程.3．糖酵解：指在细胞质内所产生的,由葡萄糖分化为丙酮酸的进程. 4．三羧酸轮回：丙酮酸在有氧前提下,经由过程一个包含三羧酸和二羧酸的轮回而慢慢氧化分化CO2的进程.5．生物氧化：指有机物资在生物体内进行氧化,包含消费氧,生成CO2和H2O,放出能量的进程.6．呼吸链：呼吸代谢中央产品的电子和质子,沿着一系列有次序的电子传递体构成的电子传递门路,传递到分子氧的总轨道.7．P/O比：指呼吸链中每消费1个氧原子与用去Pi或产生ATP的分子数.8．氧化磷酸化：是指呼吸链上的氧化进程,陪同着ADP被磷酸化为ATP的感化.9．巴斯德效应：指氧对发酵感化的克制现象.10．细胞色素：为一类含有铁卟啉的复合蛋白.细胞色素辅基所含的铁可以或许经由过程原子价的变更逆向传递电子,在生物氧化中,它是一种重要的电子传递体.11．呼吸速度：又称呼吸强度.以单位鲜重千重或单位面积在单位时光内所放出的CO2的重量(或体积)或所接收O2的重量(或体积)来暗示.12．呼吸商：又称呼吸系数.是指在一准时光内,植物组织释放CO2的摩尔数与接收氧的摩尔数之比.13．抗氰呼吸：某些植物组织对氰化物不迟钝的那部分呼吸.即在有氰化物消失的情形下仍可以或许进行其它的呼吸门路.14．无氧呼吸：指在无氧前提下,细胞把某些有机物分化为不完整的氧化产品.15. ADP/O ratio The ratio of consumed ADP to 1/2 O2 in oxidative phosphorylation. Provides the number of ATP synthesized per two electrons transferred to oxygen.16. Electron transport chain (in the mitochondrion) A series of protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane linked by the mobile electron carriers ubiquinone and cytochrome c, that catalyze the transfer of electrons from NADH to O2. In the process a large amount of free energy is released. Some of that energy is conserved as an electrochemical proton gradient.17. Oxidative phosphorylation Transfer of electrons to oxygen in the mitochondrial electron transport chain that is coupled to ATP synthesis from ADP and phosphate by the ATP synthase.18. Glycolysis A series of reactions in which glucose is partly oxidized to produce two molecules of pyruvate. A small amount of ATP and NADH is produced.六.填空题1．有氧呼吸,无氧呼吸,C6H12O6+6H2O+6O2 →6CO2+12H2O+2870KJ2．线粒体.3．糖酵解,三羧酸轮回和戊糖磷酸轮回.4．有氧,酒精发酵,乳酸发酵.5．Krebs6．细胞质.细胞质.细胞质.线粒体基质7．基质8．NAD+.NADP+9．10．NADPH11．细胞色素a3和O212．呼吸商13．3014．氢传递体,电子传递体15．鱼藤酮.安米妥.抗霉素A.氰化物.16．117．温度.氧.二氧化碳.机械毁伤18．25℃-35℃19．呼吸感化正常进行20．加速21．电子传递磷酸化和底物程度磷酸化七.问答题1．答：(1)呼吸感化供给植物性命运动所需的大部分能量.植物对矿质养分的接收和运输.有机物的合成和运输.细胞的决裂和伸长,植株的发展和发育等,都是靠呼吸感化供给能量.(2)呼吸进程中央产品为其他化合物合成供给原料.即呼吸感化在植物体内有机物改变方面起着枢纽感化.2．答：有三种条门路：糖酵解.三羧酸轮回和戊糖磷酸门路.糖酵解和戊糖磷酸门路是在细胞质中进行的;三羧酸轮回在线粒体中进行. 3．答：(1)光合感化所需的ADP(供光合磷酸化产生ATP之用)和辅酶NADP+(供产NADPH+H+之用)与呼吸感化所需的ADP 和NADP+是雷同的.这两种物资在光合和呼吸感化中可共用.(2)光合感化的碳轮回与呼吸感化的戊糖磷酸门路根本上是正反反响的关系.它们的中央产品同样是三碳糖(磷酸甘油醛).四碳糖(磷酸赤藓糖).五碳糖(磷酸核酮糖.磷酸木酮糖).六碳糖(磷酸果糖.磷酸葡萄糖)及七碳糖等.光合感化和呼吸感化之间有很多糖类是可以瓜代应用的.（3）呼吸感化产生的CO2给光合感化所应用,而光合感化产生的O2和有机物则供呼吸感化应用.4．答：植物线粒体内膜上的电子传递链由4种蛋白复合体构成.复合体I含有NADH脱氢酶.FMN和3个Fe-S蛋白.NADH 将电子传到泛醌（UQ）;复合体II的琥珀酸脱氢酶有FAD和Fe-S蛋白等,把FADH2的电子传给UQ;复合体III合2个Cytb（b560和b565）.Cytc和Fe-S,把还原泛醌(UQH2)的电子经Cytb传到Cytc;复合体IV包含细胞色素氧化酶复合物（其铜原子的Cu A和Cu B）.Cyta 和Cyta3,把Cytc的电子传给O2,激发O2并与基质中的H+联合,形成H2O.此外,膜外面有外源NAD（P）H脱氢酶,氧化NAD（P）H,与UQ还原相接洽.5．答：（1）无氧呼吸产生酒精,酒精使细胞质的蛋白质变性.（2）氧化1mol葡萄糖产生的能量少,要保持正常的心理须要就要消费更多的有机物,如许体内养分耗费过多.（3）没有丙酮酸的有氧分化进程,缺乏合成其他物资的原料.6.答：下降呼吸速度.因为呼吸速度高会大量消费有机物;呼吸放出的水分会使粮堆湿度增大,食粮“出汗”,呼吸加强;呼吸放出的热量又使粮温增高,反过来又促使呼吸加强,同时高温高湿使微生物敏捷滋生,最后导致食粮演变.7.答：产生呼吸骤变的原因：（1）跟着果实发育,细胞内线粒体增多,呼吸酶活性增高.（2）产生了自然的氧化磷酸化解偶联,刺激了呼吸酶活性的进步.（3）乙烯释放量增长,引诱抗氰呼吸.（4）糖酵解症结酶被活化,呼吸酶活性加强.8．答：是因为低温损坏了线粒体的构造,呼吸“空转”,缺乏能量,引起代谢杂乱的缘故.9.答：（1）三羧酸轮回是植物的有氧呼吸的重要门路.（2）三羧酸轮回一系列的脱羧反响是呼吸感化释放CO2的起源.一个丙酮酸分子可以产生三个CO2分子;当外界的CO2浓度增高时,脱氢反响减慢,呼吸感化受到克制.三羧酸轮回中释放的CO2是来自于水和被氧化的底物.（3）在三羧酸轮回中有5次脱氢,再经由一系列呼吸传递体的传递,释放出能量,最后与氧联合成水.是以,氢的氧化进程,现实是放能进程.（4）三羧酸轮回是糖.脂肪.蛋白质和核酸及其他物资的配合代谢进程,互相慎密相连.10．答：今朝广泛被人们接收说明氧化磷酸机理的是P·Mitchell提出的化学渗入渗出假说.它以为线粒体基质的NADH传递电子给O2的同时,也3次把基质的H+释放到线粒体膜间间隙.因为内膜不让泵出的H+自由地返回基质.是以膜外侧[H+]高于膜内侧而形成跨膜pH梯度（△P H）,同时也产生跨膜电位梯度（△E）.这两种梯度便树立起跨膜的电化学势梯度（△μH+）,于是使膜间隙的H+经由过程并激活内膜上F O F1-ATP合成酶（即复合体V）,驱动ADP和Pi联合形成ATP.11．答：植物细胞中1mol蔗糖完整氧化成CO2和H2O 可产生60molATP.即糖酵解进程经由过程底物程度磷酸化产生4molATP;产生的4mol NADH,按盘算,则形6molATP.糖酵解共产生10molATP.三羧酸轮回经由过程底物程度磷酸化产生4molATP;产生4molFADH2,以2盘算,形成6molATP;产生16NADH,按盘算,则形成40molATP.三羧酸轮回可合成50molATP.将上述两门路产生的ATP数量相加,即60molATP.。