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协同管理在建筑项目管理中的应用摘要：因为建筑项目管理长期受到了传统模式的影响，便导致许多企业在管理使用方法上非常混乱，无法对建筑项目管理质量与进度提出有效的管理方法，很难保证建筑项目顺利的展开，如果想要改变这样的情况便需要采取科学合理的方式，对目前所使用的传统管理模式进行不断的完善与创新优化。
而协同管理出现就相当于给建筑企业带来了科学合理的措施，能够保障建筑项目的质量提升，并增强建筑项目施工的效率。
该文章讲述了建筑项目管理的现状与问题，并提出了几点关于协同管理在建筑项目管理中的应用策略。
关键词：协同管理；建筑项目管理；现状与问题；应用策略引言将协同管理应用到建筑项目管理当中，能够有效的促进管理系统与管理对象的关系，并且提升管理系统里面的协调程度。
将协同管理与建筑项目管理理念相融合，可以帮助相关管理的实践和理论更加一致，更好的解决建筑项目里面复杂的问题，并提出有效的解决方法。
一、建筑项目管理的现状与问题1.信息传递的滞后性信息传递是建筑项目中至关重要的存在，因为信息及时的传递能提升建筑项目施工进程，也为建筑项目协同管理质量提供了保障，所以相关部门想要保证建筑项目顺利的展开，信息需要能够进行及时的传递[1]。
在实际的建筑项目过程当中，里面的信息传递性存在着滞后性问题，这问题的出现导致了建筑项目重要信息缺乏实时性，从而造成协调管理工作不能正常展开。
在建筑项目的开展过程里面，许多施工人员将建筑项目施工情况进行汇报时，或者上级在发布建筑项目施工的任务时，由于其中的信息不能够及时进行传递，这便导致了施工人员与上级领导出现了误读信息的现象，导致建筑项目无法良好的开展，施工人员在使用建筑项目资源时，也会存在不合理的使用情况，让相关部门在建筑项目的利益也会受到极大影响。
2.管理人员缺乏专业素质建筑项目是一个比较复杂的工程，在施工的过程当中经常会出现严重的问题，所以项目经理必须要保证对整个建筑项目施工情况进行全面了解，这便导致了建筑项目对项目经理的专业素质提出了较高的要求[2]。
以知识为核心的ALM之――知识管理篇开篇语：随着软件项目越来越复杂，规模越来越大，开发团队越来越全球化，企业对科学高效的应用生命周期管理（ApplicationLifecycleManagement）的需求也越来越迫切。
周铁人博士带领TechExcel公司十余年来始终专注于ALM领域，帮助全球企业达成软件开发管理实践。
____年，公司率先提出“以知识为核心的ALM”理念和解决方案，以满足软件企业应对新挑战之需。
本专栏将围绕这一具有前瞻性的论题做逐步深入的阐述和探讨。
以知识为核心的ALM之――知识管理篇知识篇十多年前，美国有一家公司，主要业务是开发汽车修理估价软件。
该公司的产品可以准确地为多款车型自动、地计算修车价格。
在一次公司内部整理知识库时偶然发现一条客户意见反馈记录，与前不久竞争对手推出的新产品的概念不谋而合；往前追溯，发现该记录源于一年以前一位汽车修理厂经理通过客服电话，向技术支持人员反应的需求，但由于技术支持人员失真记录，客户的意见并没有顺利传递给产品经理，从而导致了该功能未被评估和实现。
据估算，因少了这一项功能，该公司的销售损失超过200万美元。
可见，知识的获取和维护，对于企业的知识管理将是一笔无法估价的财富。
知识库对企业的意义无异于心脏对人体的作用。
而对于知识密集型的软件企业而言，知识的积累与共享更是重要，它在很大程度上决定了企业能否在与对手的激烈竞争中脱颖而出并获得持续增长。
以知识为核心的ALMALM是指软件开发从需求分析开始，历经项目规划、项目实施、配置管理、测试管理等阶段，直至终被交付或发布的全过程管理。
在整个过程中，令团队头疼的是，和品质相关的过程、设计、规范等等不够透明。
常常是懂商业规则的人员不懂软件开发；懂软件开发的人员不懂商业规则。
两边的人用不同的“语言”和“思维方式”，想要达成充分沟通真是难之又难。
不难理解，ALM的质量和水平，是决定软件产品或软件项目成功的关键，更是软件开发组织赖以生存和发展的命脉。
alm指标 mnialm指标（Application Lifecycle Management）是一种软件开发和管理的方法论，它涵盖了软件的整个生命周期，包括需求管理、设计、开发、测试、部署和维护等阶段。
这一方法论旨在提高软件开发过程的效率和质量，确保软件按时交付并满足用户需求。
在软件开发过程中，alm指标起着重要的作用。
它可以帮助团队管理项目进度、控制成本，提高开发质量和效率。
下面将从需求管理、设计、开发、测试、部署和维护等方面介绍alm指标的应用。
首先是需求管理。
在软件开发过程中，清晰明确的需求是成功的关键。
alm指标可以帮助团队定义、记录和追踪需求，确保团队和客户之间的沟通畅通无阻。
团队可以使用需求管理工具，如JIRA、TFS等，实时跟踪需求的状态和进展，及时调整开发计划。
其次是设计阶段。
在设计阶段，团队需要根据需求来设计软件的架构和模块。
alm指标可以帮助团队评估设计的可行性和风险，并提供设计决策的依据。
团队可以使用建模工具，如UML工具，绘制系统的结构图、时序图等，以便更好地理解和沟通设计方案。
接下来是开发阶段。
在开发阶段，团队需要根据设计方案编码实现软件功能。
alm指标可以帮助团队监控开发进度、质量和成本，并提供追踪和度量的依据。
团队可以使用版本控制工具，如Git、SVN 等，管理代码的版本和变更，确保团队成员之间的协作和代码的一致性。
然后是测试阶段。
在测试阶段，团队需要验证软件的功能和性能是否符合需求。
alm指标可以帮助团队制定测试计划、编写测试用例，并监控测试的进展和结果。
团队可以使用测试管理工具，如TestRail、TestLink等，记录和执行测试用例，及时发现和修复问题。
最后是部署和维护阶段。
在部署和维护阶段，团队需要将软件部署到生产环境，并及时修复和升级软件。
alm指标可以帮助团队管理部署和维护的过程，确保软件的稳定性和安全性。
团队可以使用运维工具，如Ansible、Docker等，自动化部署和监控软件，减少人工操作和风险。
致远A6-m协同管理系统——协同事项管理◆协同与协同软件◆表单、模板与协同事项◆系统管理员：表单管理员管理、表单管理、模板管理◆表单管理员：枚举管理、表单管理、模板管理◆一般用户：新建事项、待办/已办/待发/已发、表单查询、表单统计一、协同与协同软件（一）协同协同是指协调多个不同的资源或者个体共同一致地完成某一目标的过程。
（二）协同软件协同软件有三个显著的特征：第一是以“人”为中心，以“人”为根本的元素和出发点来设计和构造应用；第二是以“组织行为”为管理根本，即对组织行为中的“角色、事件、资源、流程、规则、状态、结果”等要素进行管理；第三是以管理组织中占信息总量80%的“非结构化”信息为重点。
二、表单、模板与协同事项（一）表单表单是提出问题并提供空间给用户回答的文档，是实现网页互动的元素。
用户回答问题的空间（单元格）对应于系统后台数据库的字段（数据项），因此可以进行灵活的表单查询与统计。
表单常常以表格或单据的形式呈现给用户，但是不与后台数据库连接的普通表格或单据不能称之为表单。
（二）模板1、模板是便于日后调用的预先设计的包含特定式样与流程的协同事项模型或样板，又称为协同模板。
模板分为系统模板与个人模板。
系统模板由表单管理员创建与管理，个人模板由普通用户创建与管理。
2、系统模板分为表单模板与无表单模板、流程模板与无流程模板。
通常所指的是含有流程及其授权的表单模板，简称为表单模板。
系统模板用于解释组织的管理规则，实现规范化管理。
3、个人模板包含有流程+格式（内容），可通过当前协同事项的“另存为”而得到。
个人模板是个人对常用的流程和格式的存储使用，可减少工作量和增加易用性。
当前协同事项也可以单独另存为流程或格式，以供日后调用。
（三）协同事项协同事项（又称协同工作、协同、事项）是传递信息和执行组织管理规则的事务处理工具，用它来完成事务的发起、处理和管理，并记录事务的过程和结果。
基于表单模板的协同事项通过支持单据定义、流程配置、人员和信息的直观描述等多种手段，以图形化、可视化而完成制度的控制执行，并将执行结果全息集中存储，从而保证制度执行的准确、高效、可跟踪和追溯。
I.J. Information Technology and Computer Science, 2016, 4, 19-27Published Online April 2016 in MECS (/)DOI: 10.5815/ijitcs.2016.04.03A Framework to Stimulate Collaborative e-Learning through Collaborative Educational Games Modeled Using IMS-LDAbderrahim El MhoutiAbdelmalek Essaadi University, Faculty of Sciences/LIROSA laboratory, Tetouan, 93000, MoroccoE-mail: abderrahim.elmhouti@Azeddine Nasseh and Mohamed ErradiAbdelmalek Essaadi University, Ecole Normale Supérieure/LIROSA laboratory, Tetouan, 93000, MoroccoAbstract—In an e-learning environment, learn in a collaborative way is not always so easy because one of the difficulties when arranging e-learning contents can be that these contents and learning paths are not adapted to this type of learning. Online courses are constructed in a way that does not stimulate interaction, cooperation and collaborative learning. This is why the e-learning often is seen as individual and lonely. In this sense, one way to reduce these problems and promote collaborative e-learning and interaction learner-learner and learner-teacher is to model these contents in the form of collaborative educational games.The primary aim of this work is to exploit the potential of educational games to improve students’ collaboration in e-learning environments. Thus, this paper presents a framework for designing, implementing and building collaborative educational games targeted to e-learning. The proposed framework is composed of two main phases: game design phase that consists to propose a collaborative design process of educational games; and game development phase that consists to implement, package, describe and deliver the games using the IMS-LD standard. The paper describes the steps followed for modeling games, the framework architecture and adopted technical choices. The final framework supports the creation and the use of such games using one of the most popular tools of learning in the web era: the LMS (Learning Management System).Index Terms—Collaborative learning, collaborative educational games, e-learning, learning design, learning object, IMS-LD (Instructional Management Systems-Learning Design), LMS (Leaning Management System).I.I NTRODUCTIONToday, e-learning technology offers a wide range of new opportunities for development of education. The advantages of the use of e-learning cover administrative, financial, societal as well as pedagogical areas. The evolution of Web 2.0 technologies and its implications in e-learning allows envisaging new teaching and learning forms, giving a preponderant place to the collaboration, cooperation and social interaction [1].However, despite their rapid development, the pedagogical potential of Web technologies suffer from the limitations that hinder their development in the distance learning field. Indeed, if e-learning systems have known a great success mainly due to their innovative nature in the way of learning, major problems related to their use are emerging, primarily the quality of the presented educational contents, which are unsuited to collaborative learning context. In this context, many studies have shown that educational content is a misleading indicator of the success of an online learning environment and that this non adequacy is sometimes due to a lack of social learning character of these contents, often linked the problem of individualization of learning [2] [3]. Thus, it is at this level that the Collaborative Educational Games (CEGs) can be used to confront this problem.In this context, this paper is a contribution to the research efforts in the design of collaborative learning in e-learning environments. The problem posed is how to use the CEGs to offer the learner a collaborative learning experience that is appropriate to his knowledge and his way of learning. Thus, in order to promote collaborative learning, we have reformulated this problem by proposing a reference framework of design, development and use of CEGs by means of reusable and interoperable Learning Objects (LO), while considering the different pedagogical and technical aspects. CEG, produced as LO, are adapted to the IMS-LD (Learning Design) standard. The games design process takes place in an Educational Games Design Environment.The paper is organized as follows: firstly, the paper highlights the potential of educational games in e-learning environments and presents the main characteristics of this concept while at focusing on its collaborative dimension: collaborative educational games. The paper describes the LD stakes, which can be applied in the implementation of CEGs and exposes a literature review of main characteristics of the IMS-LD specification, on which this work is based. The article goes on to describe the main phases of the proposedframework and its conceptual structure. Finally, the paper proceeds to describe the technological choices to implement the proposed framework and concludes with future works.II.R ESEARCH B ACKGROUNDIn e-learning, the pedagogical content is the concern of all educational institutions at all their levels. However, several works in practical contexts show that these contents are not adapted to social and collaborative learning vision, vision increasingly favored in e-learning world [3][4][5].To overcome this problem, this work aims to establish a model of design, development and use of Collaborative Educational Games to stimulate collaborative learning in e-learning environments. Before describing the design and implementation of the proposed framework, this section is oriented towards the presentation of theoretical and methodological basic concepts which we refer in this work.A. Educational games : an overviewAn educational game is a game designed to teach humans about a specific subject and to teach them a skill. As educators, governments, and parents realize the psychological need and benefits of gaming have on learning, this educational tool has become mainstream. Games are interactive play that teaches us goals, rules, adaptation, problem solving, interaction, all represented as a story. They give us the fundamental needs of learning by providing - enjoyment, passionate involvement, structure, motivation, ego gratification, adrenaline, creativity, social interaction and emotion [6]. Despite the long tradition of games for education and training, the implication of their collaborative dimension in education practices is very limited - especially, when compared to the boost in the games market. The reasons for this are manifold: high technical demands are in conflict with available budgets. Collaborative educational games often do not fit in the educational context or they are hard to tailor. It is hard for teachers to support collaborative educational games within their educational processes [7].The essential features of an education game are: 1/free action, begun and finished by the user; 2/ imaginary, parallel to the real world, replicating a universe or an activity without any consequence on actual issues; 3/ limited, in time and space; 4/ following a set of rules, a specific and private framework; 5/ with an uncertain solution and development, since every run, every play, is different and depends on unpredictable behavior of users. For a game, to be an educational one, some additional features are required: 1/ it has to start with a problem to be solved; 2/ it has to be unproductive itself; it doesn’t generate any property or wealth. The drive is the gaming activity itself; 3/ it has a correct solution, at least; 4/ it should have something to be learnt by the user/player, while introducing new knowledge, fixing previous acquired knowledge, training skills, sharing experiences, discovering new concepts, developing outcomes. Finally, to be an electronic game the educational game must be run on an electronic platform, such as a computer, an online terminal, a video-player, a PDA, a mobile phone etc.Today, the integration of collaborative educational games in the e-learning environments is becoming a growing need. CEGs have a lot of potential to raise students’ collaboration and motivation and improve the quality of education when applied properly. However, the implementation of such games for e-learning is a hard task and development of a new one is expensive. In this sense, several pedagogical and technical aspects must be taken into consideration and the design/development process should be focused on socioconstructivist learning and collaboration skills.A CEG is a specific type of e-learning content. The design and implementation of these CEG must be done according to the Learning Design (LD) process. As well, to be suited to the collaborative learning context, the LD process of these games must take into account some pedagogical and technical aspects. From the pedagogical point of view, the design of CEG must take into account the collaborative dimension of learning. From the technical point of view, the implementation of CEG using learning objects must take into account pedagogical standards for e-learning, that have changed the way that we exercise the practices of learning design [8]. In the following, we describe the LD stakes, which can be applied in the implementation of CEGs.1. Learning Design (LD)LD consists to the description of the teaching process following a specific pedagogical approach that addresses specific learning objectives for a particular audience in a particular discipline [9]. Fig. 1 illustrates the relations among the Unit of Learning (UoL: a concept increasingly used in the field of the LD), learning model, domain model, and theories of learning and instruction.Fig.1. The context of LDThe learning model describes how students learn based on various learning theories. The domain model describes the content and its organization, for example, software engineering or data on the Web. The theories of learning and instruction describe the instruction principles and models based on the literature or the experience of practitioners [10].In the field of e-learning, to enable the design of the dynamics of teaching and learning and their standardization, the IMS Global Learning Consortium established a new specification for online learning. Thisspecification, named IMS Learning Design (IMS-LD), provides a framework of elements that can describe any design of a teaching-learning process in a formal way. In the following, we describe in detail this specification and we will focus on e-learning-based games, since IMS LD is also based on this platform.2. IMS-LDIMS-LD (Instructional Management Systems-Learning Design) is a pedagogically expressive specification to model Units of Learning (UoL) in a formal, semantic, interoperable and machine-readable fashion. The IMS project aims to establish standards for dealing with problems associated with the increasing use of new technologies in teaching and learning [11].IMS- LD is a specification to represent and encode learning structures and methods [12]. It supports a wide range of modern pedagogical approaches such as active learning, collaborative learning and adaptive learning [9]. IMS-LD is focused on the design of pedagogical methods able to manage learning activities linked to LO within a learning flow. This learning flow consists of plays, acts, activities, activity structures and environments and it is flexible enough to provide several personalized itineraries depending on the role assigned or on a set of rules. The usual life-cycle starts with a lesson plan modeled according to the IMS-LD, defining roles, learning activities, services and several other elements inside a XML document [13].IMS-LD is structured in three levels: A, B and C (Fig.2). With a detailed description of roles, activities, environments, methods (Level A), properties, global elements, monitoring services and conditions (Level B), and notifications (Level C), IMS LD is able to translate regular lesson plans into standardized interoperable UoL.Fig.2. Three levels and information model of the IMS-LD specificationThese UoLs can be created with general purpose editors or with specific IMS-LD editors, like CopperAuthor or Reload LD Editor, and they can be run with several tools and engines, like CopperCore or Sled. There is a number of existing runnable example UoLs focused on several educational issues although not too many on games. Furthermore, it has not been tested extensively during the development of IMS-LD whether it could model educational games. IMS LD has several features to suggest that it can be used to do it. Thus, IMS-LD can support the representation of CEG in the form of potentially reusable learning objects.IMS LD’s generality implies that it should also be capable of modeling computer-based educational games. Issues on synchronization, grouping, multirole playing, timing, collaborative working, dynamic feedback, adaptive learning and more are implicit or explicit in educational gaming and can be approached with it. Also, a framework must be defined to describe what is considered as an educational game. Many games are described as educational ones yet the educational character of a game depends on the objectives, the context and the moment when it is run [14].B. Use of educational games in e-learningE-learning can be defines as a way of learning which is supported or facilitated by ICT (Information and Communication Technologies). It is a web-based training means by which connections, sharing, support, and access to learning opportunities can be enabled. Ref. [15] consider that there are such wide variations in the conception of this term (along with online learning and distance learning), that defining the characteristics of each is almost impossible.This web-based training model gradually evolved. Today, e-learning is a very popular phenomenon and forms the core of a number of initiatives and programs offered by colleges and universities [16].Web 2.0 has given birth to e-learning 2.0. The influence of new practices on the Web has resulted in a new array of services, which can be collectively termed “e-learning 2.0” (Fig. 3).E-learning 2.0 refers to a second phase of e-learning based on Web 2.0 and emerging trends in e-learning such as the collaborative e-learning. It is based on creating and sharing information and knowledge with others using social media tools like blogs, wikis, social bookmarking and social networks within an educational context to support collaborative approach to learning [16].Fig.3. Different forms of e-learning [17]Educational games are becoming popular in the academic discussion of learning technologies, in particular e-learning. In an e-learning environment, educational games provide the motivation and engagement of learner and can keep people of different conditions focused and concentrated on a task during long periods of time. Educational games are designed to offer learners the opportunity to develop their skills and knowledge in a meaningful and practical, yet virtual, training setting. They carefully balance fun, knowledge transfer, and reality to provide the trainee a meaningful, immersive, and motivating learning experience, facilitated by the Web 2.0 tools offered (social networking, wikis, blogs, ...).On the other hand, educational games are usually one of the most resource-consuming products of the software industry. As a proof of this claim, the educational games industry is pointed out because of the key role it plays in the promotion of learning technology (both hardware and software). This fact, along with the inherently high development cost of educational games forces developers to follow a design strategy in which runtime performance is a key aspect. Hence, educational games are usually closed products, difficult to deploy in heterogeneous e-learning environments, and hardly ever designed to be deployed directly from the web. That makes their integration in current e-learning environments, particularly the LMS (Learning Management Systems), a big challenge. Considering this, it is mandatory to find solutions for the development of educational games that can be easily integrated and used in e-learning environments, and that follow the current trends in standardization [18].C. Collaborative Educational Games: a way to promote collaborative e-learningCollaborative e-learning systems are cyberspaces in which individual and collaborative learning is implemented by groups of geographically dispersed learners and providers of knowledge to accomplish their goals of learning. Important aims of the courses in these environments have been that student should learn from each other and share knowledge [19]. In these e-learning environments, knowledge (pedagogical content) is based on social entities and is the key to their success.An important activity in a collaborative e-learning environments is the collaboration between learners. Collaborative learning is a learning approach characterized by participation and interactivity for both students and teachers and involving joint intellectual effort by students, or students and teachers together. Usually, students are working in groups of two or more, mutually searching for understanding, solutions, or meanings, or creating a product.Many collaborative e-learning systems strive to attract new members or encourage members to learn collaboratively. Nevertheless, such collaboration environment is generally not supported by conventional learning environments, way that does not stimulate interaction, collaboration and cooperation [20]. III.A F RAMEWORK FOR I MPLEMENTING C OLLABORATIVEE DUCATIONAL G AMES B ASED ON IMS-LDIn e-learning environments, learn in a collaborative way is not always so easy because one of the difficulties when arranging e-learning contents can be that these contents and learning paths are not adapted to this type of learning. Even when trying to solve this by correctly assuming the practices of learning design we are not always able to avoid these problems if we ignore the collaborative dimension of learning in the design process. However, one way to reduce these problems and promote collaborative e-learning and interaction learner-learner and learner-teacher is to model these contents in the form of Collaborative Educational Games.For that purpose, we propose a simple methodology for the design and development of collaborative educational games targeted to e-learning and composed of two steps: games design step that consists to propose a collaborative design process of educational games; and game development step that consists to implement, package, describe and deliver the games using the same standards and specifications that are currently being used in those e-learning environments, especially the IMS-LD standard. In this section, we will define and explain the foundations on which rests the implementation of the framework of Learning Design based on IMS-LD to develop collaborative educational games and we continue by describing its conceptual architecture and technical choices adopted to implement it.A. Online and Collaborative Learning Design model1. DescriptionThe proposed Learning Design process of collaborative educational games is similar to what we find in the software engineering. The process is assured according to a life cycle adapted, following to an incremental process broken down into several phases which correspond to a set of tasks to perform collaboratively. The use of a life cycle brings several advantages: promotes traceability, improves the visibility on the content evolution and promotes the constitution of groups [21].Fig.4. Collaborative design process of educational games Considering its advantages, the choice fell on the model known as "V-Cycle". The strong point of this model is that any description of a pedagogical component is accompanied by tests, which will ensure that it matchesits initial description. Fig. 4 illustrates the steps of the design process of collaborative educational games.Note also that in the proposed model, the proposed design process of collaborative educational games.is done collaboratively and not individually. In this sense, the first advantage of adopting collaborative design to implement collaborative educational games will thus reducing the time and therefore costs of development of such educational games. Besides the advantages mentioned above, in the proposed learning design method, the actors involved in the different stages work together. They are moving towards a partial parallelism throughout this process.2. Structuring and modeling educational games with IMS-LDIn the proposed structure, the educational game is hierarchical to tree whose root is the learning unit (educational game) and branches are composed of Sequences and Acts concepts. Each level has properties and this is the most suitable structure to represent the educational game, taking into account the indexing and reuse criteria. Fig. 5 shows the structure adopted for representing a collaborative educational games.Fig.5. Structure of educational gamesCollaborative educational games can be easily modeled with IMS Learning Design standard because this standard borrows the theater metaphor to model a teaching-learning process. The method part is where the top-level coordination of people and activities takes place. A play, as in a theatrical play, consists of acts, although there can be one-act plays. Acts run in sequence, with one starting when the previous act has finished, and the collaborative educational game ends with the completion of the last act. The transition from one act to another serves as a synchronization point for the multiple participants in a learning design, ensuring that they can all start the next act at the same time. An act is composed of activity, activity structure, and role-part. In every act, the role-part associates a role with an activity (Fig. 6).An activity is the basic learning unit and references to a physical learning material. It usually links to contents including plain text, hypertext, graphics, streaming media, and so on. This binding is accomplished through the environment tag for the sake of reusability. In the next section, we describe the main phases of the framework of design and implementation of collaborative educational games.B. Main phasesIn the framework of design and implementation of Collaborative Educational Games, the proposed process is composed of three main steps: educational game design, educational game production and educational game diffusion. In each step, a graphical interface and a set of tools used to complete the corresponding task: pedagogical task, didactic task, mediatic task and technological task. Fig. 7 shows the process of generating of the collaborative educational game packaged as a learning object.The educational game design phase takes place in an online space called "Educational Game Design Environment". In this space, teachers authors develop a structured and hierarchical representation of concepts and knowledge to teach and model the learning paths,scenarios and possible sequences. Fig.6. Nested structure of learning activities of educational gameFig.7. Collaborative educational games design process phasesFig.8. Architecture of the proposed modelThe game production phase concerns the mediatization of learning paths and scenarios developed in the previous step. Here, the units of learning (educational games) are produced according to IMS-LD format. To facilitate this task, it was proposed to use the authoring tools to create the collaborative educational game. Teachers authors consult a resources management system to select a mediatic object (image, video, animation, file, etc.). Each selected mediatic object is associated with one or more acts.The last phase of this process is that of educational game delivery as standard learning objects. In this phase, it was proposed to use the authoring called Reload Learning Design Editor. It is a scenario development tool to generate the executable version of the learning object compatible to IMS-LD format to ensure reusability and interoperability. Thus, it is possible to package the educational games according to the IMS-LD specification and annotated with meta-data. The result is a shareable and reusable collaborative educational game packed as anlearning object and ready to be deployed in any IMS-compliant LMS. C. Conceptual structureThe general architecture of the proposed framework of design and implementation of Collaborative Educational Games is based on two complementary parts: 1/ design part, which is done in collaboration between the various actors according to the V life cycle; and 2/ development part, to create games as learning objects compatible with IMS-LD format. Fig. 8 illustrates the general architecture of the proposed framework.In this architecture, we can distinguish two tasks performed by the staff of authors/designers (authors-teacher, designer, developer, coordinator, etc.):∙ Game design task : this task concerns two rolescarried out by members of the staff according to their specialty: pedagogical role and didactic role. ∙ Game development task : this task also concernstwo functions exercised by the members of thestaff: technical role and mediatic role.The game design task takes place in the Educational Games Design Environment. This space aims at making available to teachers an environment which allows many possibilities. This is an LMS providing two main functions. Through this space, collaborative design is facilitated by exchange and sharing of information, participation in forums, use of videoconference and other tools of synchronous/asynchronous communication. This area is also responsible for everything related to management: it manages the educational games and educational resources, authors profiles, registration, etc. After the design of the educational game, the staff starts game development task. Among many standards analyzed, the IMS-LD was used to describe the main elements of the educational game design process. We have adopted this standard for modeling UoL because, currently, it represents the most popular formal language to describe learning designs. It is a formal pedagogical standard to describe technology supported pedagogical scenarios based on rich instructional design models.At the end of the game design and development process, author creates the executable version of the learning object produced and stores them in online repositories in order to annotate them. This task is done using the authoring tool Reload Learning Design Editor (RLDE). It should be noted also that it is a modeling using the adaptive level of IMS-LD (level A).The RLDE is an Open Source, close-to-specification, tree-based Learning Design editor written in Java using the Eclipse platform. The editor tools are complemented by a LD Player, which provides a familiar and user-friendly interface to the CopperCore LD runtime engine [22]. The RLDE workspace is shown in Fig. 9 below.Fig.9. The Reload Learning Design Editor WorkspaceRLDE is an editor providing a series of forms for completion, based on a structure closely resembling the data model in the IMS-LD specification. The user starts off with an empty Learning Design and adds the relevant elements as required. The tools structure the learning design by only allowing valid structures.D. ImplementationAn effective mechanism to distribute the games to the learners would be to deliver them through a LMS. Delivering a game through a LMS is more effective than other approaches. Additionally, the tracking and assessment features of some modern LMS would give the instructor more power to control aspects of the learning experience such as when the students accessed the game, the time each student spent playing it and the outcomes of the game session.In this sense, to implement the proposed framework of design and implementation of Collaborative Educational Games, the choice of technologies is based on the reuse and the linking of many existing software solutions. Thus, we have setting up an LMS ensures two main functions: integrates the Educational Games Design Environment and manages resources, courses, users accounts, etc. In addition, this LMS offers a learning environment to distribute the games to the learners. After comparative studies conducted, the platform used is the LMS Dokeos (version 2.1). It is an LMS developed in PHP and built around a client-server architecture.Dokeos has been devised for the distribution of online courses that are mainly based on web contents that are packaged and distributed according to a set of standards and specifications. However, the IMS-LD specification is not supported by Dokeos. That's why we have oriented our work towards the management and exploitation of educational content by implementing an export and import mechanism in IMS-LD format by adding to Dokeos an runtime environment of learning objects compatible with this format.Indeed, in Dokeos, services are implemented as ‘modules’ (such as documents, chat, for um, quiz). Instances of modules are inserted within sections that form the course structure. Hence, resources for learning can be arranged to organize the teaching-learning process。
惠普ALM工具在软件测试管理中的应用作者：王勇陆珍珍来源：《电子技术与软件工程》2016年第06期摘要在日常的测试工作中，测试需求的变化、测试计划的更改、测试用例的精简以及缺陷的跟踪都增加了软件测试管理的难度，手动开展软件测试工作，对文档的依赖较大，且费时、费力，管理效率低，因此，越来越多的公司和企业开始重视使用工具管理软件测试过程。
惠普ALM是一款统一的应用生命周期管理工具，可快速定义、构建、测试和交付高质量的应用。
文章主要介绍了使用ALM进行软件测试管理的基本流程并结合实例演示如何使用ALM 进行软件测试管理。
【关键词】惠普ALM 软件测试管理测试计划测试用例国内的一些软件企业或者大型的开发团队，在软件测试的管理上很大程度的依赖文档，管理随意、简单，没有建立有效的、规范的软件测试管理体系，当测试需求发生变化时，与之相关的测试计划、测试用例和缺陷等文档都要进行修改，加大了的测试管理的难度，费时、费力且管理效率低下。
软件测试管理工具可以有效的改善这一现状，高效、规范的管理测试有关的文档，并实现文档之间的关联，自动的生成测试报告，省时、省力、易管理、易维护且管理效率高。
1 ALM简介ALM是Application Lifecycle Management的简称，意思是应用程序生命周期管理。
ALM 系统是一个复杂的过程管理系统。
无论你的组织架构是敏捷、迭代或瀑布，有效的使用ALM 可以使应用程序具有更好的预测性，更高的重复性，更好的质量和更强的应变性。
2 ALM核心模块介绍ALM主要包含5个模块，分别为控制面板模块、管理模块、需求模块、测试模块和缺陷模块，如图1所示。
下面分别对核心模块进行简单的介绍：（1）控制面板模块主要用来创建图表、报告和Excel报告。
（2）管理模块包括发布和库，发布用来定义待测应用程序的版本和测试周期，库用于追踪项目中的变化、重用项目实体或跨多个项目共享实体。
（3）需求模块主要用来指定待测应用程序的需求，可在需求之间添加可跟踪性，可跟踪性会显示可能受此更改影响的其他需求，确定需求与需求之间的关系范围，可生成需求跟踪矩阵。
AI机器人在项目管理中的应用与效益项目管理作为一种对任务、资源和进度进行有效规划和管理的方法，对于企业的成功至关重要。
随着科技的不断进步，人工智能（AI）机器人在项目管理中的应用越来越受到关注，并且取得了显著的效益。
本文将探讨AI机器人在项目管理中的应用，并阐述其所带来的效益。
一、AI机器人在项目计划阶段的应用在项目计划阶段，AI机器人可以帮助团队进行数据分析、资源规划和风险评估等工作。
通过对大量项目数据的分析，AI机器人能够提供关键性的洞察，帮助团队制定更加科学合理的项目计划。
同时，AI机器人能够根据历史数据和模型，预测项目的风险和潜在问题，帮助团队制定相应的风险管理策略。
二、AI机器人在项目执行阶段的应用在项目执行阶段，AI机器人可以提供全面的实时监控和数据分析能力。
通过对项目各项指标和进度的监控，AI机器人能够及时发现并解决问题，提高项目的执行效率和品质。
此外，AI机器人还可以自动化完成一些重复性的任务，如数据录入和文件整理等，减轻团队成员的负担，提高工作效率。
三、AI机器人在项目沟通协作中的应用在项目沟通协作中，AI机器人可以起到协调和辅助的作用。
通过提供自然语言处理和语音识别等功能，AI机器人可以帮助团队成员进行自由流畅的沟通。
而且，AI机器人还可以根据团队成员的意见和反馈，提供相应的解决方案和建议，促进决策的快速达成。
四、AI机器人在项目风险管理中的应用在项目风险管理中，AI机器人可以通过不断的学习和演化，提高对潜在风险的识别和预测能力。
通过分析项目过往的风险数据和相关信息，AI机器人能够判断当前项目所面临的风险，并根据具体情况提供相应的应对策略。
此外，AI机器人还可以监控项目进度和关键指标，及时发现可能引发风险的异常情况，保障项目的顺利进行。
五、AI机器人在项目反馈与改进中的应用在项目完成后，AI机器人还可以协助团队进行项目回顾和总结。
通过对项目的数据和过程进行综合分析，AI机器人能够提供针对性的反馈和改进建议，帮助团队进一步优化项目管理的过程和效果。
AI赋能软件开发项目协调随着人工智能（AI）技术的不断发展，软件开发项目协调工作也逐渐受到AI的赋能，这为软件开发团队提供了更高效和精确的协调能力。
本文将探讨AI在软件开发项目协调方面的应用以及带来的益处。
一、AI在需求管理和分析中的应用在软件开发项目中，需求的准确理解和管理是十分重要的。
AI可以通过自然语言处理技术，对需求文档进行分析提取，并通过机器学习算法进行需求优先级的评估，帮助开发团队更好地理解和推进项目。
同时，AI还能根据历史数据和类似项目的经验，为需求提供合理的补充和修正建议，提高需求相关工作的质量和效率。
二、AI在项目进度管理中的应用项目进度管理是软件开发项目协调中的核心环节，也是整个项目顺利进行的关键。
AI可以通过数据挖掘和分析，对项目进度进行预测和优化。
AI可以自动收集并分析开发团队成员的工作日志和代码仓库的改动记录，根据这些数据推断项目的进展情况，并预测项目完成的时间点。
基于历史数据和机器学习算法，AI还可以提供合理的资源安排和工作任务分配建议，帮助项目经理更好地管理项目进度。
三、AI在团队协作和沟通中的应用软件开发项目往往需要多个开发团队成员之间进行高效的协作和沟通。
AI可以通过自然语言处理和机器学习算法，帮助团队成员在团队协作工具（如Slack、Microsoft Teams等）上更快速地找到与自己工作相关的信息和资源。
通过对团队成员的日常沟通记录进行分析，AI还可以发现团队成员之间的关系和团队合作的问题，并提供建议和改进方案。
四、AI在质量管理和自动化测试中的应用软件开发项目的质量管理和测试工作是确保软件交付质量的关键步骤。
AI可以通过对项目代码和测试数据的分析，发现潜在的代码缺陷和bug，并在早期提供修复建议。
AI还可以利用机器学习和自动化测试技术，帮助自动生成测试用例和执行测试过程，提高测试工作的效率和覆盖率。
总结：AI在软件开发项目协调中的应用范围广泛，包括需求管理和分析、项目进度管理、团队协作和沟通，以及质量管理和自动化测试等方面。
