大规模数字集成电路习题解答

复习题1. ULSI 对多层互连系统的要求？答：可从金属导电层和绝缘介质层的材料特性，工艺特性，以及互连延迟时间等多个方面来分析ULSI 对多层互连系统的要求：1、缩短互连线延迟时间，通常用电阻电容（RC ）常数表征互连线延迟时间，有：ox m ox m t t l t wl wt l RC 2ρεερ=⋅= 其中，ρ为金属连线的电阻率；l 、w 、t m 分别为金属连线层的长度、宽度和厚度；为ε、t ox 分别为介质层的介电常数和厚度。

由公式式可知，金属导电层的电阻率越低，绝缘层的介电常数越小，互连线越短，互连线延迟时间也就短，电路速度也就越快。

2、金属导电材料的选取除了要求低电阻率之外，还应抗电迁移能力强，理化稳定性能、机械性能和电学性能在经过后续工艺及长时间工作之后保持不变，最好薄膜淀积和图形转移等加工工艺简单、且经济，制备的互连线台阶覆盖特性好、缺陷浓度低、薄膜应力小。

实际上完全满足上述要求的金属或金属性材料没有。

早期的ULSI 是采用铝及铝合金作为导电材料。

近年来随着工艺技术的发展，铜已成为金属导电材料的首选，在集成度更高的ULSI 中有取代铝及铝合金的趋势。

3、绝缘介质材料的选取除了要求介电常数低之外，还应击穿场强高、漏电流低、体电阻率和表面电阻率大（一般均应大于1015Ω·cm ），即电学性能好；不吸潮、对温度的承受能力在500℃以上、无挥发性残余物存在，即理化性能好；薄膜材料的应力低、与导电层的附着性好，即兼容性好；薄膜易制备、且缺陷密度低、易刻蚀、台阶覆盖特性好，即易于加工成型。

2. 简述多层互连工艺流程。

答：在互连工艺中，首先淀积介质层，通常是CVD-PSG ；接下来平坦化，即PSG 的热处理回流，以消除衬底表面因前面光刻等工艺造成的台阶；然后通过光刻形成接触孔和通孔；再进行金属化，如PVD-Al 填充接触孔和通孔，形成互连线；如果不是最后一层金属，继续进行下一层金属化的工艺流程，如果是最后一层金属，则积淀钝化层，通常是PECVD-Si 3N 4，互连工艺完成。

1．集成电路的发展过程经历了哪些发展阶段？划分集成电路的标准是什么？集成电路的发展过程:•小规模集成电路(Small Scale IC，SSI)•中规模集成电路(Medium Scale IC，MSI)•大规模集成电路(Large Scale IC，LSI)•超大规模集成电路(Very Large Scale IC，VLSI)•特大规模集成电路(Ultra Large Scale IC，ULSI)•巨大规模集成电路(Gigantic Scale IC，GSI）划分集成电路规模的标准2．超大规模集成电路有哪些优点？1. 降低生产成本VLSI减少了体积和重量等,可靠性成万倍提高,功耗成万倍减少.2.提高工作速度VLSI内部连线很短,缩短了延迟时间.加工的技术越来越精细.电路工作速度的提高,主要是依靠减少尺寸获得.3. 降低功耗芯片内部电路尺寸小,连线短,分布电容小,驱动电路所需的功率下降.4. 简化逻辑电路芯片内部电路受干扰小,电路可简化.5.优越的可靠性采用VLSI后，元件数目和外部的接触点都大为减少，可靠性得到很大提高。

6.体积小重量轻7.缩短电子产品的设计和组装周期一片VLSI组件可以代替大量的元器件,组装工作极大的节省,生产线被压缩,加快了生产速度.3．简述双阱CMOS工艺制作CMOS反相器的工艺流程过程。

1、形成N阱2、形成P阱3、推阱4、形成场隔离区5、形成多晶硅栅6、形成硅化物7、形成N管源漏区8、形成P管源漏区9、形成接触孔10、形成第一层金属11、形成第一层金属12、形成穿通接触孔13、形成第二层金属14、合金15、形成钝化层16、测试、封装，完成集成电路的制造工艺4．在VLSI设计中，对互连线的要求和可能的互连线材料是什么？互连线的要求低电阻值：产生的电压降最小；信号传输延时最小（RC时间常数最小化）与器件之间的接触电阻低长期可靠工作可能的互连线材料金属（低电阻率），多晶硅（中等电阻率），高掺杂区的硅(注入或扩散)（中等电阻率）5．在进行版图设计时为什么要制定版图设计规则？—片集成电路上有成千上万个晶体管和电阻等元件以及大量的连线。

集成电路版图设计习题答案第2章 集成电路制造工艺【习题答案】1．硅片制备主要包括（直拉法）、（磁控直拉法）和（悬浮区熔法）等三种方法。

2．简述外延工艺的用途。

答：外延工艺的应用很多。

外延硅片可以用来制作双极型晶体管，衬底为重掺杂的硅单晶（n +），在衬底上外延十几个微米的低掺杂的外延层（n ），双极型晶体管（NPN ）制作在外延层上，其中b 为基极，e 为发射极，c 为集电极。

在外延硅片上制作双极型晶体管具有高的集电结电压，低的集电极串联电阻，性能优良。

使用外延硅片可以解决增大功率和提高频率对集电区电阻要求上的矛盾。

图 外延硅片上的双极型晶体管集成电路制造中，各元件之间必须进行电学隔离。

利用外延技术的PN 结隔离是早期双极型集成电路常采用的电隔离方法。

利用外延硅片制备CMOS 集成电路芯片可以避免闩锁效应，避免硅表面氧化物的淀积，而且硅片表面更光滑，损伤小，芯片成品率高。

外延工艺已经成为超大规模CMOS 集成电路中的标准工艺。

3．简述二氧化硅薄膜在集成电路中的用途。

答：二氧化硅是集成电路工艺中使用最多的介质薄膜，其在集成电路中的应用也非常广泛。

二氧化硅薄膜的作用包括：器件的组成部分、离子注入掩蔽膜、金属互连层之间的绝缘介质、隔离工艺中的绝缘介质、钝化保护膜。

4．为什么氧化工艺通常采用干氧、湿氧相结合的方式？答：干氧氧化就是将干燥纯净的氧气直接通入到高温反应炉内，氧气与硅表面的原子反应生成二氧化硅。

其特点：二氧化硅结构致密、均匀性和重复性好、针孔密度小、掩蔽能力强、与光刻胶粘附良好不易脱胶；生长速率慢、易龟裂不宜生长厚的二氧化硅。

湿氧氧化就是使氧气先通过加热的高纯去离子水（95℃），氧气中携带一定量的水汽，使氧化气氛既含有氧，又含有水汽。

因此湿氧氧化兼有干氧氧化和en +SiO 2n -Si 外延层 n +Si 衬底水汽氧化的作用，氧化速率和二氧化硅质量介于二者之间。

实际热氧化工艺通常采用干、湿氧交替的方式进行。

《超大规模集成电路设计》习题1．集成电路的发展过程经历了哪些发展阶段？划分集成电路的标准是什么？集成电路的发展过程:•小规模集成电路(Small Scale IC ，SSI)•中规模集成电路(Medium Scale IC ，MSI)•大规模集成电路(Large Scale IC ，LSI) •超大规模集成电路(Very Large Scale IC ，VLSI)•特大规模集成电路(Ultra Large Scale IC ，ULSI)•巨大规模集成电路(Gigantic Scale IC ，GSI ）2．超大规模集成电路有哪些优点？1. 降低生产成本VLSI 减少了体积和重量等,可靠性成万倍提高,功耗成万倍减少.2.提高工作速度VLSI 内部连线很短,缩短了延迟时间.加工的技术越来越精细.电路工作速度的提高,主要是依靠减少尺寸获得. 3. 降低功耗芯片内部电路尺寸小,连线短,分布电容小,驱动电路所需的功率下降.4. 简化逻辑电路芯片内部电路受干扰小,电路可简化.5.优越的可靠性采用VLSI 后，元件数目和外部的接触点都大为减少，可靠性得到很大提高。

6.体积小重量轻7.缩短电子产品的设计和组装周期一片VLSI 组件可以代替大量的元器件,组装工作极大的节省,生产线被压缩,加快了生产速度.3．简述双阱CMOS 工艺制作CMOS 反相器的工艺流程过程。

4．在VLSI 设计中，对互连线的要求和可能的互连线材料是什么？5．在进行版图设计时为什么要制定版图设计规则？划分集成电路规模的标准数字集成电路类别MOS IC 双极IC 模拟集成电路SSI ＜102＜100 ＜30 MSI 102～103100～500 30～100 LSI 103～105500～2000 100～300 VLSI 105～107＞2000 ＞300 ULSI 107～109GSI ＞109在芯片尺寸尽可能小的前提下，使得即使存在工艺偏差也可以正确的制造出IC，尽可能地提高电路制备的成品率6．版图验证和检查主要包括哪些方面？u DRC(Design Rule Check)：几何设计规则检查；对IC的版图做几何空间检查，保证能在特定的工艺条件下实现所设计的电路，并保证一定的成品率；u ERC(Electrical Rule Check)：电学规则检查；检查电源(power)/地(ground)的短路，浮空的器件和浮空的连线等指定的电气特性；u LVS(Loyout versus Schematic)：网表一致性检查；将版图提出的网表和原理图的网表进行比较，检查电路连接关系是否正确，MOS晶体管的长/宽尺寸是否匹配，电阻/电容值是否正确等；u LPE(Layout Parameter Extraction)：版图寄生参数提取；从版图中提取晶体管的尺寸、结点的寄生电容、连线的寄生电阻等参数，并产生SPICE 格式的网表，用于后仿真验证；u POSTSIM：后仿真，检查版图寄生参数对设计的影响；提取实际版图参数、电阻、电容，生成带寄生量的器件级网表，进行开关级逻辑模拟或电路模拟，以验证设计出的电路功能的正确性和时序性能等，并产生测试向量。

复习题1.ULSI中对光刻技术的基本要求？答：一般来说，在ULSI中对光刻技术的基本要求包括五方面：①高分辨率。

随着集成电路集成度的不断提高，加工的线条越来越精细，要求光刻的图形具有高分辨率。

在集成电路工艺中，通常把线宽作为光刻水平的标志，一般也可以用加工图形线宽的能力来代表集成电路的工艺水平。

②高灵敏度的光刻胶。

光刻胶的灵敏度通常是指光刻胶的感光速度。

在集成电路工艺中为了提高产品的产量，希望曝光时间愈短愈好。

为了减小曝光所需的时间，需要使用高灵敏度的光刻胶。

光刻胶的灵敏度与光刻胶的成份以及光刻工艺条件都有关系，而且伴随着灵敏度的提高往往会使光刻胶的其它属性变差。

因此，在确保光刻胶各项属性均为优异的前提下，提高光刻胶的灵敏度已经成为了重要的研究课题。

③低缺陷。

在集成电路芯片的加工过程中，如果在器件上产生一个缺陷，即使缺陷的尺寸小于图形的线宽，也可能会使整个芯片失效。

通常芯片的制作过程需要经过几十步甚至上百步的工序，在整个工艺流程中一般需要经过10~20次左右的光刻，而每次光刻工艺中都有可能引入缺陷。

在光刻中引入缺陷所造成的影响比其他工艺更为严重。

由于缺陷直接关系到成品率，所以对缺陷的产生原因和对缺陷的控制就成为重要的研究课题。

④精密的套刻对准。

集成电路芯片的制造需要经过多次光刻，在各次曝光图形之间要相互套准。

ULSI中的图形线宽在1μm以下，因此对套刻的要求也就非常高。

一般器件结构允许的套刻精度为线宽的±10%左右。

这种要求单纯依靠高精度机械加工和人工手动操作已很难实现，通常要采用自动套刻对准技术。

⑤对大尺寸硅片的加工。

集成电路芯片的面积很小，即便对于ULSI的芯片尺寸也只有1~2cm2左右。

为了提高经济效益和硅片利用率，一般采用大尺寸的硅片，也就是在一个硅片上一次同时制作很多完全相同的芯片。

采用大尺寸的硅片带来了一系列的技术问题。

对于光刻而言，在大尺寸硅片上满足前述的要求难度更大。

而且环境温度的变化也会引起硅片的形变（膨胀或收缩），这对于光刻也是一个难题。

习题数电参考答案（终）第⼀章数字逻辑概论1.1 数字电路与数制信号1.1.1 试以表1.1.1所列的数字集成电路的分类为依据，指出下列IC器件属于何种集成度器件：（1）微处理器；（2）计数器；（3）加法器；（4）逻辑门；（5）4兆位存储器。

解：依照表1.1.1所⽰的分类，所列的五种器件：（1）、（5）属于⼤规模；（2）、（3）属于中规模；（4）属于⼩规模。

1.1.2⼀数字信号波形如图题1.1.2所⽰，试问该波形所代表的⼆进制数是什么？解：图题1.1.2所⽰的数字信号波形的左边为最⾼位（MSB），右边为最低位（LSB），低电平表⽰0，⾼电平表⽰1。

该波形所代表的⼆进制数为010110100。

1.1.3 试绘出下列⼆进制数的数字波形，设逻辑1的电压为5V，逻辑0的电压为0V。

（1）001100110011（2）0111010 （3）1111011101解：⽤低电平表⽰0，⾼电平表⽰1，左边为最⾼位，右边为最低位，题中所给的3个⼆进制数字的波形分别如图题1.1.3（a）、（b）、（c）所⽰，其中低电平为0V，⾼电平为5V。

1.1.4⼀周期性数字波形如图1.1.4所⽰，试计算：（1）周期；（2）频率；（3）占空⽐。

解：因为图题1.1.4所⽰为周期性数字波，所以两个相邻的上升沿之间持续的时间为周期，T=10ms。

频率为周期的倒数，f=1/T=1/0.01s=100Hz。

占空⽐为⾼电平脉冲宽度与周期的百分⽐，q=1ms/10ms×100%=10%。

1.2 数制1.2.1 ⼀数字波形如图1.2.1所⽰，时钟频率为4kHz，试确定：（1）它所表⽰的⼆进制数；（2）串⾏⽅式传送8位数据所需要的时间；（3）以8位并⾏⽅式传送的数据时需要的时间。

解：该波形所代表的⼆进制数为00101100。

时钟周期T=1/f=1/4kHz=0.25ms。

串⾏⽅式传送数据时，每个时钟周期传送1位数据，因此，传送8位数据所需要的时间t=0.25ms×8=2ms。

懂得1、Please illustrate the meaning of its voltage transfer characteristic to a logic gate, and describe the static behaviors showed in the voltage transfer characteristic curves.The electrical function of a gate is best expressed by its voltage transfer characteristic (VTC),which plots the output voltage as a function of the input voltage Vout=f(Vin).The high and low nominal voltage Voh and Vol;The gate or switching threshold voltage Vm,that is define as Vm=f(Vm)(The gate threshold voltage presents the midpoint of the switching characteristics,which is obtained when the output of a gate is short circuited to the input);The high and low input voltage Vih and Vil are defined by the point where the gain (=dVout/dVin)of the VTC equals -12、Please draw the voltage transfer characteristic curve of the inverter and label the static operation points in the VTC.3、Please describe the definition of noise margin and its physical significance(物理意义), then draw the figure of definition of noise margins.The noise margins represent the levels of noise that can be sustained(所允许的) when gates are cascaded. A measure of the sensitivity of a gate to noise is given by the noise margins NML(noise margin low) and NMH(noise margin high), which quantize the size of the legal “0” and “1”, respectively, and set a fixed maximum threshold on the noise value4、Please describe the meaning of the regenerative property and the conditions of a gate with regenerative property.A gate with regenerative property ensures that a disturbed signal converges back to a nominal voltage level after passing through a number of logical stages. The VTC should have a transient region (or undefined region) with a gain greater than 1 in absolute value, bordered by the two legal zones, where the gain should be less than 1 in absolute value5、What are the definitions of the fan-out and fan-in properties?The number that can be driven is termed the fan-out of circuit, that denotes the number of load gates N that are connected to the output of the driving gate. The fan-in of a gate is defined as the number of independent input nodes to the gate.6、How to describe the performance of a digital IC? Please illustrate the parameters used to characterize the transient performance of a logic family, and draw the associated figure of the definition of these parP ropagation delay time and rise/fall time can be used to characterize the transient performance of a logic family .Propagation delay time of a gate expresses the delay experienced by a signal when passing through a gate,which represent how quickly the gate responds to the changes at its inputs.Rise/fall time express how fast a signal transits between the different levels. Propagation delay time is defined as the period between the 50%transition points of the input and output signals.Rise/fall time is defined as the period between the 10% and 90% points of the total voltage transition at the output waveforms.1、Illustrate the basic structure and simple operation principle of MOS transistor.Four terminals:source, drain, gate, body; Vertical Structure: gate electrode, insulator, semiconductor substrate; Horizontal Structure: source region, channel region, drain region2、Illustrate the basic function of each terminal of MOS device, and describe the general terminal connections of NMOS and PMOS transistor, respectively.The source and the drain are the electrodes conducting the current. The gate electrode is thecontrolling terminal. The function of the body is secondaryIn NMOS devices, the source is defined as the n+ region which has a lower potential(电势) than the other n+ region, the drain. The source is the terminal with the higher potential in PMOS devices, The body is generally connected to a DC supply that is identical for all devices of the same type (GND for NMOS, VDD for PMOS).3、What does the transition (or input) characteristic of MOS transistor mean? And what conclusions we can find from the characteristic curve?It describes the relationship between the gate-source voltage and the drain-source current with the certain drain-source voltage .When the gate-source voltage is less than the threshold voltage, the conducting current is zero, that is, the NMOS transistor is in cutoff operation. When is larger than, the NMOS transistor is on.4、What does the current-voltage (or output) characteristic of MOS transistor mean? And what conclusions we can find from the I-V characteristic curve?.It describes the relationship between the drain-source voltage and the drain-source current with a certain gate-source voltageVgs > Vt , 0<VDS <VGS -VT : Linear modeThe inversion layer forms a continuous current path between the source and the drain.A drain current proportional to Vds will flow from the drain to the source through the conducting channel. The channel region acts as a voltage-controlled linear resister.5、Describe the operation modes of NMOS and PMOS transistors respectively, and define the corresponding ideal current equations.1、Explain the channel-length modulation, sub-threshold conduction, short-channel effect and narrow-channel effect. And illustrate their corresponding chief impacts on the device.This simple current equation prescribes a linear drain-bias dependence for the current in MOS transistors, determined by the empirical model parameter λ, called the channel-length modulation coefficientOne typical condition, which is due to the two-dimensional nature of channel current flow, is the sub-threshold conduction in small-geometry MOS transistors.As a working definition, a MOS transistor is called a short-channel device if its channel length is on the same order of magnitude as the depletion region thicknesses of the source and drain junctions.The short-channel effects that arise in this case are attributed to two physical phenomena: the limitations imposed on electron drift characteristics in the channel; the modification of the threshold voltage due to the shortening channel lengthMOS transistor that have channel widths on the same order of magnitude as the maxium depletion region thickness are defined as narrow channel devices.For MOSFET with small channel widths,the actual threshold voltage increases as a result of this extra depletion charge of the fringe depletion region.This fact is called narrow channel effect.2、Describe the three main components of the load capacitanceCL, when a logic gate is driving other fan-out gates. And sketch the capacitance model of NMOS transistor.Gate capacitances (of other inputs connected to out)Diffusion(or junction) capacitances (of drain/source regions)Routing capacitances (output to other inputs)1,Describe the basic structure and operation of a static CMOS inverter. Then draw theassociated transistor schematicThis structure consists of an enhancement-type NMOS transistor and an enhancement-type PMOS transistor, operating in complementary mode. So this configuration is called Complementary MOS (CMOS). The gate terminals of the PMOS and NMOS transistors are connected to form the inverter input. The drain terminals of the PMOS and NMOS transistors are connected to form the inverter output. The source and the substrate of the NMOS transistor are connected to the ground, while the source and body of PMOS transistor are connected to VDD The circuit topology is complementary push-pull in the sense that: For high input the NMOS transistor drives (pulls down) the output node while the PMOS transistor acts as the load, and for low input the PMOS transistor drives (pulls up) the output node while the NMOS transistor acts as the load.When the input is at VDD: The NMOS is on (conducting) while the PMOS is off (cut-off). A direct path exists between Vout and the ground node, resulting in a steady-state value of 0V at the output. When the input is at ground:The NMOS is off while the PMOS is on. A direct path exists between VDD and Vout, yielding a high output voltage (equal to VDD).Static CMOS logic:structure:The static CMOS style is really an extension of the static CMOS inverter to multiple inputs. A logic function in static CMOS must be implemented in both NMOS and PMOS transistors. It is the combination of the pull-up network(PUN) and the pull-down network(PDN). Each input always connects to PUN and PDN simultaneously. The function of the PUN is to provide a connection between the output and VDD anytime the output of the logic gate is meant to be 1 (based on the inputs). The function of the PDN is to connect the output to VSS when the output of the logic gate is meant to be 0.Opreation: The pull-down net should be “on” when the pull-up net is “off” and vice versa. For any given input combination, the output is connected either to VDD or to ground via a low-resistance path. A DC current path between the VDD and ground is not established for any of the input combinations. With the complementary nature of NMOS and PMOS, the pull-up or the pull-down is “on” alternately to implement the logic operation.Discuss the main problems for high fan-in static CMOS gates and the associated techniques for fast complex gates.tpHL = 0.69 Reqn(C1+2C2+3C3+4CL); Propagation delay deteriorates(恶化) rapidly as a function of fan-in quadratically in the worst case, Gates with a fan-in greater than 4 become excessively slow and must be avoided.tPLH increases linearly due to the linearly increasing value of the diffusion capacitance;tPHL increase quadratically due to the simultaneous increase the resistance and internal capacitance in serial part.Transistor sizing: as long as fan-out capacitance dominatesProgressive transistor sizing: This approach reduces the dominant resistance, while keeping the increase in capacitance within boundsTransfer gate:Configuration:The source and drain nodes serve as inputs and outputs, while the gate node serves as the control input, the body node is connected to the power/ground Operation: For NMOS transfer gate,it turns on while the gate control terminal goes high, and the input signal will be delivered to the output node; it turns off while the gate control terminal goes low, and the output node will be impedance.CMOS transmission gate:Configuration: The CMOS transmission gate consists of one NMOS and one PMOS transistor, with the source and drain connected in parallel; The gate voltages appliedto these two transistors are also set to be complementary signals. The substrate terminal of the NMOS transistor is connected to ground and the substrate terminal of the PMOS transistor is connected to Vdd.Operation: If the control signal C is logic-high (equal to Vdd), then both transistors are turned on and provide a low-resistance current path between the input and output nodes. If the control signal C is logic-low, then both transistors will be off, and the path between the input and output nodes will be in the high-impedance state. The weakness of one device is overcome by the strength of the other device, whether the output is transmitting a high or low value. This is a clear advantage of the CMOS transfer gate over the single transistor counterpart.DCVLS:Operation: Assume now that, for a given set of inputs, PDN1 conducts while PDN2 does not, and that Out and out are initially high and low, respectively. Turning on PDN1: Causes Out to be pulled down (below VDD−|VTP |); Out is in a high impedance state, as M2 and PDN2 are both turned off. At the point M2 turns on and starts charging out非to VDD — eventually turning off M1; This in turn enables Out to discharge all the way to GND.XOR/XNOR: When the signals A and B have the same values, there is one conducting path either AB or A非B非; Then the output F is pulled down;At the same time, the other pull-down paths connected to the F非are both turned off. When F is pulled down below VDD−|VTP |, M2 t urns on and starts charging F非to VDD —eventually turning off M1 and pulling down F to Gnd. When the signals A and B have the different values, there is one conducting path either AB非or A非B; Then the output F非is pulled down; At the same time, the other pull-down paths connected to the F are both turned off. When F非is pulled down below VDD−|VTP |, M1 turns on and starts charging F to VDD —eventually turning off M2 and pulling down F非to Gnd.Precharge-Evaluate dynamic CMOS:Operation: Precharge (when the clock signal Φ= 0)：The PMOS precharge transistor MP is conducting while the complementary NMOS transistor MN is off. The output load capacitance is precharged to VDD by MP, then VOH=VDD；The input voltages have no influence yet upon the output level since the complementary NMOS transistor MN is off. Evaluate (when the clock signal Φ=1)：The precharge transistor MP turns off while the NMOS evaluate transistor MN turns on. The output node voltage may now remain at the logic-high level or drop to a logic low, depending on the input voltage levels: If the input signals create a conducting path between the output node and the ground, PDN is on, and the output capacitance will discharge toward VOL=0;Otherwise, when PDN is off, the output voltage remains at VOH= VDD.Domino dynamic CMOS logic:When Φ=0, during precharge: The output of the n-type dynamic gate is charged up to VDD, and the output of the inverter is set to 0. When Φ=1, during evaluation: The dynamic gate conditionally discharges, and there are two possibilities: The output node of the dynamic CMOS stage is either discharged to a low level through the NMOS circuitry (1 to 0 transition), or it remains high. Consequently, the inverter output voltage can also make at most one transition during the evaluation phase, from 0 to 1.TSPC dynamic CMOS logic:Configuration:If one constrains a NORA stage to have only n-precharge gates, and not static gates, then a p-channel transistor can be eliminated from the clocked latch; The dynamic circuit technique to be presented in that it uses only one-phase clock signal, so no clock skew problem exists. The NORA design style can be simplified so that a single clock is sufficient. For the doubled n-C2MOS latch, when φ= 1, the latch is in the transparent evaluate mode and corresponds to 2 cascaded inverters (non-inverting); For the doubled n-C2MOS latch, when φ= 0, both inverters are disabled (hold mode) -- only the pull-up network is still active.Pipelined NORA dynamic CMOS system:Configuration: Consists of an np-CMOS logic sequence and a clocked CMOS output buffer; A pipelined system can be constructed by simply cascading alternating φ-section and φ -section, meaning that evaluation occurs during active φ and φ respectively;Operation:φ=0, during hold mode :N block performs the precharge operation and pulls node Out1 up to VDD through the p-type device Mp1, while p block performs the discharge operation and pulls the node Out2 down to zero through the n-type device Mn2; The clocked CMOS latch will not be in operation and the previous output voltage will be stored on the output load capacitor CL. φ=1, during evaluate mode:All cascaded NMOS and PMOS blocks evaluate output levels one after the other, and then the signal Out2 will be inversed to the output node by the clocked CMOS latch in operation;Operation Mode: Evaluate―Hold: All logic stages perform the precharge-discharge operation when the clock is high, and all stages evaluate output levels when the clock is low. Therefore, wewill call this circuit a section, meaning that evaluation occurs during active .Clocked CMOS dynamic circuit:Basic Structure:A pair of PMOS and NMOS transistors controlled by the complementary clock signals are cascaded in the pullup and pulldown paths of the static CMOS gate, respectively, then a CMOS logic gate can be synchronized with a clock. Operation: φ=1, during evaluation mode：The transistors Mp1 and Mp2 are both turned on, then this gate can evaluate normally as a CMOS inverter to generate the logic output In非; φ=0 , during hold mode: Both transistors Mp1 and Mp2 are off, decoupling the output from the input. The CMOS circuit cannot conduct and evaluate, then the output Q retains its previous value stored on the output capacitor CL.Sequential logic:Virtually all useful systems require storage of state information, leading to another class of circuits called sequential logic circuits. In these circuits, the output not only depends upon the current values of the inputs, but also upon preceding output values. In other words, a sequential circuit remembers some of the past history of the system; A sequential circuit consists of a combinational circuit and a memory block in the feedback loop.Combination logic:In all logic circuits described so far, the output is directly related to the input. Typically, there are no feedback loops between the output and the input in these circuits (also classified as non-regenerative circuits), so the outputs are always a logical combination of the inputs. As a class, these circuits are known as combinational logic circuits. Combinational logic circuits, described earlier, have the property that the output of a logic block is only a function of the current input values, assuming that enough time has elapsed for the logic gates to settle. Static storage:preserve state as long as the power is on;are built using positive feedback or regeneration with an intentional connection between the output and the input;useful when updates are infrequent (clock gating)Dynamic storage:store state on parasitic capacitors;only hold state for short periods of time (milliseconds);require periodic refresh to annihilate charge leakage;usually simpler, so higher speed and lower power;useful in datapath circuits that require high performance levels and are periodically clockedLatch: level sensitive circuit that passes inputs to Q when the clock is high (or low);input sampledon the falling edge of the clock is held stable when clock is low (or high)Register or Flip-flops (edge-triggered): edge sensitive circuits that only sample the inputs on a clock transitionpositive edge-triggered: 0- 1negative edge-triggered: 1 -0built using latches (e.g., master-slave flip-flops)。