DEFINITIONSOFMICRO,SMALLANDMEDIUMENTERPRISES微型,小型和中小型企业的定义

中小企业会计准则外文文献Int. J. Liability and Scientific Enquiry Vol. 2 No. 2 2009 233The application of an accounting standard for SMEs Danue Nerudová and Hana Bohuová Accounting and Tax Institute of PEF MZLU Brno Zemědělská Czech Republic E-mail: d.nerudovaseznam.cz E-mail: uchanamendelu.cz Corresponding author Abstract: Small and medium-sized companies have a very important position in the European Union EU economy mainly in the area of employment. Their activities in the internal market are limited by a great deal of obstacles. The most important obstacles are the different national accounting and tax systems. At present it is obvious that a certain degree of accounting and tax harmonisation has to take place. International Financial Reporting Standards IFRS for Small- and Medium-sized Enterprises SMEs is designed to apply to the general-purpose harmonised financial statements of all profit-oriented SMEs. General-purpose financial statements are directed toward the common information needs an entity’s financial posi tion performance cash flow of a wide range of users shareholders creditors employees. Determining taxable income requires special-purpose financial statements designed to comply with the tax laws and regulations in a particular jurisdiction. An entity’s ta xable income is defined by the laws and regulations of the country or other jurisdictions in which it is domiciled. Tax authorities are also important external users of the financial statements of SMEs. Profit or loss recognised under IFRS for SMEs could be a starting point for determining taxable income. Keywords: small- and medium-sized enterprises SMEs taxable income International Financial Reporting Standards IFRS cash flow tax accounting. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Nerudová D. and Bohuová H. 2009 ‘The application of an accounting standard for SMEs’ Int. J. Liability and Scientific Enquiry Vol. 2 No. 2 pp.233–246. Biographical notes: Danue Nerudová PhD in Finance Mendel University Brno Master in Finance Mendel University Brno is the Head of the Department of Accounting and Taxes Faculty of Business and Economics Mendel University Brno Czech Republic. Hana Bohuová PhD in Economics and Management Mendel University Brno Master in Economics and Management Mendel University Brno is a Scientific Assistant at the Department of Accounting and Taxes Faculty of Business and Economics Mendel University Brno Czech Republic.1 IntroductionSmall- and Medium-sized Enterprises SMEs comprise a substantial part of thecompanies operating in the European Union EU member states. Based on the lateststatistics there are 25 million SMEs operating in 27 member states which representCopyright 2009 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.234 D. Nerudová and H. Bohuová99 of all business. These companies create more than 100 million jobs in the EUEurostat 2003. In some industry sectors such as textiles or construction they evencreate more than 75 of the jobs. SMEs are considered the key factor of economicgrowth and employmentin the EU. Therefore they have received a great deal of attentionin the EU in the last ten years. The structure of the EU 25 business economy by thenumber of persons employed is shown in Table 1.Table 1 The structure of the EU 25 business economy by the number of persons employedType of enterprise Share on total employment in Large 329Medium 208Small 165Micro 298 Source: Eurostat 2003There are 988 787 SMEs with less than 250 employees which represent 99.81 ofall the enterprises operating in the Czech market Czech Statistical Office 2003. SMEsemploy 1 961 000 people which represent a 62.21 share of the total employment in theCzech Republic. The share is even 80 higher than the other sectors of the nationaleconomy – agriculture 85 and restaurant services 89.34. For this reason SMEs alsoplay a very important role in the Czech Republic not only in the area of employment butalso in the economy as a whole. The increase in the importance of SMEs in the EU economy has propelled theEuropean Commission to commission several studies such as COM 2001582 final andCOM 2005532 final in this area. These studies have dealt with the SMEs’ position inthe internal market and have identified the obstacles which these types of enterprisesface while operating in the internal market. The existence of obstacles mainly in theform of 25 different accounting and tax systems which generate disproportionate highcompliance costs for SMEs in comparison with large enterprises is the reason whySMEs are less involved in cross-border activities and operate less in the internal marketin comparison with large enterprises. The studies have revealed that SMEs operatemainly in the domestic national markets. It seems that in today’s globalised worlda higher involvement of SMEs in cross-border activities and its higher operation on theinternal market could bring an increase in their competitiveness and performance whichwould remarkably influence the economy and growth of the EU as a whole. The aims of the paper are to evaluate the Exposure Draft ED of InternationalFinancial Reporting Standards IFRS for SMEs and design some modifications of SMEfinancial reporting harmonisation. The theoretical background of the paper presents theobjectives of SME financial reporting harmonisation and the efforts of the EuropeanCommission to harmonise the area of corporate taxation and introduce the recommendedtaxation models of EU companies. This paper contains a research on the implementationused in harmonising SME financial reporting. The full IFRS is transformed for SMEs bythe simplification of some standards and by the omission of irrelevant standards. Finallythe paper summarises the results of the research and suggests alternative solutions. The application of an accounting standard for SMEs 2352 The characteristics of SMEsAt present various definitions which have been developed for application in differentcountries can be found. The criteria often used for classifying enterprises are turnoverthe number of employees capital base profits etc. Whether an enterprise appears to belarge medium orsmall differs widely across the countries and depends on their degree ofdevelopment and the general scale of economic activity.1 According to the Organizationfor Economic Cooperation and Development OECD 2005 the characteristics ofSMEs reflect not only economic but also the cultural and social dimensions of a country.The paper uses the definition of SMEs which has been introduced in the EU by theadoption of the Commission Recommendation No. 2003/361/EC. Table 2 shows thedefinition of SMEs used by the World Bank and European Commission.Table 2 The definition of SME by the World Bank and European Commission Commission RecommendationEnterprise World Bank 2003/361/ECMicro Less than ten employees assets lower Less than ten employees turnover and than USD100000 balance less than EUR2 millionSmall Less than 50 employees turnover and Less than 50 employees turnover and assets lower than USD3 million balance sheet less than EUR10 millionMedium Less than 300 employees turnover and Less than 250 employees turnover less assets lower than USD15 million than EUR50 million and balance less than EUR43 millionThere is at present relatively little cross-country experience with generalised approachesto SMEs’ taxation and accounting. On the other hand there are available literatureon the challenges faced in designing tax regimes for SMEs. Different accounting andtax systems which trigger high compliance costs represent the barrier for SMEs wishingto take part in cross-border activities in the EU. The efforts to unify the accounting systems of the EU member states are connectedwith the establishment of the European Economic Community EEC – the harmonisationof accounting and taxes is confirmed in the Treaty of Rome signed in 1957. The aim wasto coordinate the protective rules of companies not only in the interest of shareholdersand third parties creditors employees but also in the interest of equal competitiveconditions and equal business relations in the member states. The first harmonisation efforts in the area of accounting were accomplishedby the adoption of directives Fourth Directive No. 78/660/EEC Seventh DirectiveNo. 83/349/EEC and Eighth Directive No. 84/253/EEC. They create the code of EUaccounting legislation and represent the basic harmonisation tool of the EuropeanCommission. These directives comprise elements from the continental legal systemtypified by Germany or France as well as the elements from the Anglo-Saxon system.Both approaches differ mainly in the area of financial statements’ arrangements. The most important directive in the area of accounting is represented by thefourth directive which concerns the financial statements of large and medium-sizedcapital companies. The directive reflects the compromises between the continental andAnglo-Saxon approaches –the structure and form of financial statements are variable andits final form is left to national competence.236 D. Nerudová and H. Bohuová Since the 1970s the International Accounting Standards Committee IASC hasplayed a veryimportant role in the area of accounting harmonisation. The IASC wasfollowed in 2001 by the International Accounting Standards Board IASB which wasasked to create unified International Accounting Standards IAS and later the IFRS. The efforts to harmonise taxation systems for SMEs within the EU have startedmainly in 2001 when the European Commission introduced the green paper whichsurveyed the tax obstacles for the companies in the internal market. Until that timethe European Commission was always trying to harmonise or coordinate the system ofdirect taxation in general without any special emphasis on SMEs. After the publicationof the abovementioned study in 2001 the European Commission suggested fourpossible models of corporate tax harmonisation.2 One of them –Home State TaxationHST – was aimed at SMEs. Under that system the companies will use for thetaxation of their European activities the rules which are valid in the country where thecompany has a seat or headquarters. HST is voluntary – companies could opt to usedomestic taxation rules or not. The model does not represent harmonisation for under this system 27 differentnational taxation systems would still exist. The application of the model could alsoincrease tax competition in order to attract the companies that would tax their profitsfrom the European activities in the country. The European Commission has prepared thepilot project under which the model should be tested for five years in selected countries.However no member state applied to participate therefore the Commission turned itsattention to a second model –the Common Consolidated Corporate Tax Base CCCTB.At present the CCCTB represents the priority of the European Commission –the draft ofthe CCCTB directive should be finished by the end of 2008. The problem is that themodel is mainly aimed at large companies and will probably not be reachable for SMEsfor details see Nerudová 2007. At present the directives connected with accounting are undergoing the revision.The aims are to adopt the directives to the requirements connected with theinternalisation of the business environment and harmonise the directives with IFRS.In 2003 Directive No. 2003/51/EC was adopted which enables the member states whichdo not apply IAS/IFRS on all companies to use the similar financial reporting systems. The situation in the area of accounting harmonisation is solved for large companieslisted on the world stock markets. SMEs have a legal obligation to prepare financialstatements in accordance with a set of accounting principles accepted in their country.Those statements are available to creditors suppliers and the government in theircountry but they could be difficult to understand for creditors suppliers and those inother countries. The financial statements of SMEs that are comparable from one country to thenext are needed for the following reasons. Firstly financial institutions make loans acrossborders and operate on a multinational level. Secondly vendors want to evaluate thefinancial health of buzzers in other countries beforethey sell goods or services on credit.Credit rating agencies try to develop ratings uniformly across borders. Furthermoremany SMEs have overseas suppliers and use a supplier’s financial statement to assess theprospects of a viable long-term business relationship. Venture capital firms also providefunding to SMEs across borders. Many SMEs have external investors who are not involved in the day-to-daymanagement of the entity. Global accounting standards for general-purpose financialstatements and the resulting comparability are especially important when those external The application of an accounting standard for SMEs 237investors are located in a different jurisdiction from the entity and when they haveinterests in other SMEs. Moreover global standards also improve the consistency in auditquality and facilitate education and training. On the other hand good accounting andmore disclosures add to SMEs’ burdens rather than reduce them SMEs are also oftenconcerned about the competitive harmfulness of greater transparency. The benefit of global financial reporting standards is not limited to enterprises whosesecurities are traded in public capital markets. SMEs –and those who use their financialstatements –can benefit from a common set of accounting standards different fromfull IFRS. Users may have less interest in some information in general-purpose financialstatements prepared in accordance with full IFRS than the users of financial statementsof publicly traded entities users of the financial statements of SMEs may have greaterinterest in short-term cash flows liquidity balance sheet strength and interest coverage orthey may need some information that is not ordinarily presented in the financial statementof publicly traded companies. The differences between full IFRS and IFRS for SMEs must be determined on thebasis of u sers’ needs and cost-benefit analyses as quotes Bohuová 2007. There can befound different attitudes to the introduction of standards for SMEs in accounting theory.As stated by Bezinová 2004 it is very important to consider who the users of financialstatements are while making the decision about the application of accounting standardsfor SMEs. Also Veerle 2005 and Street and Larson 2004 were in opposition to SMEs’accounting harmonisation based on full IFRS which is applied in Malta Cyprus orCroatia mainly because of the different needs of users of the information from thefinancial statements. With quotes Bezinová 2004 the basic problem is the approachesto the valuation methods used by IFRS for companies which are not the subjects of publicinterest. The philosophy of IFRS is primarily to provide the information for financialinvestors.。

Chapter 1Marketing：t he process by which companies create value for customers and build strong customer relationships in order to capture value from customers in return.Marketing myopia营销短视:the mistake of paying more attention to the specific products a company offers rather than to the benefits and experiences produced by these products.Customer-perceived value: the customer’s evaluation of the differences between all the values and all costs of a marketing offer relative to those of competing offers.Customer satisfaction: the extent to which a product perceived performance matches the customer’s expectation.Customer equity: the total combined customer lifetime values of all of a company’s all customers.Chapter 2Strategic planning: the progress of developing and maintaining a strategic fit between a organization’s goals and capabilities and its changing marketing opportunities.Mission statement: a statement of a organization’s purpose—what it wants to accomplish in the larger environmentBusiness portfolio: t he collection of businesses and products that makesup the company以下四个和Chapter 7中的内容重复Market segmentation: dividing the market into distinct groups of buyers who might have different needs, characteristics and behavior, and who might require separate products or marketing programs.Market targeting: t he progress of evaluating each segment’s marketing attractiveness and selecting one or more segments to enter. Positioning: arranging for a product to occupy a clear, distinctive and desirable place relative to the competing products in the minds of the target customers.Differentiation: actually differentiating the market offering to create superior customer value.Chapter 3Marketing environment: the actors and forces outside the marketing that affect marketing management’s ability to build and maintain successful relationships with target customers.Microenvironment: the actors close to the company that affect its ability to serve its customers,--the company, suppliers, market customers, marketing intermediaries, competitors and publics.Macroenvironment: the larger societal forces that affect the microenvironment---demographic, natural, economic, political, technological and cultural forces.Marketing intermediaries: the forms that help the company to promote, sell and distribute its goods to final buyers.Chapter 5Consumer buyer behavior: the buying behavior of final consumers—the individuals and householders buy goods and services for personal consumptionConsumer market: all individuals and householders who buy or acquire goods and services for personal consumption.Subculture亚文化群：a group of people with shared value systems based on the common life experiences and situations.Opinion leader: a person within reference group who, because of special skills, knowledge, or other characteristics, exerts social influence on others.Complex buying behavior:consumer buying behavior in situations characterized by high consumer involvement in a purchase and significant perceived brand differences.Habitual buying behavior:consumer buying behavior in situations characterized by low consumer involvement and few significantly perceived brand differences.Purchase decision: the buyer’s decision about which brand or purchase. Postpurchase behavior购后行为：the stage of the buyer decision process in which consumers take further action after the purchase, based on their satisfaction or dissatisfaction.Chapter 7Market segmentation：dividing the market into distinct groups of buyers, who might have different needs, characteristics or behavior, who might require separate products and marketing programs.Market targeting: the process of evaluating each segment’s attractiveness and selecting one or more segments to enter. Differention: actually differentiating a market offering to create superior customer valueTarget market: a set of buyers sharing common needs or characteristics that the company decides to serve.Undifferentiated (mass)marketing: a market-coverage strategy in which a firm decides to ignore the market segment differences and go after the whole market with one offer.Differentiated (segmented)marketing:a market-coverage strategy in which a firm decides to target several market segments and design separate offer for each.Concentrated (niche) marketing: a market-coverage strategy in which afirm decides to go after a large share of one or a few segments or niches. Micromarketing: the practice of tailoring the products and marketing programs to the needs and wants of specific individuals and local customer groups—include individual marketing and local marketing. Competitive advantage: an advantage over competitors gained by offering greater customer value, either through lower prices or by providing more benefits that justify the high prices.Chapter 8Consumer product: a product bought by final consumer for personal consumption.Industrial product:a product bought by individuals and organizations for further processing or for use in conducting a business.Product line:a group of products that are closely related because they function in a similar manner, are sold to the customer group, are marketed through the same types of outlets, or fall within given price ranges. Product mix: the set of all product lines and items that a particular seller offers for sale.Brand equity: the differential effect that knowing the brand name has on customer response to the product or its marketing.Chapter 10Value-based pricing: setting price based on buyers’ perceptions of valuerather than on seller’ cost.Cost-based pricing: setting prices based on producing, distributing and selling the product plus a fair rate of return for effort and risk.Fixed costs : costs that do not vary with production or sales level. Variable costs: costs that directly vary with the level of production.Chapter 11Market-skimming pricing:setting a high price for a new product to skim maximum revenues layer by layer from the segments willing to pay the high price; the company makes fewer but more profitable sales. Market-penetration pricing:setting a low price for a new product to attract a larger number of buyers and a large market share.Chapter 12Value delivery network: the network made up of the company, suppliers, distributors and ultimately customers, who “partner”with each other to improve the performance of the entire system in delivering customer value.Marketing channel: a set of independent organizations that help the company make a product and service for use or consumption by the consumers or business users.Channel conflict: disagreement among marketing channel members ongoals and roles—who should do what and for what rewards.Vertical marketing system: a distribution channel structure in which the producers, wholesalers and retailers act as a unified system. One channel member owns the others, has contracts with them, or has so much power that they all cooperate.Chapter 14Promotion mix(marketing communications mix): the specific blend of promotion tools that the company uses to persuasively communicate customer value and build customer relationships.Integrated marketing communications:carefully integrating and coordinating the company’s many communications channels to deliver a clear, consistent and compelling message about the organizations and the products.Explain marketing’s role in strategic planning and how marketing works with its partners to create and deliver customer value.The major functional departments must work together to accomplish strategic objectives. Marketing plays a key role in the company’s strategic planning by providing a marketing concept philosophy and inputs regarding attractive market opportunities. Within individual businessunits, marketing designs strategies for reaching the unit’s objectives and help to carry them out profitably. Marketers alone cannot produce superior value for customers. A company’s success depends on how well each department performs its customer value-adding activities and how well the departments work together to serve customers. Marketers must practice partner relationship management. They must work closely with partners in other departments to form an effective value chain that serves the customers. And they must partner effectively with other companies in the marketing system to form a competitively superior value delivery network.Describe the elements of a customer-driven marketing strategy and mix, and the forces that influence it.Consumer value and relationships are at the centre of marketing strategy and programs. Through market segmentation, targeting, differentiation, and positioning, the company divides the market into smaller segments, selects segments it can best serve, and decides how it wants to bring value to target consumers. It then designs an integrated marketing mix to produce the response it wants in the target market. The marketing mix consists of product, price, place, and promotion decisions.Describe the environmental forces that affect the company’s ability to serve its customers’Definitions of microenvironment and macroenvironment.Describe the consumer market and construct a simple model of consumer buyer behavior.The simplest model is the stimulus-response model. According to this model, marketing stimuli and other major forces enter the consumer’s “black box” and produce certain responses. Once in the black box, these inputs produce observable buyer responses, such as product choice, brand choice, purchase timing, and purchase amount.Name the four major factors that influence consumer buyer behavior. Consumer buyer behavior is influenced by four key sets of buyer characteristics: cultural, social, personal, and psychological.Consumer buyer behavior is influenced by four major psychological factors—motivation, perception, learning, and beliefs and attitudes.?????184。

EG 201 400-1 V1.1.1 (1999-02)ETSI Guide Hybrid Fiber Coax (HFC) access networks;Part 1: Interworking with PSTN, N-ISDN, Internet and digital mobile networksReferenceDEG/NA-080201 (cyo90icq.PDF)Keywordsaccess, digital, internet, interworking, ISDN,mobile, network, PSTNETSIPostal addressF-06921 Sophia Antipolis Cedex - FRANCEOffice address650 Route des Lucioles - Sophia AntipolisValbonne - FRANCETel.: +33 4 92 94 42 00 Fax: +33 4 93 65 47 16Siret N° 348 623 562 00017 - NAF 742 CAssociation à but non lucratif enregistrée à laSous-Préfecture de Grasse (06) N° 7803/88Internetsecretariat@etsi.frIndividual copies of this ETSI deliverablecan be downloaded fromIf you find errors in the present document, send yourcomment to: editor@etsi.frCopyright NotificationNo part may be reproduced except as authorized by written permission. The copyright and the foregoing restriction extend to reproduction in all media.© European Telecommunications Standards Institute 1999.All rights reserved.ContentsIntellectual Property Rights (5)Foreword (5)Introduction (5)1Scope (6)2References (6)3Definitions, symbols and abbreviations (9)3.1Definitions (9)3.2Symbols (10)3.3Abbreviations (10)4Service Requirements (11)5Functional requirements (11)6Reference Configuration and Reference Points (13)6.1The HFC access network general architecture and boundaries (13)6.2Digital section for HFC access network (14)6.3General reference configuration for HFC Access Networks (15)6.3.1User Port Function (15)6.3.2Service Port Function (16)6.3.3Core Function (16)6.3.4HFC User Interface Function (16)6.3.5HFC Access Node Function (17)6.3.6HFC Transport Network Function (17)6.3.7AN System Management Function (17)6.4HFC Access Network configuration for the considered networks (17)6.5Reference Points (18)6.5.1Reference points at the user interface side (18)6.5.2Reference points at the network interface side (19)7User Interfaces (19)7.1Broadcast UNI (19)7.1.1Analogue Broadcast UNI (19)7.1.1.1Interface references (20)7.1.1.2Protocol stack reference (20)7.1.2Digital Broadcast UNI (21)7.1.2.1Interface references (21)7.1.2.2Protocol stack and peer communication stack reference (21)7.2PSTN UNI (22)7.2.1Interface references (23)7.2.2User Interface functions - POTS Cable Network Termination (23)7.2.3Protocol stack and peer communication stack reference configuration (23)7.3N-ISDN UNI (24)7.3.1Interface references (25)7.3.1.1Basic access (25)7.3.1.2Primary access (25)7.3.2User Interface functions - N-ISDN Cable Network Termination (25)7.3.3Protocol stack and peer communication stack reference (26)7.4Internet Terminal UNI (27)7.4.1Interface references (28)7.4.2User interface functions - IP Cable Network Termination (28)7.4.2.1Definition (28)7.4.2.2Functions and Technology (28)7.4.3Protocol stack and peer communication stack reference (29)7.5Leased Lines UNI (30)7.5.1Interface references (31)7.5.2User Interface functions - Leased Cable Network Termination (31)7.5.3Protocol stack and peer communication stack reference (31)8Service Node Interfaces (SNI) (Access Node Interface) (32)8.1Broadcast Service (32)8.2PSTN Service specific Service node (32)8.2.1Interface references (32)8.2.2Network interface functions - PSTN Cable Line Termination (32)8.2.3Protocol stack and peer communication stack reference configurations (33)8.2.3.1Protocol stacks (33)8.2.3.1.1V5.1N interface (33)8.2.3.1.2V5.2N interface (33)8.2.3.2Protocol peer configurations (34)8.2.3.2.1V5.1 interface (35)8.2.3.2.2V5.2 interface (35)8.3N-ISDN Service specific Service node (36)8.3.1Interface references (36)8.3.2Network interface functions - N-ISDN Cable Line Termination (36)8.3.3Protocol stack and peer communication stack reference configurations (36)8.3.3.1Protocol stacks (36)8.3.3.1.1V5.1N interface (36)8.3.3.1.2V5.2N interface (37)8.3.3.2Protocol peer configurations (38)8.3.3.2.1V5.1 interface (38)8.3.3.2.2V5.2 interface (39)8.4PSTN/N-ISDN Modular Service node (40)8.4.1Interface references (40)8.4.2Network interface functions - PSTN/N-ISDN Cable Line Termination (40)8.4.3Protocol stack and peer communication stack reference configurations (40)8.4.3.1Protocol stacks (40)8.4.3.1.1V5.1N interface (40)8.4.3.1.2V5.2N interface (41)8.4.3.2Protocol peer configurations (42)8.4.3.2.1V5.1 interface (42)8.4.3.2.2V5.2 interface (43)8.5Internet network (44)8.5.1Interface references (44)8.5.2Network interface functions - IP Cable Line Termination (45)8.5.3Protocol stack and peer communication stack reference (45)8.5.3.1Protocol stacks (45)8.5.3.2Protocol peer communication (46)8.6Leased lines Specific Service network (46)8.6.1Interface references (46)8.6.2Network interface functions - Leased Line Cable Line Termination (46)8.6.3Protocol stack and peer communication stack reference configurations (46)9Internal HFC Access Network Aspects (47)9.1Interface references (47)9.2Internal HFC Access Network Structure (47)9.3HFC Access network channel structure and protocols (48)Bibliography (49)History (50)Intellectual Property RightsIPRs essential or potentially essential to the present document may have been declared to ETSI. The information pertaining to these essential IPRs, if any, is publicly available for ETSI members and non-members, and can be found in SR 000 314: "Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs); Essential, or potentially Essential, IPRs notified to ETSI in respect of ETSI standards", which is available free of charge from the ETSI Secretariat. Latest updates are available on the ETSI Web server (/ipr).Pursuant to the ETSI IPR Policy, no investigation, including IPR searches, has been carried out by ETSI. No guarantee can be given as to the existence of other IPRs not referenced in SR 000 314 (or the updates on the ETSI Web server) which are, or may be, or may become, essential to the present document.ForewordThis ETSI Guide (EG) has been produced by ETSI Technical Committee Network Aspects (NA).The present document is part 1 of a multi-part EG covering the Hybrid Fiber Coax (HFC) access networks, as identified below:Part 1:"Interworking with PSTN, N-ISDN, Internet and digital mobile networks";Part 2:"Interworking with B-ISDN Networks".IntroductionCable TV networks are more and more used for other services than just broadcast service. At the user side service terminals other than TV and radio are attached. At the terminal side, the head end needs to interwork with a number of service related networks. The present document presents a number of different interfaces at the user side and the network side and shows how the HFC access network interconnects them, both for user and signalling data.1 ScopeThe present document is focussed on the interworking between HFC networks and other networks. The different user equipment and the different user network interfaces to the access network have an influence on the interworking, and as such, are also considered.It may be the case that an independent cable operator operates an HFC access network that has no interface to a switching network at all. In this case the HFC network is maybe not regarded as an access network, but nevertheless the network may provide services to its customers beyond just Broadcast services. This case is beyond the scope of the present document, since no interworking is involved. If, on the other hand, an independent cable operator has interfaces to other switching networks, the contents of the present documents applies.The present document considers the following public telecommunication networks:- public switching telephone network;- narrowband ISDN network;- internet;- leased lines networks.Other public telecommunication networks will be considered in a later document.Looking at broadcasting, it is considered as a service rather than as a network. The interfaces for broadcast services at the HFC access network are however also considered. Analogue and digital broadcasting are handled separately.2 ReferencesThe following documents contain provisions which, through reference in this text, constitute provisions of the present document.• References are either specific (identified by date of publication, edition number, version number, etc.) or non-specific.• For a specific reference, subsequent revisions do not apply.• For a non-specific reference, the latest version applies.• A non-specific reference to an ETS shall also be taken to refer to later versions published as an EN with the same number.[1] ETR 306: "Transmission and multiplexing (TM); Access networks for residential customers".[2] ITU-T Recommendation G.960 (1993): "Access digital section for ISDN basic rate access".[3] ITU-T Recommendation G.962 (1993): "Access digital section for ISDN primary access at2 048 kbit/s".[4] ITU-T Recommendation G.963 (1993): "Access digital section for ISDN primary access at1 544 kbit/s".[5] ITU-T Recommendation G.964 (1994): "V-interfaces at the digital local exchange (LE) - V5.1interface (based on 2 048 kbit/s) for the support of access network (AN)".[6] ITU-T Recommendation G.965 (1995): "V-interfaces at the digital local exchange (LE) - V5.2Interface (based on 2 048 kbit/s) for the support of access network (AN)".[7] ISO/IEC 10038 (1993): "Information technology - Telecommunications and information exchangebetween systems - Local area networks - Media access control (MAC) bridges".[8]ISO/IEC 8802-2 (1997): "Information technology - Telecommunications and information exchangebetween systems - Local and metropolitan area networks- Specific requirements - Part 2: Logicallink control".[9]ISO/IEC 8802-3 (1997): "Information technology - Telecommunications and information exchangebetween systems - Local and metropolitan area networks - Part 3: Carrier sense multiple accesswith collision detection (CSMA/CD) access method and physical layer specifications".[10]ITU-T Recommendation G.902: "Framework Recommendation on functional access networks(AN) – Architecture and functions, access types, management and service node aspects".[11]ETR 148: "Private Telecommunication Network (PTN); Integrated services architecture for highspeed private networks".[12]ITU-T Recommendation N.51: "Definitions for application to international televisiontransmissions".[13]ITU-T Recommendation I.112: "Vocabulary of terms for ISDNs".[14]ITU-T Recommendation Q.512: "Digital exchange interfaces for subscriber access".[15]ITU-T Recommendation Q.551: "Transmission characteristics of digital exchanges".[16]ITU-T Recommendation Q.552: "Transmission characteristics at 2-wire analogue interfaces ofdigital exchanges".[17]EN 50083-1: "Cabled distribution systems for television and sound signals - Part 1: Safetyrequirements".[18]EN 50083-2: "Cabled distribution systems for television and sound signals - Part 2:Electromagnetic compatibility for equipment".[19]EN 50083-3: "Cabled distribution systems for television and sound signals - Part 3: Active coaxialwideband distribution equipment".[20]EN 50083-4: "Cabled distribution systems for television and sound signals - Part 4: Passive coaxialwideband distribution equipment".[21]EN 50083-5: "Cabled distribution systems for television and sound signals - Part 5: Headendequipment".[22]EN 50083-6: "Cabled distribution systems for television and sound signals - Part 6: Opticalequipment".[23]EN 50083-7: "Cabled distribution systems for television and sound signals - Part 7: Systemperformance".[24]ETS 300 429: "Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB); Framing structure, channel coding andmodulation for cable systems".[25]ITU-T Recommendation J.83: "Digital multiprogramme systems for television, sound and dataservices for cable distribution".[26]ITU-T Recommendation H.222.0: "Information technology - Generic coding of moving picturesand associated audio information: Systems".[27]EN 300 001: "Attachments to the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN); General technicalrequirements for equipment connected to an analogue subscriber interface in the PSTN".[28]ITU-T Recommendation I.411: "ISDN user-network interfaces - Reference configurations".[29]ITU-T Recommendation Q.921: "ISDN user-network interface - Data link layer specification".[30]ITU-T Recommendation Q.931: "ISDN user-network interface layer 3specification for basic callcontrol".[31]ITU-T Recommendation I.430: "Basic user-network interface - Layer 1 specification".[32]ITU-T Recommendation I.431: "Primary rate user-network interface - Layer 1 specification".[33]ETS 300 288: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); 64 kbit/s digital unrestricted leased linewith octet integrity (D64U); Network interface presentation".[34]ETS 300 418: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); 2 048 kbit/s digital unstructured andstructured leased lines (D2048U and D2048S); Network interface presentation".[35]ETS 300 448: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); Ordinary quality voice bandwidth 2-wireanalogue leased line (A2O); Connection characteristics and network interface presentation". [36]ETS 300 449: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); Special quality voice bandwidth 2-wireanalogue leased line (A2S); Connection characteristics and network interface presentation". [37]ETS 300 451: "Business Telecommunications (BTC); Ordinary quality voice bandwidth 4-wireanalogue leased line (A4O); Connection characteristics and network interface presentation". [38]ETS 300 452: "Business Telecommunications (BTC); Special quality voice bandwidth 4-wireanalogue leased line (A4S); Connection characteristics and network interface presentation". [39]ETS 300 766: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); Multiple 64 kbit/s digital unrestricted leasedlines with octet integrity presented at a structured 2 048 kbit/s interface at either or both ends(D64M); Connection characteristics and network interface presentation".[40]ETS 300 686: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); 34 Mbit/s and 140 Mbit/s digital leasedlines (D34U, D34S, D140U and D140S); Network interface presentation".[41]ETS 300 687: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); 34 Mbit/s digital leased lines (D34U andD34S); Connection characteristics".[42]ETS 300 688: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); 140 Mbit/s digital leased lines (D140U andD140S); Connection characteristics".[43]ETS 300 689: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); 34 Mbit/s digital leased lines (D34U andD34S); Terminal equipment interface".[44]ETS 300 690: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); 140 Mbit/s digital leased lines (D140U andD140S); Terminal equipment interface".[45]TBR 25: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); 140 Mbit/s digital unstructured and structuredleased lines (D140U and D140S); Attachment requirements for terminal equipment interface". [46]ETS 300 166: "Transmission and Multiplexing (TM); Physical and electrical characteristics ofhierarchical digital interfaces for equipment using the 2 048 kbit/s - based plesiochronous orsynchronous digital hierarchies".[47]ETS 300 167: "Transmission and Multiplexing (TM); Functional characteristics of 2 048 kbit/sinterfaces".[48]ETS 300 347: "V interfaces at the digital Local Exchange (LE); V5.2 interface for the support ofAccess Network (AN)".[49]ETS 300 324: "V interfaces at the digital Local Exchange (LE); V5.1 interface for the support ofAccess Network (AN)".[50]ITU-T Recommendation I.361: "B-ISDN ATM layer specification".[51]ITU-T Recommendation I.363: "B-ISDN ATM Adaptation Layer specification".[52]ITU-T Recommendation I.432: "B-ISDN User-Network Interface – Physical layer specification".[53]ETS 300 800: "Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB); Interaction channel for Cable TV distributionsystems (CATV)".[54]ITU-T Recommendation J.112: "Vocabulary of terms for ISDNs".[55]EN 50083-9: "Cable networks for television signals, sound and interactive services --Part 9:Interfaces for CATV/SMATV headends and similar equipment for DVB/MPEG-2 transportstreams".[56]EN 50083-8: "Cabled networks for television signals, sound signals and interactive services --Part 8: Electromagnetic compatiblity for networks".[57]EN 50083-10: "Cable networks for television signals, sound signals and interactive services --Part 10: System performance for return paths".[58]IETF RFC 894 (1984): "A standard for the transmission of IP Datagrams over Ethernet Networks".[59]IETF RFC 1042 (1988): "A standard for the Transmission of IP Datagrams over IEEE 802Networks".3Definitions, symbols and abbreviations3.1DefinitionsFor the purposes of the present document, the following definitions apply:Access Network: an implementation, comprising those entities which provide the required transport bearer capabilities for the provision of telecommunication services between a Service Node Interface and each of the associated user-network interfaces. An Access Network can be configured and managed through a Q3 interface. In principle there is no restriction on the types and the number of UNIs and SNIs which an Access Network may implement. The access network does not interpret (user) signalling.Access Node (AN): a node providing access to the public network [ETR 148].broadcast organisation: organisation which is concerned with sound and/or television broadcasting[ITU-T Recommendation N.51].broadcast network: network providing sound and/or television signals to the user, either directly to the user or via an HFC access network.CATV: used as a general term for "cable television" (historically used to indicate "Community Antenna TeleVision" - a centralized installation of television antennas that serves a community of users).downstream direction: direction from the network towards the subscriber.digital section: the whole of the means of digital transmission of a digital signal of specified rate between 2 consecutive reference points. The term should be qualified by the type of access supported, or by a prefix denoting the V interface at the digital section bounderies.Head End (HE): (definition in HFC access network context): equipment in an HFC access network, providing interfaces between the HFC Access network and one or more other networks, and providing an RF communication interface with the user interface functions.Hybrid Fiber/Coax (HFC) Access Network: a mixed fibre and coaxial network architecture using FDM transmission technology based on RF frequencies, in which fibre links are used for the main distribution path, while coaxial links are used as the final link into the users' premises.network interface functions: functions belonging to the Head End in a HFC access network.service node: a network element that provides access to various switched and/or permanent telecommunication services. In case of switched services the SN is providing access call and connection control signalling, and access connection and resource handling [ITU-T Recommendation G.902].service node interface: the interface between an Access Network and a Service Node. (ITU-T Recommendation G.902: The interface which provides customer access to a service node).telecommunication network: a set of nodes and links that provides connections between 2 or more defined ports to facilitate telecommunication between them [ITU-T Recommendation I.112].upstream direction: direction from the subscriber towards the network.User Interface Functions (UIF): functions in an access network, interacting with the user equipment, and providing a RF communication interface with the Head End it is connected to.User Network Interface (UNI): the interface at which the user equipment is connected to the network.3.2SymbolsFor the purposes of the present document, the following symbols apply:<R>C Reference point related to BroadCast service<R>I Reference point related to IP-based service<R>L Reference point related to Leased Line Service<R>N Reference point related to Narrowband ISDN service<R>T Reference point related to Telephony serviceC64User channel of 64 kbit/sD16Data channel of 16 kbit/sD64Data channel of 64 kbit/sM Reference point at a service interface residing in a networkP Reference point at a service interface residing at the border of a networkQ3Telecommunication Network Management InterfaceV5Reference point at the SNI interface of an Access NetworkZ Reference point at the UNI interface of analogue telephony3.3AbbreviationsFor the purposes of the present document, the following abbreviations apply:AN Access NetworkANI Access Network InterfaceCATV Community Antenna TeleVisionCF Core FunctionFDM Frequency Division MultiplexFE Function ElementHFC Hybrid Fiber CoaxHE Head EndLE Local ExchangePC Personal ComputerPRA Primary Rate AccessSN Service NodeSNI Service Node InterfaceSPF Service Port FunctionUIF User Interface FunctionsUPF User Port FunctionUNI User Network Interface4 Service RequirementsAn HFC Access Network may support a number of telecommunication services and telecommunication service components. The basic function of an HFC Access Network is that it uses RF frequencies for transportation of the information between the user side and the network side of the access network. As such, the information, including both signalling and user information, must be mapped in one way or another into the RF frequency spectrum and the traditionally used frequency bands for Radio and Television. In addition to the downstream traffic, some upstream traffic may be required. Depending upon the type and bandwidth of the information, different solutions may be required for different services to be supported.HFC Access Networks may support (but are not required to support) the following Telecommunication services. Supporting" means that the HFC AN does not provide the services itself, but provides the necessary channels, control, management and security functions for transporting the service information between Service Node and User equipment.- Basic service: Radio and TV distribution service.- Telephony service, its supplementary services, and all value added services such like telefax, DECT and voice data modem services.- Internet services: basic TCP/IP en UDP/IP communication and Internet services ftp, telnet, e-mail, usenet, www and gopher.- Mobile services as defined for GSM, DCS 1800 and IMT-2000.- B-ISDN services as defined in the F.700 and F.800 series.- X25 based data services (PSPDN services).The service component information types to be supported are:- Sound: voice, music, etc.;- Video: TV-programme, movie, etc.;- Data: files, static pictures, text, low speed data, high speed data, real-time data, etc.5 Functional requirementsThe fundamental principles of an access network and a HFC access network in particular are reflected by the following functional requirements:- an (HFC) AN is used in order to multiplex/demultiplex the signalling and data streams from UNIs in a cost effective manner and then to present this information stream to the SN in a manner such that the SN can determine the source or sink UNI;- concentration shall be supported across a V5reference point as an option (although it shall always be possible to guarantee bandwidth for user ports who require such a facility such as the security services);- the HFC AN does not interpret (user) signalling. Signalling for Telecommunication services should be handled as near to transparently as possible. This means that the contents of signalling messages should not be checked unless it is unavoidable;- the V5reference point shall not be limited to a single physical interface (for redundancy and to allow more user ports to be connected);- it is not a requirement for local switching to be carried out within the Access Network itself, either under SN control or under local control;- the responsibility for call control and associated connection control resides in the SN (i.e. the HFC AN may have no knowledge of ongoing services and the call state during normal operation);-tones and announcements should be generated in the service node(s) and not in the access networks themselves, except for local ringing and some kind of announcement when the user is not reachable from the service node (e.g.all access network lines busy);-selection of the service provider by the HFC AN based on user signalling information shall not be possible, because this would require SN functionality in the HFC AN.However, for ATM based access types the HFC AN shall support access to different SNs through a single UNI at the same time by using the corresponding VPs associated to these SNs via provisioning. In this case the selection of the service provider is a matter of the user terminal and does not concern the HFC AN or the SNI;-time critical management functions which require real time co-ordination between HFC AN and SN shall be performed by communication across the V5 reference point;-technology specific functions, such as control of echo cancellers which might be required in a radio based access network, shall not be supported unless they are already supported by either V5 (in the case of narrowband services) or B-ISDN (in the case of broadband services);-charging information is only provided by the SN. This information may be passed over the V5 reference point whena user requires it as part of the service to which he has subscribed and is not passed over the V5 reference point as ameans of providing information for use by the HFC AN. Also tones and announcements shall be generated in the SN and not in the HFC AN;-if multicasting is provided in the HFC AN, this shall be allowed to be performed in the SNI to UNI direction only.Otherwise multicasting is presumed to be a service provided by the SN;-the V5 reference point at the SN has a signal structure which is a multiplex of several accesses of the same or of different access types.The HFC AN may serve service specific SNs or modular SNs as defined in ITU-T Recommendation G.902.Service affecting faults in the AN need to be advised to the SN in real time.Signalling streams need to be protected.A HFC AN makes use of RF signals for user, signalling, and maintenance information in the HFC Transport Network.A HFC AN supports basically distribution (analogue and digital audio/video) services, but may be bi-directional and may support (not provide!) telephony service, IP based service, data services, video on demand services.The downstream bandwidth (towards the user) of an HFC is in principle much bigger than the upstream bandwidth.。

BIOLOGICAL AGENTSJolanta Skowroń, Department of Chemical and Aerosol Hazards, Central Institute for Labour Protection – National Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland.1. IntroductionBiological agents are organisms or toxins that have illness-producing effects on people, livestock, and crops. They are found in many sectors of employment. They are rarely visible and so workers are not always able to appreciate the risk they pose. Biological agents include bacteria, viruses, fungi (yeasts and moulds), parasites, other micro-organisms and their associated toxins. They have ability to adversely affect human health in a variety of ways, ranging from relatively mild, allergic reactions to serious conditions, even death. These organisms are ubiquitous in the natural environment; they are found in water, soil, plants, and animals. Because many microbes reproduce rapidly and require minimal resources for survival, they are a potential danger in a wide variety of occupational settings.Whenever people are in contact with natural or organic materials such soil, clay, plant materials (hay, straw, cotton, etc.), substances of animal origin (wool, hair, etc.), food, organic dust (e.g., flour, paper dust, from animals), waste, wastewater, blood and other body fluids, they may be exposed to biological agents. Micro-organisms can enter the human body via damaged skin or mucous membranes. They can be inhaled or swallowed, leading to infections of the upper respiratory tract or the digestive system.2. DefinitionsThere are many definitions of biological agents. In European legislation (Directive2000/54/EC) biological agents are “micro-organisms (microbiological entity, cellular or non-cellular, capable of replication or transferring genetic material), including those which have been genetically modified, cell cultures (the in vitro growth of cells derived from multicellular organisms) and human endoparasites, which may be able to provoke any infections, allergy ortoxicity”. In this definition there are not any animals and plants toxins, egzoparasites, allergens or toxins produced by microorganisms (endotoxin, mycotoxin, glucans) (Dutkiewicz, Górny, 2002).According to ACGIH®(2004) “b iologically derived airborne contaminants include bioaerosols (airborne particles composed of or derived from living organisms) and volatile organic compounds that organisms release. Bioaerosols include micro-organisms (i.e., culturable, nonculturable, and dead microorganisms) and fragments, toxins, and particulate waste products from all varieties of living things”. ACGIH® has developed and separately published guidance on the assessment, control, remediation, and prevention of biologically derived contamination in indoor environments. Indoor biological contamination is defined as the presence of (a) biologically derived aerosols, gases, and vapors of a kind and concentration likely to cause disease or predispose people to disease; (b) inappropriate concentrations of outdoor bioaerosols, especially in buildings designed to prevent their entry; or (c) indoor microbial growth and remnants of biological growth that may become aerosolized and to which people may be exposed. The term biological agents refer to a substance of biological origin that is capable of producing an adverse effect, e.g., an infection or hypersensitivity, irritant, inflammatory, or other response.3. Classification of biological agentsBiological agents can cause three types of diseases: (a) infections caused by parasites, viruses or bacteria; (b) allergies initiated by exposure to mould, organic dust like flour dust and animal dander, enzymes and mites; and (c) poisoning or toxic effects.Biological agents usually are classifies into four risk categories according to their potential to cause diseases and the possibilities of prevention and treatment: group 1 – biological agents that are unlikely to cause human disease; group 2 – biological agents that can cause human disease and might be a hazard to workers but there is usually effective prophylaxis ortreatment available; group 3 – biological agents that can cause severe human disease and present a serious hazard to workers but there is usually effective prophylaxis or treatment available; group 4 – biological agents that can cause severe human disease and is a serious hazard to workers but there is no effective prophylaxis or treatment available.4. Measurement of airborne micro-organismsMeasurements could aim to locate sources emitting micro-organisms, to measure a worker’s daily or work shift exposure, to identify peaks in exposure, to test the efficiency of control measures, or to control actions taken to diminish the exposure. The following measurement options can be used to measure micro-organisms and endotoxin: (-) microbial cells by direct counting (the total number); (-) microbial cells and cell aggregates by culturing on agar media (the culturable number); (-) cellular components of micro-organisms, from viable, non-viable or disintegrated micro-organisms, e.g., constituents of cell structure which may also have inflammatory properties, such as endotoxin and glucans; (-) primary metabolites (e.g., ATP) which may serve as markers of micro-organisms or of their vital activity; (-) secondary metabolites (e.g. mycotoxins) which may be found in the micro-organisms and other particles in the aerosol. Sampling of aerosols of microbiological origin should be made in accordance with the principles of sampling to assess worker’s exposure to other substances hazardous to health. Static or personal exposure to bioaerosols can be intermittent and of short duration, and it can be related to specific work activities. The sampler used shall have known and documented sampling efficiency, e.g., capable of sampling total micro-organisms, viable micro-organisms or microbial components. The methods used for analysing the sample should be selected according to the kind of micro-organisms or microbial components (cultivation methods, microscopic methods, endotoxin – LAL method) (EN 13098).Non-viable micro-organisms are not living organisms; as such, they are not capable of reproduction. The bioaerosol is collected on a “greased” surface or a membrane filter. Themicro-organisms are then enumerated and identified using microscopy, classical microbiology, molecular biological, or immunochemical techniques. When sampling for culturable bacteria and fungi, the bioaerosol is generally collected by impaction onto the surface of a broad spectrum solid medium (agar), filtration through a membrane filter, or impingement into an isotonic liquid medium (water-based). Organisms collected by impaction onto an agar surface may be incubated for a short time, replica-plated (transferred) onto selective or differential media, and incubated at different temperatures for identification and enumeration of micro-organisms. Impingement collection fluids are plated directly on agar, serially diluted and plated, or the entire volume of fluid is filtered through a membrane filter. The membrane filter is then placed on an agar surface and all colonies may be replica-plated. Culturable micro-organisms may be identified or classified by using microscopy, classical microbiology, or molecular biology techniques such as restriction fragment length polymorphic (RFLP) analysis. Classical microbiology techniques include observation of growth characteristics; cellular or spore morphology; simple and differential staining; and biochemical, physiological, and nutritional testing for culturable bacteria. Analytical techniques which may be applied to both non-viable and viable micro-organisms, but which do not distinguish among them, include polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Such methods may be used to identify specific micro-organisms and to locate areas of contamination (Jensen, Sch afer, 1994; Skowroń, Gołofit-Szymczak, 2004).When microbial numbers have been derived from counting colonies grown on agar plates, the results shall be expressed as colony forming units per cubic metre (CFU/m3). When microbial numbers have been derived from microscoping counting, the results shall be expressed as the total number of micro-organisms per cubic metre of air sampled. Endotoxin shall be expressed as endotoxin unit per cubic metre (EU/m3) air sampled and related to the reference standard used.There are currently no occupational exposure limits for biological contaminants. The essential difference between biological agents and other hazardous substances is their ability to reproduce. A small amount of a micro-organism may grow considerably in a very short time under favourable conditions.Bioaerosols may contain different micro-organisms and/or different components from these. Micro-organisms may be classified in different taxonomic groups like Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, protozoa, algae and viruses. These may be further classified to genus or species level. Immunologic reactions, e.g., allergic and/or toxic reactions can result from exposure to micro-organisms irrespective of their viability.Exposure to biological agents very often leads to adverse health effects in susceptible individuals. Elaboration of values for biologically derived airborne contaminants seems to be necessary to prevent harmful exposure in occupational and non-occupational environments, to ensure reliability of measurement methods and proper interpretation of the results.ACGIH® (2004) actively solicits information, comments, and data in form of peer-reviewed literature on health effects associated with bioaerosol exposures in occupational and related environments that may help the Bioaerosols Committee evaluate the potential for proposing exposure guidelines for selected biologically derived airborne contaminants: Gram negative bacterial endotoxin, (1-3) beta, D-glucan.The Scandinavian CFU-oriented projects for Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) suggest 5 ÷ 10 x 103 CFU/m3 for total micro-organisms, 1 x 103 CFU/m3 for Gram-negative bacteria and 1 ÷ 2 x 102 ng/m3 for endotoxin (Malmros, Sigsgaard, Bach, 1992). The project prepared in Poland suggests 1 x 105 CFU/m3 for total micro-organisms, 5 x 104 CFU/m3 for fungi, 2 x 104 CFU/m3 for Gram-negative bacteria and thermophilic actinomycetes, with a reduction of the values by half if the respirable fraction equals to or exceeds 50% of the total count and 2 x 102 ng/m3 for endotoxin. This project is based on the fact that at a continuous exposure tomicrobial concentrations above 105 CFU/m3, work-related respiratory disorders in workers are very common. The presence in indoor air of micro-organisms from risk groups 3 and 4, independently of the concentration, should always be inadmissible and result in prevention actions (Dutkiewicz, 1997; Górny, Dutkiewicz, 2002).5. Risk assessment and preventionEmployers have a duty to provide and maintain for employees, as far as practicable, a working environment that is safe and without risks to health. This includes providing a safe system of work, information, training, supervision, and where appropriate personal protective equipment. The employer must identify hazards in the workplace and, if practicable, eliminate these hazards. If this is not practicable, then the employer must take measures to control the hazard and reduce the risk to workers. When a work activity involves a deliberate, intentional use of biological agents, such as cultivating a micro-organism in a microbiological laboratory or using it in food production, the biological agent will be known, can be monitored more easily and measures taken to prevent exposure. When the occurrence of biological agents is an unintentional consequence of the work - for example in waste sorting or in agricultural activities - the assessment of risks that workers are exposed to will be more difficult. In any case, for some of the activities involved, information on exposures and protection measures is available.If exposure is not avoidable, it should be kept to a minimum by limiting the number of workers who are exposed, and reducing their exposure time. The control measures introduced in a workplace must be tailored to the working processes. The employer also has the responsibility to provide the workers with information and training to enable them to recognize the hazards and to follow safe working procedures.The measures which need to be taken to eliminate or reduce the risks to workers will depend on the particular biohazard, but there are a number of common actions that can beimplemented: many biological agents are communicated via air, such as exhaled bacteria or toxins of mould grains. The production of aerosols and dusts should be avoided in the manufacturing process, during cleaning and/or maintenance; good housekeeping, hygienic working procedures and use of relevant warning signs are key elements of safe and healthy working conditions; many micro-organisms have developed mechanisms to survive or resist heat, dehydration or radiation, for example, by producing spores. The workplace must develop decontamination measures for waste, equipment and clothing, and appropriate hygienic measures for workers, as well as proper instructions for safe disposal of waste, emergency procedures, and first aid. In some cases preventative measures may include vaccinations to workers most at risk.REFERENCESDirective 2000/54/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 September 2000 on the protection of workers from risk related to exposure to biological agents in the work. Official Journal of the European Communities, 17.10.2000, L 262/21-45.Dutkiewicz J.: Bacteria and fungi in organic dust as potential health hazard. Ann Agric Environ Med, 1997, 4, 11-16.Dutkiewicz J., Górny R.L.: Biological factors hazardous to human health: classification and criteria of exposure assessment. Med. Pr. 2002, 53(1), 29-39 (in Polish).EN 13098. Workplace atmosphere – Guidelines for measurement of airborne micro-organisms and endotoxin. CEN, 2000.Górny R.L., Dutkiewicz J.: Bacterial and fungal aerosols in indoor environment in Central and Eastern European countries. Ann Agric Environ Med, 2002, 9, 17-23.Jensen PA, Schafer MP. Sampling and characterization of bioaerosols. Revision of Jense PA; Lighart B., Mohr AJ, Shaffer BT (1994). Instrumentation used with microbial aerosol. IN:Lighart B., Mohr AJ (Eds.) Atmospheric microbial aerosols: theory and applications. New York: Chapman & Hall, 226-284.Malmros P., Sigsgaard T., Bach B.: Occupational health problems due to garbage sorting. Waste Manag Res, 1992, 10, 227-234.Skowroń J., Gołofit-Szymczak M.: Microbiological air pollution in the working environment –sources, types and monitoring. Bromatology and Toxicological Chemistry, 2004, 37(1), 91-98 (in Polish).TLV® and BEIs® Based on the Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents & Biological Exposure Indices. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, 2004, 181-185.。

fundamentals of microelectronics英文原版Title: Fundamentals of Microelectronics: A Comprehensive OverviewIntroduction:Microelectronics is a field that deals with the design, fabrication, and application of electronic devices and circuits on a small scale. It forms the foundation of modern technology and has revolutionized various industries. This article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the fundamentals of microelectronics, covering essential concepts and principles.I. Basic Principles of Microelectronics1.1 Semiconductor Physics:- Band theory and energy levels in semiconductors- Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors- Doping and carrier concentrations- P-N junctions and diodes1.2 Transistors:- Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs)- Field-effect transistors (FETs)- MOSFETs and CMOS technology- Transistor operation and characteristics1.3 Integrated Circuits:- Introduction to integrated circuits (ICs)- Types of ICs: analog, digital, and mixed-signal- Fabrication processes: lithography, etching, and deposition - Packaging and testing of ICsII. Circuit Analysis and Design2.1 Circuit Analysis Techniques:- Kirchhoff's laws and network theorems- Node and mesh analysis- Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits- AC and DC analysis2.2 Amplifiers:- Amplifier fundamentals and types- Small-signal analysis- Frequency response and bandwidth- Feedback in amplifiers2.3 Digital Logic Gates:- Boolean algebra and logic gates- Combinational and sequential circuits- Flip-flops and registers- Arithmetic circuitsIII. Semiconductor Devices and Technology3.1 Diodes and Rectifiers:- Diode characteristics and applications- Rectifier circuits: half-wave and full-wave- Zener diodes and voltage regulation- Optoelectronic devices: LEDs and photodiodes3.2 Operational Amplifiers:- Ideal op-amp characteristics- Inverting and non-inverting amplifiers- Op-amp circuits: summing, integrator, and differentiator- Feedback and stability in op-amp circuits3.3 Memory Devices:- Static and dynamic random-access memory (SRAM and DRAM)- Read-only memory (ROM) and programmable logic devices (PLDs) - Flash memory and non-volatile storage- Memory hierarchy in computer systemsIV. Analog and Digital Systems4.1 Analog Circuits:- Analog signal processing and conditioning- Filters: low-pass, high-pass, and band-pass- Operational amplifier applications- Analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters4.2 Digital Systems:- Number systems: binary, decimal, and hexadecimal- Logic gates and Boolean algebra- Combinational and sequential logic- Digital system design and implementation4.3 Communication Systems:- Analog and digital modulation techniques- Transmission media: wired and wireless- Multiplexing and demultiplexing- Error detection and correctionV. Emerging Trends in Microelectronics5.1 Nanoelectronics:- Introduction to nanotechnology- Carbon nanotubes and graphene- Nanoscale devices and applications- Challenges and future prospects5.2 Internet of Things (IoT):- IoT architecture and components- Wireless sensor networks- IoT applications in healthcare, smart homes, and industry - Security and privacy concerns5.3 Artificial Intelligence (AI):- Machine learning and neural networks- AI hardware accelerators- AI applications: autonomous vehicles, robotics, and natural language processing - Ethical considerations and future developmentsConclusion:Microelectronics is a vast and dynamic field that underpins modern technology. This article has provided a comprehensive overview of the fundamentals of microelectronics, covering essential concepts such as semiconductor physics, circuit analysis and design, semiconductor devices and technology, analog and digital systems, and emerging trends. Understanding these fundamentals is crucial for anyone interested in pursuing a career or further studies in microelectronics.。

Orphan designation•Email•Print•Help•ShareThis section provides guidance and procedural information on applyingfor orphan designation for medicines for rare diseases in the European Union (EU). It also includes information on what happens after a designation has been granted, including the incentives available for sponsors developing orphanmedicines.Orphan designationTo qualify for orphan designation, a medicine must meet a number of criteria:•it must be intended for the treatment, prevention or diagnosis of a disease that is life-threatening or chronically debilitating;•the prevalence of the condition in the EU must not be more than 5 in 10,000 or it must be unlikely that marketing of the medicine would generate sufficient returns to justify the investment needed for its development;•no satisfactory method of diagnosis, prevention or treatment of the condition concerned can be authorised, or, if such a method exists, the medicine must be of significant benefit to those affected by the condition.Applications for orphan designation are examined by the European MedicinesAgency'sCommittee for Orphan Medicinal Products (COMP), using the network of experts that the Committee has built up. The evaluation process takes a maximum of 90 days from validation.For information on how to apply, see how to apply for orphan designation.After orphan designationSponsors who obtain orphan designation benefit from a number of incentives,includingprotocol assistance, a type of scientific advice specific for designated orphanmedicines, and market exclusivity once the medicine is on the market. Fee reductions are also available depending on the status of the sponsor and the type of service required.When planning the development of their medicinal product, sponsors should consult the relevant scientific guidelines.Sponsors must submit an annual report to the Agency summarising the status ofdevelopment of the medicine.Applications for marketing authorisation for designated orphan medicines are assessed by the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP). Sponsors also need to submit an application for maintenance of the orphan designation in order to be eligible for the 10-year market exclusivity incentive. Sponsors may also need to submit anevaluation of orphan similarity.More information•Legal background•How to apply for orphan designation•Activities after orphan designation•Guidance and formsLegal background: orphan designation•Email•Print•Help•ShareThis page summarises the legal background to the procedure for orphandesignation in the European Union (EU). It includes the key milestones in EU legislation adopted since the Orphan Regulation was first adopted in 1999.Regulation (EC) No 141/2000 (the Orphan Regulation)On 16 December 1999, the European Parliament adopted Regulation (EC) No 141/2000 (the Orphan Regulation). This was published in the Official Journal of the EuropeanCommunities on 22 January 2000.The Regulation:•lays down the EU procedure for designation of orphan medicines;•defines incentives for the development and placing onto the market of designated orphan medicines;•establishes the Committee for Orphan Medicinal Products (COMP).Regulation (EC) No 847/2000On 27 April 2000, the European Commission adopted Regulation (EC) No 847/2000, which:•lays down implementing rules;•sets out definitions essential for the application of the Orphan Regulation.This Regulation entered into force on 28 April 2000. On this date, sponsors could begin to submit applications for orphan designation to the European Medicines Agency.European Commission Communication 2003/C 178/02On 29 July 2003, the European Commission adopted Communication 2003/C 178/02, which sets out the Commission's interpretation on:•matters relating to the implementation of the orphan designation;•provisions for market exclusivity.Regulation (EC) No 726/2004On 31 March 2004, the European Parliament adopted Regulation (EC) No 726/2004, which provides the legal framework for the centralised authorisation and supervision of medicines for human and veterinary use and establishes the European Medicines Agency (EMA). It determines that:•all marketing authorisations for orphan medicines in the EU should follow the centralised authorisation procedure;•the CHMP can issue guidance regarding compassionate-use programmes.Regulation (EC) No 507/2006On 29 March 2006, the European Parliament adopted Regulation (EC) No 507/2006, which provides the legal framework for the granting of a conditional marketingauthorisation to medicines that fall within the scope of Regulation (EC) No 726/2004. It establishes that orphan medicines can be granted a conditional marketingauthorisationwithin this legal framework.Regulation (EC) No 1901/2006On 12 December 2006, the European Parliament adopted Regulation (EC) No 1901/2006 on medicinal products for paediatric use. It establishes that the usual period of market exclusivity for orphan medicines may be extended to twelve years if study results are submitted in compliance with an agreed paediatric investigation plan at the timeofmarketing authorisation.Regulation (EC) No 2049/2005On 15 December 2005, the European Commission adopted Regulation (EC) No 2049/2005 regarding the payment of fees to, and receipt of assistance from, the EMA by micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). It determines that scientific adviceandscientific services for designated orphan medicines shall be provided by the EMA to SMEs free of charge.European Commission guidelinesThe European Commission has also issued guidelines on aspects of the application of the Orphan Regulation:•Guideline on aspects of the application of Article 8(1) and (3) of Regulation (EC) No 141/2000: Assessing similarity of medicinal products versus authorised orphan medicinal products benefiting from market exclusivity and applying derogations from that market exclusivity;•Guideline on aspects of the application of Article 8(2) of Regulation (EC) No 141/2000 of the European Parliament and of the Council: Review of the period ofmarket exclusivity of orphan medicinal products.How to apply for orphan designation•Email•Print•Help•ShareThis page provides information for sponsors on how to apply to the European Medicines Agency for orphan designation for a medicine.Notification of intention to submitSponsors should notify the EMA of their intention to submit an application as early as possible, and at the latest two months prior to the planned submission date. Thisnotification should be sent by e-mail orphandrugs@ema.europa.eu. It should include: •the name of the active substance;•the proposed orphan indication (i.e. treatment, prevention or diagnosis of a rare disease); •the name and address of the sponsor;•the planned submission date for the designation application and the proposed date for a pre-submission meeting (if required);•the unique product identifier (UPI) number. If you already have a UPI number please quote it in all your correspondence. Otherwise, the number will be assigned automatically when we receive your intent to file and communicated to you by e-mail.Presubmission meetingsThe Agency strongly encourages sponsors to request a presubmission meeting with the Agency prior to filing an application.Presubmission meetings usually take place via teleconference, unless the sponsor has a strong preference to come to the Agency in person.Where possible, sponsors should request a pre-submission meeting at least two months prior to filing. Presubmission meetings for orphan designation are free of charge.Presubmission meetings are useful since the evaluation process has a fixed duration of 90 days and cannot be lengthened to accommodate for the lack of data or other omissions in the application. Experience has shown that they have a positive impact on the success rate of the applications.Application procedureSponsors should use the forms below to apply for orphan designation:•Application form for orphan-medicinal-product designation•Common European Medicines Agency / Food and Drug Administration (FDA) application form or application form for orphan medicinal product designation•Template for sections A to E for the scientific part of the application for orphan designation •Translations required with the submission of an application for orphan medicinal product designationRefer to these documents for assistance completing these forms:•Guideline on the format and content of applications for designation as orphan medicinal products and on the transfer of designations from one sponsor to another, 27 March 2014•Points to consider on the calculation and reporting of the prevalence of a condition for orphan designation•Recommendation on elements required to support the medical plausibility and the assumption of significant benefit for an orphan designation•Data providers and sources to identify existing authorised medicinal products in the European Union and European Economic AreaIn particular, when completing section A.3.2 'Plausibility of the orphan condition; rationale for use of the medicinal product', sponsors should clearly identify studies with thesubstance in a relevant model(s) of the condition and, if possible, preliminary clinical data in patients with the condition.Each application is assigned two coordinators:•one member of the Committee for Orphan Medicinal Products (COMP);•one scientific administrator from the Agency secretariat.Once the application form and sections A to E are complete, the sponsor should submit the complete application electronically to the Agency and to the assigned COMPcoordinator via Eudralink.The application should include full copies of the bibliographical references. The application form and sections A to E should be supplied in Word format (compatible with version 97-2003). References and the signed application form should be supplied as PDF files. In the application, sponsors should clearly substantiate the claims and support the statements made, with references where possible.Deadlines for submission of applications for orphan designation are availableunder submission deadlines.Applications for orphan designation are free of charge.The Agency will validate the application and will send the sponsor a validation issues letter explaining if the application is found to be invalid or incomplete. Once the validation is complete, the Agency will send a timetable for the evaluation procedure to the sponsor.The Agency advises sponsors developing advanced therapies to apply separately to the Committee for Advanced Therapies (CAT) to have their medicine classified as anadvanced-therapy medicine. For more information, see advanced-therapy medicinalproduct classification.Parallel application with international regulatorsThe Agency encourages parallel applications for orphan designation with regulatoryauthorities outside the EU.The Agency has special arrangements with regulators in the United States and Japan for this purpose:•The Agency advises sponsors to use the common orphan application form with the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to apply for orphan designation,particularly if an application has not been submitted in the United States before.•If an application has not been submitted to the Japanese authorities before, the Agency also encourages the sponsor to seek orphan designation from the Ministry for Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW) in Japan. Under the Japanese orphan designation system, the MHLW provides consultation on orphan designations before submission, whereasmarketing-authorisation applications submitted following anorphan designation areassessed by the and the Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency (PMDA). TheMHLW generally seeks scientific counsel from the PMDA on theorphan designation.Evaluation of applicationsAfter submission, the two coordinators prepare a summary report on the application, which is circulated to all COMP members and discussed at the COMP's next plenarymeeting.At this stage, the COMP will either adopt a positive opinion or raise a list of questionsand invite the sponsor to an oral explanation at the next COMP plenary meeting.The COMP should adopt an opinion by day 90 of the procedure. It forwards this tothe European Commission for adoption of a decision.If the COMP's opinion is negative, the sponsor can appeal.European Commission decisionThe European Commission will issue a decision on a COMP opinion within 30 days of receipt. Following a decision:•the Agency publishes information on the orphan designation under rare disease (orphan) designations;•the European Commission enters the orphan designation into the Community register of designated orphan medicinal products.More information•Submission deadlines for orphan designations•Questions and answers: orphan-designation application•Guidance and formsActivities after orphan designation•Email•Print•Help•ShareThis section provides information on the incentives available to sponsors ofmedicines that have obtained orphan designation and the activities that take place after a designation has been granted.Sponsors who obtain orphan designation benefit from a number of orphan incentives, including protocol assistance, a type of scientific advice specific for designated orphan medicines, and market exclusivity once the medicine is on the market. Fee reductions are also available depending on the status of the sponsor and the type of service required.Sponsors must submit an annual report on development to the Agency summarising the status of development of the medicine.Applications for marketing authorisation for designated orphan medicines are assessed by the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP). Sponsors also need to submit an application for maintenance of the orphan designation in order to be eligible for the 10-year market exclusivity incentive. For more information, see marketingauthorisation and market exclusivity.Transfers of orphan designation from one sponsor to another are possible. Transfers are free of charge.Sponsors can also request removal of an orphan designation.Sponsors of medicines with orphan designation should also remember to apply fora paediatric investigation plan, deferral or waiver once phase-I clinical studies arecomplete. For more information, see paediatric medicine development.More information•Orphan incentives•Annual report on development•Marketing authorisation and market exclusivity•Transfers of orphan designation•Removal of an orphan designationOrphans: Regulatory and procedural guidance and forms•Email•Print•Help•ShareThis page lists the guidance documents on orphan designation.Table of contents•Orphan designation•Post-designation•General•Standard operating proceduresRelated links•Guideline on the format and content of applications for designation as orphan medicinal products and on the transfer of designations from one sponsor to another •Regulation (EC) No 141/2000 of the European Parliament and the Council of 16 December 1999 on orphan products•Commission Regulation (EC) No 847/2000 of 27 April 2000 laying down the provisions for implementation of the criteria for designation of a medicinal product as an orphan medicinal product and definitions of the concepts ‘similar medicinal product’and‘clinical superiority’•Commission Communication 2003/C 178/02 of 29 July 2003 setting out the Commission's interpretation on matters relating to the implementation of the orphan designation and provisions for market exclusivity•Guideline on aspects of the application of Article 8(1) and (3) of Regulation (EC) No 141/2000: Assessing similarity of medicinal products versus authorised orphanmedicinal products benefiting from market exclusivity and applying derogations from that market exclusivity•Guideline on aspects of the application of Article 8(2) of Regulation (EC) No 141/2000 of the European Parliament and the Council: Review of the period of marketexclusivity of orphan medicinal products•Inventory of Community and national incentive measures to aid the research, marketing, development and availability of orphan medicinal products•Register of designated orphan medicinal products•The Seventh Framework Programme•Meeting dates for the Committee for Orphan Medicinal Products (COMP)•FDA - Office of Orphan Products Development•Japanese National Institute for Biomedical Innovation: Services to promote development of medicinal products for rare diseases。

RDA5802ES INGLE -C HIP B ROADCAST FM R ADIO T UNER Rev.1.7–Jun.20091 General DescriptionThe RDA5802Esingle-chip broadcast decoder. The tuner support The RDA5802E can frequency band.1.1Featuresl l Ø power supplyl Ø 65 -108 MHz l Digital low-IF tunerØ Image-reject down-converter Ø High performance A/D converter Ø IF selectivity performed internally l Fully integrated digital frequency synthesizerØ Fully integrated on-chip RF and IF VCO Ø Fully integrated on-chip loop filter l Autonomous search tuning l Support 32.768KHz crystal oscillator l Digital auto gain control (AGC) l Digital adaptive noise cancellationØ Mono/stereo switch Ø Soft mutel Line-level analog output voltagel 32.768 KHz 12M,24M,13M,26M,19.2M,38.4MHzReference clockl 2-wire and 3-wire serial control bus interface l Directly support 32Ω resistance loading l Integrated LDO regulatorØ 1.8 to 5.5 V operation voltage l 4X4mm 24 pin QFN package 1.2Applicationsl Cellular handsets l MP3, MP4 playersl Portable radios ，PDAs, NotebookFigure 1-1. RDA5802E Top View2 Table of Contents1General Description (1)1.1 Features (1)1.2Applications (1)2Table of Contents (2)3Functional Description (3)3.1 FM Receiver (3)3.2 Synthesizer (3)3.3 Power Supply (3)3.4 RESET and Control Interface select (4)3.5 Control Interface (4)3.6 I2S Audio Data Interface (4)3.7 GPIO Outputs (4)4Electrical Characteristics (5)5Receiver Characteristics (6)6Serial Interface (7)6.1 Three-wire Interface Timing (7)6.2 I2C Interface Timing (8)7Register Definition (9)8 Pins Description (13)9Application Diagram (15)9.1 Audio Loading Resistance Larger than 32Ω & TCXO Application: (15)9.1.1 Bill of Materials: (15)9.2 Audio Loading Resistance Lower than 32Ω & DCXO Application: (16)9.2.1 Bill of Materials: (16)10Package Physical Dimension (17)11PCB Land Pattern (18)12Change List (21)13Notes： (21)14RDA5802E与RDA5802对比 (22)15Contact Information (23)3Functional Descriptionconverters (ADCs), an audio DSP and a high- fidelity digital-to-analog converters (DACs). The LNA has differential input ports (LNAP and LNAN) and supports any input port by set according registers bits (LNA_PORT_SEL[1:0]). It default input common mode voltage is GND. The limiter prevents overloading and limits the amount of intermodulation products created by strong adjacent channels.The quadrature mixer down converts the LNA output differential RF signal to low-IF, it also has image-reject function.The PGA amplifies the mixer output IF signal and then digitized with ADCs.3.2SynthesizerThe frequency synthesizer generates the local oscillator signal which divide to quadrature, then be used to downconvert the RF input to a constant low intermediate frequency (IF). The synthesizer reference clock is 32.768 KHz. The synthesizer frequency is defined by bits CHAN[9:0] with the range from 65MHz to 108MHz. 3.3Power SupplyThe RDA5802E integrated one LDO which supplies power to the chip. The external supplyvoltage range is 1.8-5.5 V. 3.4RESET and Control Interface selectThe RDA5802E is RESET itself When VIO is Power up. And also support soft reset by trigger 02H BIT1 from 0 to 1. The control interface is select by MODE Pin. The MODE Pin is low ,I2C Interface is select. The MODE Pin is set to VIO, SPI Interface is select. 3.5Control InterfaceThe RDA5802E supports three- wire and I 2C control interface. User could select either of them to program the chip.The three-wireinterface. It includes 4-bit high register at posedge of SCLK. (MSB is the first bit) around cycle between and data from The I 2C interface SDIO. A I 2a 7-bit chip address The ACK (or NACK) is always sent out by receiver. When in write transfer, data bytes is written out from MCU, and when in read transfer, data bytes is read out from RDA5802E. There is no visible register address in I 2C interface transfers. The I 2C interface has a fixed start register address (0x02h for write transfer and 0x0Ah for read transfer), and an internal incremental address counter. If register address meets the end of register file, 0x3Ah, register address will wrap back to 0x00h. For writetransfer, MCU programs registers from register 0x02h high byte, then register 0x02h low byte, then register 0x03h high byte, till the last register. RDA5802E always gives out ACK after every byte, and MCU gives out STOP condition when register programming is finished. For read transfer, after command byte from MCU, RDA5802E sends out register 0x0Ah high byte, then register 0x0Ah low byte, then register 0x0Bh high byte, till receives NACK from MCU. MCU gives out ACK for data bytes besides last data byte. MCU gives out NACK for last data byte, and then RDA5802E will return the bus to MCU, and MCU will give out STOP condition.Details refer to RDA5802E Programming Guide . 2is fully compliant as I 2S master and rate is 48Kbps ，also support as . with bits GPIO1[1:0], pins could be and stereo indicator with bits GPIO1[1:0], GPIO2[1:0], GPIO3[1:0]. GPIO2 could be programmed to output a low interrupt (interrupt will be generated only with interrupt enable bit STCIEN is set to high) when seek/tune process completes. GPIO3 could be programmed to output stereo indicator bit ST. Constant low, high or high-Z functionality is available regardless of the state of VA and VD supplies or the ENABLE bit.Figure 3-2. I2S Digital Audio Format4 Electrical CharacteristicsTable 4-1DC Electrical Specification (Recommended Operation Conditions):1. For Pin: SCLK, SDIO, SEN, MODETable 4-3 Power Consumption Specification(VDD = 1.8 to 5.5 V, T A = -25 to 85 ℃, unless otherwise specified)SYMBOLDESCRIPTIONCONDITIONTYP UNIT I A Analog Supply Current ENABLE=1 18 mA I D Digital Supply Current ENABLE=13mA I VIO Interface Supply Current SCLK and RCLK inactive 90 µA I APD Analog Powerdown Current ENABLE=0 2 µA I DPD Digital Powerdown Current ENABLE=0 2 µA I VIOInterface Powerdown CurrentENABLE=010µASCK5 Receiver CharacteristicsTable 5-1 Receiver Characteristics(VDD = 2.7 to 5.5 V, T A = -25 to 85 °C, unless otherwise specified)Notes:1. F in=65 to 108MHz; F mod=1KHz; de-emphasis=75µs; MONO=1; L=R unless noted otherwise;2. ∆f=22.5KHz;3. B AF = 300Hz to 15KHz, RBW <=10Hz;4. |f2-f1|>1MHz, f0=2xf1-f2, AGC disable, F in=76 to 108MHz;5. P RF=60dB U V;6. ∆f=75KHz.7. Measured at V EMF = 1 m V, f RF = 65 to 108MHz8. At LOUT and ROUT pins6 Serial Interface6.1 Three-wire Interface TimingTable 6-1 Three-wire Interface Timing Characteristics(VDD = 2.7 to 5.5 V, T A = -25 to 85 °C, unless otherwise specified)Figure 6-2. Three-wire Interface Read Timing Diagram6.2 I2C Interface TimingTable 6-2 I2C Interface Timing Characteristics(VDD = 2.7 to 5.5 V, T A = -25 to 85 °C, unless otherwise specified)Figure 6-3. I2C Interface Write Timing DiagramFigure 6-4. I2C Interface Read Timing Diagram7 Register Definition8 Pins DescriptionN DCCP I O 1P I O 2P I O 3Table 8-2 Internal Pin Configuration9 Application Diagram9.1 Audio Loading Resistance Larger than 32Ω & TCXO Application:Ω Resistance1—I2C,VIO—SPI);7COMPONENT VALUE DESCRIPTION SUPPLIERU1 RDA5802E Broadcast FM Radio Tuner RDAJ1 Common 32Ω Resistance HeadphoneC2 100pF Couple CAP MurataL3/C3 100nH/24pF LC Chock for LNA Input MurataC4,C5 125µF Audio AC Couple Capacitors MurataC6 24nF Power Supply Bypass Capacitor MurataF1/F2 1.5K@100MHz FM Band Ferrite Murata9.2 Audio Loading Resistance Lower than 32Ω & DCXO Application:1310 Package Physical DimensionFigure 10-1illustrates the package details for the RDA5802E. The package is lead-free and RoHS-compliant.Figure 10-2. 24-Pin 4x4 Quad Flat No-Lead (QFN)11 PCB Land PatternTable-I Classification Reflow ProfilesPackage Thickness Volume mm3<350Volume mm3≥350＜2.5mm 240 + 0/-5 o C 225 + 0/-5 o C≥2.5mm225 + 0/-5 o C225 + 0/-5 o CTable – II SnPb Eutectic Process – Package Peak Reflow Temperaturesthickness and volume. The use of convection reflow processes reduces the thermal gradients between packages. However, thermal gradients due to differences in thermal mass of SMD package may sill exist.Note 5: Components intended for use in a “lead-free” assembly process shall be evaluated using the “lead free”classification temperatures and profiles defined in Table-I II III whether or not lead free.RoHS CompliantThe product does not contain lead, mercury, cadmium, hexavalent chromium, polybrominated biphenyls (PBB) or polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), and are therefore considered RoHS compliant.ESD SensitivityIntegrated circuits are ESD sensitive and can be damaged by static electricity. Proper ESD techniques should be used when handling these devices.12 Change ListREV DATE AUTHER CHANGE DESCRIPTION V1.0 2009-03-03 ChunZhao Original Draft.13 Notes：1: 通过硬件电路设置芯片工作总线控制模式，详细电路如下图：14 RDA5802E与RDA5802对比1、5802E的0x0Ch＝5803、0x0Dh＝5804，可以通过读这两个寄存器的缺省值来区别5800、5802和5802E;2、FM天线尽量用第4脚（LNAP），不要用第2脚（LNAN）。

摘要For the majority of small and medium-sized enterprises, the currency capital is an important material guarantee of the normal operation of the enterprise, it is also a powerful weapon to small and medium-sized enterprises to participate in market competition. And is directly related to the lifeline of enterprise development and future trend. Usually, the small and medium-sized enterprise currency capital have common characteristics of high mobility, application wide, so, it is very difficult for implementation. Many small and medium-sized enterprises are out of control in the internal fund management, thus causes the enterprise monetary fund was wantonly occupy, misappropriate, embezzle or even individual, and it Cause very serious consequences . According to the current monetary funds management in small and medium sized enterprises and put forward some countermeasures.关键字The small and medium-sized enterprise；currency capital management; present situation; solutions--------------------------精品文档，可以编辑修改，等待你的下载，管理，教育文档----------------------In the current market economy, about the management of small and medium enterprises internal monetary system has be imperative, it not only embodies the development trend of market competition, it is an important way to realize the modernization of the management of small and medium enterprises. At the same time, as an important part of the small and medium-sized enterprise assets, enterprise currency capital also plays an important role in the accounting process. Visible, strengthen the internal management of currency capital, small and medium-sized enterprises for long-term development of enterprises will have a positive significance for the promotion. Funds from the small and medium-sized enterprises of our country monetary management during the recent years, is gradually emerged some problems, the enterprises realize the legitimate and reasonable expenses, capital recovery of safety and the prevention of enterprise personal corruption, it will lead to negative effect. Therefore, the small and medium-sized enterprise must start from the assurance assets safety point of view, to take appropriate measures to control its currency problems in management process, and meet the needs of its production and operation. 一the problems of small and medium sized enterprises about the currency capital managementAs an important content of modern enterprise management, about the small and medium-sized enterprise currency capital management is always a difficult problem. Many enterprises in the implementation of management programes and did not form a reasonable management frame, the control environment is extremely unfavorable. Due to our country small and medium-sized enterprise monetary fund management chaotic basic reason, in addition to the model management and control the unreasonable, the lack of effective management pattern constraint is one of the important reasons. Many problems of small and medium-sized enterprise currency capital management emerged in, can be summarized as follows:--------------------------精品文档，可以编辑修改，等待你的下载，管理，教育文档----------------------(1)small and medium-sized enterprise management mode of family contributed to the confusion in managementMany of our country's small and medium-sized enterprise business model is to mainly rely on the family, the family or the family most family members to promote the development of enterprises. In the course of time, this kind of production mode of operation has become the small and medium-sized enterprise's foundation of survival, this also led to business ownership being mostly controlled by family members. The existence of such a situation, the SMEs owners will choose you can trust people to serve management enterprise monetary fund positions, or even directly control the main economic lifeline of the enterprise. In this case, about the management of monetary funds, appear extremely easily confused or fraud and other undesirable phenomena, the monetary fund relevant approval to implement the system in place, the flow of funds is unknown.(2) Accounting responsibilities are not clear, and lack effective institutional checkThe scale of the small and medium-sized enterprises tend to be relatively small, business variety clutter, related system of accounting is also very difficult to put in place a real. For enterprises operating cost considerations, in financial, accounting, cashier for monetary fund management positions on many bosses tend to arrange for a person to do, both accounting and cashier, one usually wears different hats, the monetary fund management is effective control is obviously difficult to balance. Even some practitioners not from the professional accounting college graduation, for business knowledge only know fur, their management concept is not clear, coupled with the lack of effective management system to control and supervision on it, It is often to see the mixed, malfeasance and other phenomena, embezzled privately or embezzlement problems have also occurred, seriously hindered the development of small and medium sized enterprises.(3) Many accounting professional practitioners lack the necessary occupation accomplishment--------------------------精品文档，可以编辑修改，等待你的下载，管理，教育文档----------------------In the "appoint people by favouritism" wrong idea guidance, the overall quality of many small and medium-sized enterprise monetary fund management is very limited. By its own identity advantages to play favouritism and commit irregularities behavior is very common. There are also some enterprises accounting practitioners is left, for their own responsibilities lack of understanding and thinking effectively, the actual work is performed according to framework, flexibility and variability which is difficult to reflect the accounting work. In such an environment, less receipt, hide the actual amount of funds, alter the capital amount phenomenon occurred frequently, management functions weakened quickly.(4) the enterprise monetary fund import record lacks integritySmall and medium-sized enterprise monetary fund import and the actual business activities are inseparable, it not only help enterprises to buy raw materials necessary for the production process, but also provides the necessary material foundation for the introduction of the future talents, is an important way to ensure enterprise revenue. In the operation process of small and medium-sized enterprises, is a lot of money by the way of cooperation, also is the payment we usually say, for processing enterprises, this part of the liquidity should keep a record, for future reference. However, the reality is many specialized personnel inadvertent or intentional omission records of these funds, to achieve its purpose. The results do not only enable enterprises suffered some economic losses, more make the enterprise lost the corporate image and corporate reputation in the market, hindering the normal development of enterprises. (5)The small and medium-sized enterprise monetary fund rate is not highThe small and medium-sized enterprise monetary fund rate is handled by the internal audit department, audit department must finance income to the enterprise each quarter to make a general budget, and planning well in each of the use of funds, and on the specific amount to make clear the expected. This requires the enterprise has the perfect monetary fund budget system. However, many small and medium-sized enterprises in the form of the establishment of the capital budget --------------------------精品文档，可以编辑修改，等待你的下载，管理，教育文档----------------------system, but in the actual operation of the process is not used in accordance with the established rules and regulations to implement monetary funds, which caused the currency rate declined greatly, affect the normal production and operation o f enterprises.2Analysis of monetary funds management in small and medium sized enterprisesMany problems exist in the management of monetary funds in the current process of small and medium-sized enterprises, enterprises must proceed from the internal management and control of their own, to perfect the capital control system itself, to establish the internal management and control system to its actual development, so as to promote the enterprise of the normal and orderly development. The concrete implementation measures can be analyzed from the following aspects:2.1 To strengthen the guidance and training of occupation quality of employees Starting from the basic quality of their own employees, regardless of is the senior management personnel of the enterprise or the ordinary workers, must be approved by the occupation training process strictly, timing in enterprise internal training course, understanding from the thought to the significance of the establishment of enterprise currency fund management and control system. In the guidance and training of scientific and rational, promote enterprise staff's professional ability and the occupation quality significantly improved, so as to better into the post construction. This makes the enterprise monetary fund rate is greatly increased, the economic benefits of the enterprise will significantly enhance.2.2 Clear job responsibilities, avoid by all means "one person much hillock"--------------------------精品文档，可以编辑修改，等待你的下载，管理，教育文档----------------------phenomenonThe difference in enterprises and personnel arrangement enterprises a nd large enterprises is small and medium enterprises for deployment of personnel relatively limited, and sometimes there will be a person at the same time as accounting, auditing and cashier multiple position. This "one person much hillock" phenomenon is bound to lead to the monetary funds of enterprises of great confusion. Clear enterprise employee responsibilities from duties, to avoid the "one person much hillock" phenomenon, so that it not only improves the utilization of small and medium-sized enterprise monetary fund rate, but also to strengthen the management and control of each post, personnel staff duties, to the greatest degree to improve staff quality of work and efficiency.2.3 For small and medium-sized enterprises, cash and marketable securities shall be classified managementAbout the company in cash and marketable securities management should be a reasonable classification, effectively ensure the safety and integrity of the monetary fund management. The enterprise cash should not exceed the approved limits, otherwise should be deposited into the bank deposit. For the unauthorized take out cash and the cash behavior should identify the reasons, for the relevant personnel involved shall be given disciplinary action, and in accordance with the relevant laws and regulations strictly law to send punishment. Cash box passwords and keys must be handed in by enterprise operator safekeeping, not to others. Securities management should also be timely record, and placed in a safe place for storage. The sma ll and medium-sized enterprise cash and marketable securities, money is the lifeblood of business development, we must be strict management and control.2.4 Take the small and medium-sized enterprise monetary fund utilization rate Rate and the enterprise monetary fund budget system using small and medium enterprise monetary fund is closely related to the. The first half of the second half of the stage of enterprises must be monetary fund uses status to a reasonable and --------------------------精品文档，可以编辑修改，等待你的下载，管理，教育文档----------------------effective budget, the specific direction and in accordance with the established rules and regulations to the allocation of funds, to practice their jobs. The use of capital budget system is not only effective control of the enterprise monetary fund the actual use conditions, more greatly enhance the overall utilization of monetary funds, and indirectly promote the market competitiveness of enterprises to improve. In addition, utilization rate of increase is the effective realization of the scientific enterprise resource allocation, from the practical interests of the enterprise, to solve the control problem in fund management and use.--------------------------精品文档，可以编辑修改，等待你的下载，管理，教育文档----------------------。