Phonology

phonology名词解释音系学(Phonology)：1、定义：音系学是一门研究音韵特征及构成的学科，涉及说话者、聆听者、语言和它们之间相互关系的研究，它被描述为语言的声音学分支。

它旨在确定什么样的音素对字段、音节和句子语音有影响，以及声音是怎样变化的，从而影响语义和其他考虑因素。

2、概述：音系学是研究语音学的分支，它研究音素的结构和音的变化。

它的关注点是音的分类和构成，以及成音素的音形结构，并且能够确定声音对语言的影响。

根据不同的语言，音系学确定哪些音素是可以区分和平行强调，而不会影响消息的传递，从而推断不同类型的语音，像同化、替换、谐音和异化等现象。

它是语音学史上最古老的学科，发展了诸如音位系统学或描述性音系学等流派。

3、适用范围：音系学不仅涉及像高等语言学的范畴，而且浸染到多种学科范畴，如音乐学、耳聋学、心理学、语言学和语用学等，专业人士（如语言学家、教育家、历史学家、音乐家、会计师、口腔科医生等）都在运用音系学来发现其中的语言特征。

音系学在理解正常语音行为和治疗语音障碍方面都起着关键的作用，因此在临床语言学、发音治疗、耳聋照老和特殊教育等领域都有着广泛的应用。

4、研究内容：音系学主要关注语言的声音及声音的变化，包括：（1）描述性音系学：分析特定语言的声音组件，比如音节、音素、发声音位，以及他们之间的关系。

（2）音位系统学：系统性阐释不同语言之间传说所存在的音位和模式。

（3）音系学变异：研究不同发音者时期和地区的变异，注重压缩、减少或扩展范围的声音。

（4）说话的模式：研究特定时期、地区或语言的传说和发音模式。

（5）语言变化：分析有关单词拼写、语意和形式如何变化以及影响因素等各种研究。

5、研究方法：音系学的研究方法涉及多种学术学科，分析不同得研究领域也拥有不同的方法。

针对描述信息研究最常用的方法是调查法，如样本调查和实验调查。

在概念研究方面，它主要包括测量法和文献研究，能够帮助确定特定语言的发音特征和音素、国家以及主题的影响。

Phonology is the study of sound patterns of language (i.e. how sounds are arranged to form meaningful units) and thefunction of each sound.It reveals what are the possible combinations of sounds in a language and explains why certain words take the formthey do.Phone 音子: the smallest perceptible discreet segment of sound in a stream of speechi) phonetic unitii) not distinctive of meaning iii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ]Phoneme 音位：are abstract mental units that represent soundsi) phonological unitii) distinctive of meaning iii) abstract, not physical iv) marked withMinimal pairs 最小对比对: The sounds that cause changes in the changing of a word arecalled the “minimal pairs”Allophone s 音位变体：phonetic forms that don ’t contrast are called allophones, they are the various pronunciations ofa phoneme or phonic variants/realizations of a phoneme. Phonemic Transcription : / / =Broad TranscriptionPhonetic Transcription :[ ]=Narrow TranscriptionComplementary distribution 互补分布: when two phones are mutually exclusive(i.e. appear in differentenvironments), they are in complementary distribution( which means they are allophones of the same phoneme)..peak [ph]----speak [p]two different phones . [ph ] , [ p] are variants of the phoneme /p/.allophones of the same phoneme. in complementary distribution.This phenomenon is called Allophony(音位变体现象) or Allophonic Variation （同音位变体）.Free variation 自由变体：If two sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound foranother does not cause a change of meaning, they are said to be in free variationThe allophones can be in complementary distribution （互补分布） if they occur in different contexts.peak ---- speakaspirated [ph]---- unaspirated [p]The allophones can be in free variation （自由变体）if they occur in the same context.cup [kh ʌph] ---- cup[kh ʌp¬]Phonological ProcessesA target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environment s or context s.Phonological rules are general rules that indicate this change.•Assimilation (同化) : can [kãn], tan [tãn]•Epenthesis (增音): boxes [bכksәz]Assimilation:Phonological Term Phonetic Term ExamplesAssimilation:Coarticulation:regressive assimilation逆同化anticipatory coarticulation先期协同发音can [kæn]tenth [tenθ]progressive assimilation顺同化perseverative coarticulation后滞协同发音map [mæp][+nasal] / ______[+nasal][+dental] /______[+dental][+velar] /______[+velar][-voiced] Epenthesis：•The /s/ appears after voiceless sounds.•The /z/ appears after voiced sounds. (All vowels are voiced.)•The /әz/ appears after sibi lants (咝音)•Epenthesis rule•z s / [-voice, C] _____ (Devoicing)•Ø ә / sibilant _____ z (Epenthesis)(Ø indicates an empty position.)Distinctive Features•Speech sounds are divided up into classes according to a number of properties.•The property that can distinguish one phoneme from another is a distinctive featureSuprasegmental features （超音位特征）are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllabic structure: two parts, the rhyme(or rime)(韵基) and the onset(节首). As the vowel within the rhyme is the nucleus(节核), the consonant(s) after it will be termed coda(节尾).Sonority scale响阶：。

24.900 Introduction to Linguistics4/6/05PhonologyNB: Quiz date has been changed to 4/20/05. It will cover only phonetics and phonology. Topics for today’s class:1.Review of vowels2.Syllabic Liquids and Nasals3.Suprasegmentals4.PhonemesI.Syllabic Liquid and Nasalsa.Liquids and nasals are more sonorous1 than other consonantsand in this respect are more like vowels than the otherconsonants.b.In fact, they are so sonorous that they can function as syllabicnuclei.c.Syllabic liquids and nasals are found in many of the world’slanguages, including English.d.Linguists are not always consistent in how they representthese syllabic consonants. Often, as you already noticed,they use a broad transcription and insert a schwa plus theliquid or nasal.e.When a syllabic liquid or nasal is used, they are often writtenwith the diacritic short line beneath the consonantExamples: funnel [f√nl] her [hr] [h®] button [b√tn]»»»»II. Prosodic suprasegmental features:a.Length: a:, k:, kkSpeech sounds that are identical in their place or manner features may differ in length (duration), pitch or loudness. Tense vowels are usually longerthan lax vowels. However, when a vowel is prolonged to around twice itsnormal length, it is considered in some languages a different vowel, and it canmake a difference between words.1 Sonorous: Characterized by a relatively open vocal tract with relatively little obstruction of airflow as a sound is made.Japanese: biru buildingbi:ru (biiru) beerA long vowel is also called a geminate vowel.Japanese, Finnish and Italian, for example, also have geminate consonants that make a difference in words. When a consonant is long, either the closure or obstruction is prolonged.Japanese short “k” saki aheadlong “k” sakki beforeEnglish does not use vowel or consonant length to change a word.No NOOOOOOO NOO all mean NOb.Pitch: depends on how fast the vocal cords vibrate; the faster theyvibrate, the higher the pitch. If the larynx is small, as in children and women, the shorter vocal cords vibrate faster and the pitch is higher, all else being equal.c.Stress: In many languages, certain syllables in a word are louder, slightlyhigher in pitch, and somewhat longer in duration (but not geminate) that other syllables in a word. They are stressed syllables.Di gest (noun) di gest (verb)English is a stress language. In general, at least one syllable is stressed in an English word. French is not a stressed language. The syllables have approximately the same loudness, length and pitch.d.Tone and Intonation: Speakers have the ability to control the level ofpitch in their speech. This is accomplished by controlling the tension of the vocal folds and the amount of air that passes through the glottis. The combination of tensed vocal folds and greater air pressure results in higher pitch on vowels and sonorant consonants, while less tense vocal folds andlower air pressure result in lower pressure. Two kinds of controlled pitch are tone and intonation.•Tone: A language is a tone language when differences in word meaning are signaled by differences in pitch. Pitch on forms in tone languagesfunction very differently from the movement of pitch in a non-tonelanguage.Compare: a car. A car?Chinese: ma (five tones) (all signal different meanings; we will see that in some languages tone is phonemic)•Intonation is pitch movement in spoken utterances that is not related to differences in word meaning. However, intonation often does serve to convey information of a broadly meaningful nature. For example, thefalling pitch we hear at the end of statement in English such as Susanblasted the flames. Signals that the utterance is complete.•Terminal intonation contour•Nonterminal intonation contour: a rising or level intonation contour that signals incompleteness.Length, pitch and stress are prosodic or suprasegmental features.III.Differences between Phonetics and Phonology.o Distinction between the two is not always made in a consistent manner within linguistics.o In general, phonetics is more specifically the study of how speech sounds are produced, what their physical properties are, and how they areinterpreted.o Phonology investigates the organization of speech sounds in a particular language.•The shift involves one from more units to fewest units.•From huge variety to relative invariance•From absolutely concrete to relatively abstracto….In linguistic terms, it’s not just that I say tomahto, andyou say tomayto. It’s that I say tomahto, and tomahto, andtomahto, and the three utterances are subtly different butwe both think that I said the same thing three times(McMahon 2002: p. 3).•Focuses on language specific selection and organization ofsounds to signal difference (in spite of individual variationof at least two forms).•While we might find the same sounds in two or morelanguages, no two languages organize their soundinventories in the same way.PhonemesIV.-In every language, certain sounds are considered to be the same sound, even though they may be phonetically distinct.l ay (voiced) versus p l ay (voiceless)p in (aspirated) versus s p in (unaspirated)-Consider the [t] sound in each of the following words:t op s t op li tt le ki tt en hun ter-What differences exist among these [t]s?-To a native speaker, in spite of the differences, all of the words have a /t/ in them, at least at some psychological level.-A speaker of Hindi, however, could not ignore the differences in aspiration in the stops of English.[k h əl] wicked person[kəl] yesterday, tomorrow[kаp] cup[kap h] phlegm[p həl] fruit[pəl] moment-A native speaker of English can overlook the differences in aspiration of these stops because they do not signal meaning differences. We just heardifferent pronunciations of the same word.-However, differences in aspiration signal differences in meaning for Hindi.-Thus, aspirated and unaspirated stops have different values in the phonological systems of English and Hindi.Definitions:A class of speech sounds that are identified by a native speaker as the Phoneme:same sound.Allophone: The members of these classes (of phonemes) which are actual phonetic segments produced by a speaker. Thus, an allophone is a phone that has been classified as belonging to some class or phoneme. (aspirated [t] vs. unaspirated [t] in English. )V.Distribution of Speech Sounds:a.An important concept in phonology: whether the sounds arecontrastive or not.b.If two sounds are separate phonemes, then the two speechsounds are contrastive. Interchanging the two sounds canchange the meaning of a word.c.If the two phones are allophones of the same phoneme, thenthey are nonconstrastive. The alternation of the two soundsdoes not result in a change of meaning.d.To determine which sounds are thought of by a native speakeras the same sound and which sounds are distinctive relative toone another, it is important to look at where these sounds occurin a language. In other words, linguists try to discover what thephonemes of a language are by examining the distribution ofthat language’s phones.e.The distribution of a phone is the set of phoneticenvironments in which it occurs. For example, nasalizedvowels appear in English in the environment of a nasalconsonant [n Q zl].f.In general, speakers will attend to phonetic differences betweentwo or more sounds only when the choice between the soundscan change the meaning of a word- that is, can cause adistinction in meaning.g.Such sounds are said to be distinctive with respect to oneanother.h.One way to determine whether two sounds in a language aredistinctive is to identify a minimal pair. A minimal pair isdefined as a pair of words with different meanings which arepronounced exactly the same way except that one sound thatdiffers. When you find a minimal pair, you know that thesound that varies from one word to another is contrastive.Leaf vs. reefLack vs. rackTeam vs. deemTeam vs. teenVI.Some Exercises:a. Consider the following data for Spanish:(The sound [γ] is a voiced, velar fricative, [ñ] is a palatal nasal, and [r] is a voiced, alveolar trill.Spanish Gloss[paγo] I pay[laγo]lake[kara]face each[ka∂a][gato]cat duck[pato]pipe[kaña]cane[kana][pero]dog but[pero]What are the minimal pairs in Spanish in the data above? What are the distinct phonemes, if any?VII.More terms for Distribution:•Overlapping Distribution: When two sounds occur in sets of phonetic environments that are partially or completely identical. For example, consider the environments in which [b] and [d] can occur in English:Bait [bet][det]dateload[lod]Lobe [lob][nadz]nods[nabz]Knobs*[dlit]----Bleat [blit]o The set of environments for [b] and [d] is partially similar:Both occur word initially before a vowel and between [a] and[z].Both also occur in environments that are not identical [bl…]vs. [[dl..].Nonethelss, we say that their sets of possible phoneticenvironments overlap and thus we say that they are inoverlapping distribution in English.-Complementary Distribution: This is just the opposite ofoverlapping distribution. The situation in which phones neveroccur in the same phonetic environment, e.g., [t] and [t h] in are incomplementary distribution. (cf. allophones). Together theenvironments in which these allophones occur make up a wholeclass; thus, we say that they are complementary.[t h çp] vs. [stçp]The appearance of one allophone or another is predictable whenthose allophones are in complementary distribution.Free Variation: Other phones that are in overlapping distribution are in free variation. As an example, consider the following words containing [p] and [p¬];[p¬] represents an unreleased voiceless bilabial stop:Leap [lip] leap[lip¬][sop¬]Soap [sop] soap[trup¬]Troop [trup] troopHappy [hæpi] ---- *[hæp¬ i]It should be clear that these sounds are also in overlapping distribution because they share some of the same environments: they can both appear at the ends ofwords. Unlike the [b] vs. [d] examples, however, there are no minimalpairs in these data. Although there are pairs of words containing the samesounds but one, these words do not contrast in meaning. To a nativespeaker, sounds like [p] and [p¬] that are in free variation are perceived asbeing the “same” sound, and so we conclude that they are allophones ofthe same phoneme.XIII. Pronunciation of Morphemes:English plurals: The DataA B C DchildbusCabcapoxbushCadcatbuzzmousebackBaggarage criterioncuffLovesheepmatchLathefaithbadgeCamCanBangCallBarSpaBoyWhat generalizations can you generate for the formation of the plurals in each of the above columns for English? That is, what are the environments for the plural allomorphs in English?-Start with simple lists then extract the generalization from the members.Allomorph Environment[k hæb],[z] After:VIII.Phonological Rules: (similar to rules of syntax and morphology) -A more concise way of stating the same information that we just noted above, is in terms of phonological rules.i.We will assume that the regular, productive pluralmorpheme has the phonological form /z/. This is theform of the plural that is pronounced if no phonologicalrules apply to it.ii.Given this basic form, the variation in pronunciation ofthe regular plural morpheme follows two rules:1. Insert a [ə] before the plural morpheme when a regular nounends in a sibilant /s, ∫, z, Z , t∫, d Z / giving [əz]2. Change the plural morpheme to a voiceless [s] when avoiceless sound precedes it.IX.Lots more to say about Phonological Rules:An underlying assumption we are making:I. Derivations and underlying representations:a. A systematic modification of stored representations assembled into largerconstituents undergoes systematic modification via a class of mental operationsb.An underlying or phonological representation will contain all and only theunpredictable (distinctive feature) information for each lexical item.c.Predictable features of pronunciation are added to the underlying phonologicalrepresentation by grammatical rules and principles.d.These rules operate on the basis of the information in the lexical item’sphonological representation on an underlying form and the context in which it islocated.II. Phonological Rules are of two types:Allophonic rules: fill in qualities of pronunciation that are absent in the lexical forms of morphemes but are required by their circumstances in speech, like theaspiration of word-initial /k/ in coats and the rounding of the word-initial /r/ ofrules.-English stop aspiration:Rule 1: Voiceless stops are aspirated when in initial stressed syllablesRule 2: Nouns, main verbs, adjectives and adverbs have at least one stressedvowel.Morphemic rules: also known as morphonemic rules and morphophonological rules change or choose between meaningful qualities given as part of the lexical entries of morphemes, as where voicing of the /z/ of the plural suffix is replaced by voiclessness, giving /s/, in words like /kots/ coats and /saks/ socks.-English plural rule above .。