跨文化交际 unit 6

Unit 6Culture and Nonverbal CommunicationThose who know do not talk. Those who talk do not know.---Lao ZiThere’s language in her eye, her cheek, her lip, Nay, her foot speaks”---William Shakespeare, Troilus and CressidaSpeech is silver; silence is golden.---English proverbACTIONS SPEAKS LOUDER THAN WORDS!!1. An Overview of Nonverbal Communication (p.191-199)We communicate with more than the words we speak.Psychologist Albert Mehrabian has come up with the following formula:Total communication = 7% verbal + 38% oral + 55% facial.Studies show that over half of your message is carried through nonverbal elements:Your appearanceYour body languageThe tone andthe pace of your voice.In face-to-face communication 65% of the information is communicated through nonverbal means (Samovar, 1981; Ross, 1974; Ray L. Birdwhistel, 1970)Support 1: Charlie Chaplin swept the world with his silent films. (Modern Times)Support 2: Robinson Crusoe “talked” with Friday without knowing his servant’s language.In the communication of attitudes, 93% of the message is transmitted by the tone of the voice and facial expressions, whereas only 7% of the speaker’s attitude w as transmitted by words (Levine, 1981, Mehranbian, 1968)Support: Lovers express emotions with sparkling eyes and blushing faces or touching, hugging and kissing.Words are too pale for them!The quality of a voice can communicate as much as the words. The same words can be tender, mocking, sarcastic or angry, depending on how they are said. e.g. Steven!; Steven?; Steven. (more p.191-192)When you speak, you communicate. When you don’t speak, you may still be communicating.A person who truly knows two languages uses both body languages too.A good example of this is New York's famous mayor, Fiorello La Guardia (p193), who communicated in English, Italian and Yiddish.When films of his speeches are run without sound, it's not too difficult to tell from his gestures the language being spoken.Class observationIn class, how can the teacher identify the concentrated students?They may show an interested look, wear a smile, make some notes or keep their eyes on the teacher.On the other hand, how can the teacher know the students are not interested in her class? They may consciously or unconsciously twist the body, bury the head, avoid the teacher’s eyes, wear a blank expression, knit the eyebrows or bite the pen.2. What is nonverbal communication?Nonverbal communication involves all nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that are generated by both the source (speaker) and his or her use of the environment and that have potential message value for the source or receiver (listener). --- (Larry A. Samovar, 1998)In other words, it is communication without words.2. What is nonverbal communication?It refers to communication through a whole variety of different types of signal come into play, including:the way we move,the gestures we employ,the posture we adopt,the facial expression we wear,the direction of our gaze,to the extent to which we touchand the distance we stand from each other.ClassificationBody language/Kinesics(体态语/身势语):posture, head movement, facial expressions, eye behavior, gestures, handshaking, arm movement, leg movement, kiss, hug, touch etc.Paralanguage( 副语言): sound, pitch, tempo of speech, tone, volume, pause, silence, turn-taking etc.ClassificationObject language ( 客体语、物体语) :clothing, personal artifacts (adornment, jewelry, perfume, personal gear etc.) , hair, furniture,vehicle etc.Environmental language(环境语):time language/chronemics , spatial language/ proxemics (interpersonal distance), space, seating, territoriality, color, light, signs and symbols, architecture etc.Body language/KinesicsThe study of how movement communicates is called Kinesics.Kinesic behavior refers to communication through body movements like posture, head movement, facial expressions, eye behavior, gestures, handshaking, arm movement, leg movement etc.Posture---bowPosture and sitting habits offer insight into a culture’s deep structure.In many Asian cultures, the bow is much more than a greeting. It signifies that culture’s concern with status and rank.In Japan, for example, low posture is an indicator of respect. Although it appears simple to the outsider, the bowing ritual is actually rather complicated.---Bow in JapanThe person who occupies the lower station begins the bow, and his or her bow must be deeper than the other person’s.The superior, on the other hand, determines when the bowing is to end.When the participants are of equal rank, they begin the bow in the same manner and end at the same time.---Wai in ThailandThe Thai people use a similar movement called the wai.The wai movement---which is made by pressing both hands close together in front of one’s body, with the fingertips reaching to about neck level---is used to show respect.The lower the head comes to the hands, the more respect is shown.---Crossing legs (1)The manner in which we sit also can communicate a message.In U.S.: normal to cross legs while seated; women cross at the angle while men cross with angle on the knee;Middle East: crossing the leg with angle on the knee is inappropriate;---Crossing legs (2)In Ghana and in Turkey, sitting with one’s legs crossed is extremely offensive;People in Thailand believe that because the bottoms of the feet are the lowest part of the body, they should never be pointed in the direction of another person; In fact, for the Thai, the feet take on so much significance that people avoid stomping with them.---SlouchingIn US, where being casual and friendly is valued, people often fall into chairs or slouch when they stand.In many countries, such as Germany and Sweden, where lifestyles tend to be more formal, slouching is considered a sign of rudeness and poor manners.---Feet on deskIn U.S. and Britain: lean back in the chair and put feet on the desk to convey a relaxed andinformal attitude.Middle East, Swiss and Germany: putting feet on the desk is rude.---Hands in pocketEverywhere in Europe, it is rude to talk with your hands in pocket. It’s something only a guilty child would do.In Turkey, putting one’s hands in one’s pockets is a sign of disrespect.In Germany, “it is impolite to shake someone's hand with your other hand in your pocket. This is seen as a sign of disrespect”In China & Japan, it’s rude to stand with hands thrust into the pocket.---Hands on hipsIn Mexico, it signals hostility.In Malaysia, it shows anger.In U.S., it means impatience.In Argentina, it indicates a challenge.Gestures (p204, p214)Gestures are an important component of non-verbal communication.This is mainly a matter of how we use our hands to convey a message.The language of the hands differs from country to country and a gesture which means one thing in one country may well mean something quite different to those living in another.Let’s look at the examples of how gestures communicate.GesturesThousands of cross-cultural examples prove that messages and meanings shift from culture to culture.An Arabic specialist once cataloged 247 separate gestures that Arabs use while speaking.And in a large study involving forty different cultures, Morris and his associates isolated twenty common hand gestures that had a different meaning in each culture.The ring gesture/OK signIn US &UK, it means OK. It’s great. Everything is fine and going well;In Japan and Korea, it means money;In France, it means zero or worthless;In Russia, it means zero/rudeness;In Brazil, Turkey, Venezuela, it means insult/vulgar;In Tunisia “I’ll kill you.”In Malta, it is an invitation to have a homosexual sex.Among Arabs this gesture is usually accompanied by a baring of teeth, and together they signify extreme hostility.In Mexico and Germany, it has a vulgar connotation.In Argentina, one twists an imaginary mustache to signify that everything is okay.The single finger beckon signIn U.S. & Britain: it simply means “come here” . (just waiving the index finger)In Yugoslavia & Malaysia: it is only used for beckoning animals.In Philippines: it is used for beckoning dogs and it’s considered very rude.In Indonesia & Australia: it is used for beckoning prostitutes. i.e. ladies for the night.In Singapore & Japan: it is a sign for death.Most often than not, in the U.S., when a person wants to signal a friend to come, he or she makes the gesture with one hand, palm up, fingers more or less together and moving toward his or her body.Koreans express this same idea by cupping “the hand with the palm down and drawing the fingers toward the palm.” When seeing this gesture, many Americans think the other person is waving good-bye. (palm not facing people, it is for beckoning the dog in Korea)In China, beckoning gesture: the hand is extended towards the person, palm open and facing down, with all fingers crooked in a beckoning motion.In the Middle East, the beckoning gesture is made by waving the hand with the palm down.In Portugal, it is made by waving the hand with the palm up.In Tonga, it is made by downward waving of the arm.In parts of Burma(缅甸), the summoning gesture is made palm down, with the fingers moving as though playing the piano.Filipinos often summon someone with a quick downward nod of the head.In Germany & much of Scandinavia, a beckoning motion is made by tossing the head back.For many Arabs, nonverbally asking someone to “come here” is performed by holding the right hand out, palm upward, and opening and closing the hand.The thumb-up signIn Britain: OK, good, great, well done; also used as a sign for hitch-hiking.To Chinese: excellent, number one.To Japanese: boss, father, husband.To Persian: discontent.To people in the Middle East: obscene gesture.In Greece it is an insult.In France, it means to show approval.In Afghanistan, Iran, Greece and most part of Italy: get out.Yet, to show approval, it is by raising one’s eyebrows in Tonga,by tilting one’s head in France,and by having two thumbs up in Kenya.The thumb-down signTo most Asian countries: Bad, dislikeU.S. & Canada: DisapprovalIn U.S. also for hitch-hikingGreece: a rude signThe ear-tug signIn Spain it means someone is a sponger, i.e. using other people’s money and never spending his own.In Greece it is a warning .In Italy it is used to call someone a homosexual.In Portugal it is used to express something wonderful.In Scotland it shows somebody doubts what you are saying.In Malta, it says someone is a sneak.The eyelid-pull signPulling down the lower lid of your eye with one finger is usually to indicate alertness.In France, England and Greece, it means: you can’t full me.In Spain and Italy, it means that you should be alert.In South America, it means he finds a woman very attractive.The V-signpalm to observer (palm upward):the number 2;Victory, peace or friend (around the world by peace and counter-culture groups)a gesture used in photographs (by many others, especially in Japan)In Greece: hold up the palm to so meone’s face means insult.palm to yourself(palm inward):the number 2offensive gesture, meaning insult, is often compared to the offensive gesture known as "the finger". (This usage is restricted largely to Australia, Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa, and the UK)is equivalent to “the finger” (in countries where Spanish, Portuguese, or French are spoken, and especially in Spain, Portugal, Brazil, France, and also Italy, Poland, and countries under the influence of Russian culture, such as Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine, but the majority of young people in these countries use the finger as an insult.the finger (the middle finger)In U.S. & most of Europe: a highly offensive gesture.In Western culture, the finger (as in “giving someone the finger”or “the bird” or “flipping someone off”) is an obscene hand gesture.It communicates moderate to extreme contempt, and is roughly equivalent in meaning to "fuck off", "fuck you", "shove it up your ass", "up yours" or "go fuck yourself."The cross-fingers/good luck signIn Italy, it means: “insulting”In Arab world, it means: “wait” or “slowlyIn Vietnam, it’s very rude as this gesture symbolize part of the female body.Anglo-American culture: to wish someone good luck.Germans wish others good luck by making two fists with thumbs inside and pounding them on an imaginary table.To wish some one good luck in Portugal, one would place the thumb between the index and third fingers.Moutza in Greece(all five digits with the palm facing forward)In Greece where the five fingers are spread wide and the palm is pushed towards the recipient: obscene gesture meaning "you have five fathers", thus calling someone a bastard私生子. While originally referring to the custom of punishing criminals by tying them to the backs of donkeys, this gesture has more recently take on a sexual connotation. The Moutza has many variations.The vertical horn gesture/Satanic salute/two-fingered saluteA positive connotation associated with the University of Texas Longhorn Football Team.In Norway: a salute to Satan. According to CBC (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation 加拿大广播公司) news, Norwegians were shocked by a gesture made by President Bush and his family during the inauguration.In Italy, Brazil, Spain, Portugal, Colombia: an insulting connotation, meaning one’s wife is cheating on him;Venezuela, good luck;U.S. subculture: devil’s horn;In China, means number 6.Clasped-hands-over-the-head gestureused by Former Soviet Premier Khrushchev when visiting the US in the 1960s.---for Russians is a sign of international brotherhood;---for Americans it is an arrogant gestures usually used by prize-fighters after defeating an opponent.Left-handers---be carefulThe left hand is not used for eating, (even if you are left-handed) this is considered offensive and unclean in Middle East, India, Sri Lanka, Africa, Bangladesh because left hand is for toilet functions.Mannerly in India to break your bread only with your right hand (sometimes difficult fornon-Indians) .PointingIn the U.S. by extending the index finger;Germany with little finger;Japanese with entire hand (in fact most Asians consider pointing with index finger to be rude)In Mongolia, by pointing with the lips.In India, by pointing with the chins.In Guinea-Bissau几内亚比绍共和国, by pointing with the tongue.CountingThumb = 1 in Germany, 5 in Japan, middle finger for 1 in Indonesia.Chinese 8 gesture means 2 in Japan.Chinese 9 gesture means pick-pocket in Japan.Head movementsHead movements denoting acceptance and rejection take opposite forms in Thailand and the U.S.Greeks express “yes” with a nod similar to the one used in the U.S. ,but when communicating “no”, they jerk their he ads back and raise their faces. Lifting one or both hands up to the shoulders strongly emphasizes the “no”.To Nepalese, Sri Lankans, some Indians and some Eskimos, nodding the head means not “yes”, but “no”.The Indians have a habit of shaking their heads slightly when they talk to somebody. It doesn't mean "No", but "Yes".Facial Expressions (p194-199)In a very real sense, when it comes to using our faces, we are all actors because we all wear a variety of masks. To quote the poet T.S. Eliot, we “put on a face to meet the faces that we meet.”Cultural norms often dictate how, when, and to whom facial expressions are displayed.In many Mediterranean cultures, people exaggerate signs of grief or sadness. It is not uncommon in this region of the world to see men crying in public.Yet in the U.S., white males suppress the desire to show these emotions.Japanese men even go so far as to hide expressions of anger, sorrow, or disgust by laughing or smiling. In one study, Japanese and American subjects revealed the same facial expressions when viewing a stress-inducing film while they were alone. However, when viewing the film in the presence of others, the Japanese manifested only neutral facial expressions.The Chinese also do not readily show emotion for reasons that are rooted deeply in their culture---the Chinese concept of saving face being one of the most important. For the Chinese, displaying too much emotion violates face-saving norms by disrupting harmony and causing conflict.The smile is yet another emotional display that is rooted in one’s culture.In Korean culture, too much smiling is often perceived as the sign of a shallow person. Dressers notes that this “lack of smiling by Koreans has often been misinterpreted as a sign of hostility”. Thais, on the other hand, smile much of the time. In fact, Thailand has been called the “ Land ofSmiles.”Eye ContactEye contact is an important aspect of body language. One could draw up quite rules about eye contact: to look or not to look, when to look and how long to look, who to look at and who not to look at, etc. And these rules vary from culture to culture.Cultural Differences in Eye BehaviorIn English speaking world/Western cultures — see direct eye to eye contact as positive (advise children to look a person in the eyes) , if you fail to meet other people’s gaze, you can be interpreted as being dece ptive, weak, bored, or angry. ( Don’t trust anyone who don’t look you in the eye.)But within USA, African-Americans use more eye contact when talking and less when listening.A prolonged gaze is often seen as a sign of sexual interest.Arabic cultures make prolonged eye-contact— believe it shows interest and helps them understand truthfulness of the other person. (A person who doesn’t reciprocat e is seen as untrustworthy).Japan, Africa, Latin American, Caribbean avoid eye contact to show respect.Respect and attention is shown by looking away from the speakers in Latin America.Answer questions 5 &6 on p196.Touch (p.198-)Touch is culturally determined and each culture has a clear concept of what parts of the body one may not touch.In Western culture, handshake is common (even for strangers), hugs, kisses for those of opposite gender or of family (usually) on an increasingly more intimate basis.U.S.— Note differences between African-Americans and Anglos in U.S. Most African Americans touch on greeting but are annoyed if touched on the head (good boy, good girl overtones). Islamic and Hindu: typically don’t touch with the left hand. To do so is a social insult.Islamic cultures generally don’t approve of any touching between genders (even hand shakes). But consider such touching (including hand holding, hugs) between same-sex to be appropriate.Many Asians don’t touch the head, especially in Thailand (Head houses the soul and a touch puts it in jeopardy).Paralanguage (p.223-224)Paralanguage refers to how something is said rather than the content.Most classifications divide paralanguage into three kinds of vocalizations:(1) vocal characterizers (laughing, crying, yelling, moaning, whining, belching, yawning);(2) vocal qualifiers (volume, pitch, rhythm, tempo, resonance, tone);(3) vocal segregates (“un-huh,” “shh,” “uh,” “oooh,” “mmmh,” “humm”).For Israelis, increased volume reflects strong beliefs toward the issue under discussion.The Germans conduct their business with a “commanding tone that projects authority andself-confident.For Thai people, “a loud voice is perceived as being impolite.”In Japan, raising one’s voice often implies a lack of self-control. For them, a gentle and soft voice reflects good manners and helps maintain social harmony---two important values in Japanese culture.When interacting with Americans, people from cultures that speak softly often believe that Americans are angry or upset because of their relatively loud speech.Silence p.225-226Silence is a powerful communicator. It can communicate–Agreement.–Disagreement.–Confusion.–Respect.–Sadness.–Thoughtfulness, or any number of meanings.“Silence in Asia has commonly been entirely acceptable whereas in the West silence has generally been considered socially disagreeable.” – Oliver(1971)Examples---p.225-226Object LanguageObject language refers to communication through material artifacts, e.g. office design, furniture, clothing ,cars, flowers, tie, knife and fork etc.Furniture arrangement within the home communicates something about the culture.For example, people from France, Italy, and Mexico who visit the U.S. are often surprised to see that the furniture in the living room is pointed toward the television set. For them, conversation is important, and facing chairs toward a television screen stifles conversation. In their countries, furniture is positioned to encourage interaction.The Battle of the Ties:Romney’s Red VS Obama’s Blu e(posted on October 4,2012/blog/the-battle-of-the-ties-romneys-red-vs-obamas-blue/. ) Fashion in Politics:Obama “Out-Styles” Romney 4:2“Dress for Success” should have been on both candidates mind while getting dressed for las t night’s first Presidential debate.Overall both did a good job, but a closer look does indeed show some minor differences. After looking at how their suits fitted, what tie they chose to wear, how the ties were tied, how the shirt cut complemented the rest of the outfit, as well as a few other key points, I give the slight edge to President Obama – winning 4:2 over his opponent Governor Romney.In other words: Obama was the better dressed of the two.Hair Cut: Point Goes to RomneyObama showed up in his usually short buzz-cut while Romney impressed with his well manicured coif. Without doubt, Romney’s more “high maintenance” hair took at least 20 minutes to style –time that was, at least from my point of view, well spent.The Suit: Obama Takes This OneBoth men wore the classic charcoal gray, American cut suit (2 button, notch lapels, double vented, and pleated pants).While both men wore pants that were slightly too long, it was Obama’s suit that fit a b it better around the shoulders.It was a close call, but point goes to Obama.The Tie: Romney’s Red “Power Tie” Takes itConsistent with their parties colors, Obama wore a royal blue tie while Romney decided to dress up with a bold red striped piece.While I personally prefer the color and fine textu re of Obama’s tie, Romney did a better job choosing a bolder and more attention-grabbing color. Romney’s red “power tie” exudes confidence without being overly flashy. The stripes on the tie also added a more “business professional” look that is consistent with Romney’s persona. While Romney’s red tie was bold and attention grabbing it did not distract from his face. The clear winner here: Governor Mitt Romne.The Tie Knot: Obama Takes itObama tied his royal blue tie with a perfectly dimpled Four in Hand while Romney tied a slightly sloppy half Windsor.The shape of Obama’s tie knot perfectly complemented the collar style and the dimple gave the tie a nice textured look and better drape. Romney’s knot on the other hand appeared a bit sloppy. The knot was a tad too large for the collar, and the lack of the dimple certainly was an eyesore for every tie aficionado. Thus, the clear winner here is President Obama.The Dress Shirt: Points to ObamaIt should come to no surprise that both men wore the classic white dress shirt featuring classic medium spread collars and traditional barrel cuffs.While both shirts initially looks the same, a closer look shows Romney’s shirt having shorter collar points. While shorter collar points are more modern, it is a style that requires to be worn with the right suit and tie: a slim fit narrow lapeled suit and slightly narrower necktie – something Romney failed to do. Thus, points to Obama.Accessories: Romney Wins HereAs already seen on the campaign trail, both men keep accessories at a bare minimum. Neither man wears cufflinks, tie bars, or pocket squares (something JFK would have done), but instead opted for a simple and sleep look of wedding ring, wrist watch, and American flag pin.Because Romney chose a slightly larger and more visible flag pin, he deserves to win this point.Accessories: Obama Takes This One(Democratic Fashion: Obama vs. Biden)Unfortunately, politicians tend to dress in a somewhat boring fashion these days. Gone are the days when the president (think JFK) dressed in 3-piece suit, decorated with an elegant white pocket square and paired with a dapper skinny tie and matching tie bar.Instead outfits are conservative and, what some m ay call, even boring. Obama’s and Biden’s outfits are the perfect example. Both keep their accessories at an absolute minimum: No cufflinks, no tie bars, no pocket square, and Joe Biden doesn’t even appear to be wearing a wristwatch. The simple fact that Obama wore a sleek black leather band wrist watch gives him the lead when it comes to accessorizing.Object LanguageIn Germany, where privacy is stressed, office furniture is spread throughout the office.In Japan, where group participation is encouraged, many desks are arranged hierarchically in the center of a large, common room absent of walls or partitions.The supervisors and managers are positioned nearest the windows. This organization encourages the exchanges of information, facilitates multitask accomplishments, and promotes the Confucian concept of learning through silent observation.CLOTHINGSClothing can reflect subgroup identity.•Example:–US Army Combat Uniform（ACU）美国陆军作战服–Traditional clothing of Gambia and the minority groups in ChinaSmellUSA — fear of offensive natural smells (billion dollar industry to mask objectionable odors with what is perceived to be pleasant ) — again connected with “attractiveness” concept.Many other cultures consider natural body odors as normal (Arabic).Asian cultures (Filipino, Malay, Indonesian, Thai, Indian) stress frequent bathing — and often criticize USA of not bathing often enough!Environmental Language“Time talks. It speaks more plainly than words. The message it conveys comes through loud and clear.” (E. T. Hall)The study of how people use, structure, interpret and understand the passage of time is called chronemics.Space--differences in comfortable distance between people. “Space talks.” (E. T. Hall) Proxemics deals with how space influences the communication process.Cultures differ substantially in their use of perso nal space“ – Edward Hall(1959).Low-context cultures -- place relatively less emphasis on nonverbal cues; prefer much less sensory involvement, standing farther apart and touching lessHigh-context cultures -- place relatively more emphasis on nonverbal cues; preferring to stand close, touch, and experience a close sensory involvementChronemics–the study of our use of time.–ancient cultures have established their own system in measuring time which differs from one to another.–Example :•Muslims use moon-based calendar system–The usage of time varies from culture to culture.•Example :–Arabs engage in up to half an hour of informalconversation before turning to business.ExerciseMatching TaskThink over the following and make a proper match between cultures and gestures or the meanings they convey. (p.200)。

Unit 1 Communication Across CultureTranslation纵观历史，我们可以清楚地看到，人们由于彼此所处地域、意识形态、容貌服饰和行为举止上存在的差异，而长久无法互相理解、无法和睦相处。

在这种情况下，跨文化交际作为一个特定的研究领域得以形成和发展。

值得注意的是，人类文明在发展过程中所遭受的许多挫折，既是个人的，又是全球性的；人类历史进程总是充满了个人间的直接冲突和民族间的误解——从骂骂咧咧到孤立主义直至到武装冲突，大大小小争端不绝。

很显然，文化间以及亚文化间的交往比以前多了，这迫切要求我们共同努力，去理解有着不同信仰和文化背景的人们，并与之和睦相处。

通过加深认识和理解，我们能够与生活方式、价值观念不同的人们和平共处；这不但有益于我们周遭环境的安定，也是维护世界和平的决定性因素。

Case StudyCase 1In this case, there seemed to be problems in communicating with people of different cultures in spite of the efforts made to achieve understanding.We should know that in Egypt as in many cultures, the human relationship is valued so highlythat it is not expressed in an objective and impersonal way. While Americans certainly value human relationships, they are more likely to speak of them in less personal, more objective terms. In this case, Richard…s mistake might be that he chose to praise the food itself rather than the total evening, for which the food was simply the setting or excuse. For his host and hostess it was as if he had attended an art exhibit and complimented the artist by saying, ―What beautiful frames your pictures are in.‖In Japan the situation may be more complicated. Japanese people value order and harmonyamong persons in a group, and that the organization itself－be it a family or a vast corporation－is more valued than the characteristics of any particular member. In contrast, Americans stress individuality as a value and are apt to assert individual differences when they seem justifiably in conflict with the goals or values of the group. In this case: Richard…s mistake was in making great efforts to defend himself. Let the others assume that the errors were not intentional, but it is not right to defend yourself, even when your unstated intent is to assist the group by warning others of similar mistakes. A simple apology and acceptance of the blame would have been appropriate. But for poor Richard to have merely apologized would have seemed to him to be subservient, unmanly.When it comes to England, we expect fewer problems between Americans and Englishmenthan between Americans and almost any other group. In this case we might look beyond the gesture of taking sugar or cream to the values expressed in this gesture: for Americans, ―Help yourself‖; for the English counterpart, ―Be my guest.‖ American and English people equally enjoy entertaining and being entertained but they differ somewhat in the value of the distinction. Typically, the ideal guest at an American party is one who ―makes himself at home,‖ even to the point of answering the door or fixing his own drink. For persons in many other societies, including at least this hypothetical English host, such guest behavior is presumptuous or rude.Case 2A common cultural misunderstanding in classes involves conflicts between what is said to bedirect communication style and indirect communication style. In American culture, people tend to say what is on their minds and to mean what they say. Therefore, students in class are expected to ask questions when they need clarification. Mexican culture shares this preference of style with American culture in some situations, and that…s why the students from Mexico readily adopted the techniques of asking questions in class. However, Korean people generally prefer indirect communication style, and therefore they tend to not say what is on their minds and to rely more on implications and inference, so as to be polite and respectful and avoid losing face through any improper verbal behavior. As is mentioned in the case, to many Koreans, numerous questions would show a disrespect for the teacher, and would also reflect that the student has not studied hard enough. Case 3The conflict here is a difference in cultural values and beliefs. In the beginn ing, Mary didn…trealize that her Dominican sister saw her as a member of the family, literally. In the Dominican view, family possessions are shared by everyone of the family. Luz was acting as most Dominican sisters would do in borrowing without asking every time. Once Mary understood that there was a differentway of looking at this, she would become more accepting. However, she might still experience the same frustration when this happened again. She had to find ways to cope with her own emotional cultural reaction as well as her practical problem (the batteries running out).Case 4It might be simply a question of different rhythms. Americans have one rhythm in their personaland family relations, in their friendliness and their charities. People from other cultures have different rhythms. The American rhythm is fast. It is characterized by a rapid acceptance of others. However, it is seldom that Americans engage themselves entirely in a friendship. Their friendships are warm, but casual, and specialized. For example, you have a neighbor who drops by in the morning for coffee. You see her frequently, but you never invite her for dinner --- not because you don…t think she could handle a fork and a knife, but because you have seen her that morning. Therefore, you reserve your more formal invitation to dinner for someone who lives in a more distant part of the city and whom you would not see unless you extended an invitation for a special occasion. Now, if the first friend moves away and the second one moves nearby, you are likely to reverse this --- see the second friend in the mornings for informal coffee meetings, and the first one you will invite more formally to dinner.Americans are, in other words, guided very often by their own convenience. They tend to make friends easily, and they don…t feel it necessary to go to a great amount of trouble to see friends often when it becomes inconvenient to do so, and usually no one is hurt. But in similar circumstances people from many other cultures would be hurt very deeply.Unit 2 Culture and CommunicationTranslation文化有时候被称为我们的心智程序，我们“头脑的软件”。

参考资料Unit 1 Communication Across CulturesReading IIntercultural Communication：An IntroductionComprehension questions1. Is it still often the case that “everyone‟s quick to blame the alien” in the contemporary worldThis is still powerful in today‘s social and political rhetoric. For instance,it is not uncommon intoday‘s society to hear people say that most, if not all, of the social and economic problems arecaused by minorities and immigrants.2. What‟s the difference between today‟s intercultural contact and that of any time in the pastToday‘s intercultural encounters are far more numerous and of greater importancethan in anytime in history.3. What have made intercultural contact a very common phenomenon in our life todayNew technology, in the form of transportation and communication systems, has accelerated intercultural contact; innovative communication systems have encouraged and facilitated cultural interaction; globalization of the economy has brought people together; changes in immigration patterns have also contributed to intercultural encounter.4. How do you understand the sentence “culture is everything and everywhere”Culture supplies us with the answers to questions about what the world looks like and how we live and communicate within that world. Culture teaches us how to behavein our life from the instant of birth. It is omnipresent.5. What are the major elements that directly influence our perception and communicationThe three major socio-cultural elements that directly influence perception and communication are cultural values, worldview (religion), and social organizations (family and state).6. What does one‟s family teach him or her while he or she grows up in itThe family teaches the child what the world looks like and his or her place in that world.7. Why is it impossible to separate our use of language from our cultureBecause language is not only a form of preserving culture but also a means of sharing culture. Language is an organized, generally agreed-upon, learned symbol system that is used to represent the experiences within a cultural community.8. What are the nonverbal behaviors that people can attach meaning toPeople can attach meaning to nonverbal behaviors such as gestures, postures, facial expressions, eye contact and gaze, touch, etc.9. How can a free, culturally diverse society existA free, culturally diverse society can exist only if diversity is permitted to flourish without prejudice and discrimination, both of which harm all members of the society.Reading IIThe Challenge of GlobalizationComprehension questions1. Why does the author say that our understanding of the world has changedMany things, such as political changes and technological advances, have changed the world very rapidly. In the past most human beings were born, lived, and died within a limited geographical area, never encountering people of other cultural backgrounds. Such an existence, however, no longer prevails in the world. Thus, all people are faced with the challenge of understanding this changed and still fast changing world in which we live.2. What a “global village” is likeAs our world shrinks and its inhabitants become interdependent, people from remote cultures increasingly come into contact on a daily basis. In a ―global village‖, members of once isolated groups of people have to communicate with members of other cultural groups. Those people maylive thousands of miles away or right next door to each other.3. What is considered as the major driving force of the post-1945 globalizationTechnology, particularly telecommunications and computers are considered to be the major driving force.4. What does the author mean by saying that “the …global‟may be more local than the …local‟”The increasing global mobility of people and the impact of new electronic media on human communications make the world seem smaller. We may communicate more with people of other countries than with our neighbors, and we may be more informed of the international events than of the local events. In this sense, ―the ‗global‘ may be more local than the ‗local‘‖.5. Why is it important for businesspeople to know diverse cultures in the worldEffective communication may be the most important competitive advantage that firms have to meet diverse customer needs on a global basis. Succeeding in the global market today requires the ability to communicate sensitively with people from other cultures,a sensitivity that is based on an understanding of cross-cultural differences.6. What are the serious problems that countries throughout the world are confronted withCountries throughout the world are confronted with serious problems such as volatile international economy, shrinking resources, mounting environmental contamination, and epidemics that know no boundaries.7. What implications can we draw from the case of MichaelFayThis case shows that in a world of international interdependence, the ability tounderstand and communicate effectively with people from other cultures takes on extreme urgency. If we are unaware of the significant role culture plays in communication, we may place the blame for communication failure on people of other cultures.8. What attitudes are favored by the author towardsglobalizationGlobalization, for better or for worse, has changed the world greatly. Whether we like it or not, globalization is all but unstoppable. It is already here to stay. It is both a fact and an opportunity. The challenges are not insurmountable. Solutions exist, and are waiting to be identified and implemented. From a globalistic point of view, there is hope and faith in humanity.Translation纵观历史，我们可以清楚地看到，人们由于彼此所处地域、意识形态、容貌服饰和行为举止上存在的差异，而长久无法互相理解、无法和睦相处。

张桂萍跨文化交际第六单元课文翻译Unit 6 Page 215
非言语交际被认为是不直接依靠语言使用的任何交际方式。

然而，一般来说，很难知道言语交际方式与非言语交际方式的区分到底在哪儿。

有些非言语交际方式，例如点头，总是伴随着言语，而且是语言使用时言语系统的一部分。

另一方面，像舞蹈和音乐等交际形式常常是没有任何言语成分的。

我们在这里想做的只是要引起大家对一个事实的注意，即人类交往的许多方面都依赖于那些不能轻易转换为言语、但却对我们相互理解至关重要的交际形式。

当然，我们不能不强调口语和书面语交际的重要性，然而我们也必须意识到许多交际的发生并不使用语言。

一个人出席会议时的穿着会可能是暗示其他与会者，他或她打算如何参与会议。

事实上，我们能运用我们行为或表现的任何方面来和他人进行交际。

Unit 6Culture and Nonverbal CommunicationSome Ideas Related to Nonverbal Communication1. Nonverbal languageWhat is not said is often as important as what is said. Nonverbal communication is communication through means other than language — for example, facial expression, personal space, eye contact, use of time, and conversational silence.(Hall, E.T. The Silent Language, New York: Doubleday, 1959)2. Different expressions of nonverbal languageKinesics: our body languageThe term refers to gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, body positions, body movements, and forms of greeting and their relation to communication — yawning, stretching, and relaxing, staring, walking slumped over, raising a clenched fist, showing a victory sign.The human communication process is more complex than it initially seems. Much, if not most, of our messages in face to face contact are transmitted through paralanguage. These auxiliary communication techniques are highly culture bound. Communication with people from other societies or ethnic groups is fraught with the danger of misunderstanding if their culture and paralanguage is unknown to you or ignored.3. Significance of nonverbal languageIt accounts for much of the meaningwe derive from conversations.Cognitive content.Affective content.It spontaneously reflected the subconscious. Normally we control over our words. But the nonverbal behavior may leak our true feelings.We cannot communicate without it. Even if we choose silence, the nonverbal dimension of our communication is always present. Even if we remove bodily from the scene of interaction, our absence may speak loudly.4. Relationship between verbal and nonverbal languageAccent: to lay emphasis by tone of voice, intonationsReinforce/Complement: to strengthen and supplyContradict: betray the verbal expressionsRegulate: looking behavior, vocal inflections, gestures, general cues of readiness or relaxation all help to signal a person’s conversational intentionsSubstitute: head nods or shakes, hand gestures,facial display and body movementReading IAn Overview of Nonverbal Communication Comprehension questions1. Can you speak each of the following sentences in different ways to mean differently?1) She is my best friend.2) You‟ve done really good job.3) Come here, please.4) That‟s all right.Speaking the same sentence with the stress on different words may mean different things. For instance, if the stress falls on ―she in the first sentence, it means it is SHE, not you or somebody else, that is my best friend. But if the stress falls on ―my‖, it implies that she is MY, not your or some body‘s, best friend.2. Speakers of British English use loudness only when they are angry, speakers of Indian English use it to get the floor, a chance to speak. So when an Indian speaker is trying to get the floor, what would the British speaker think of the Indian and what would the British behave in response?The British speaker may think that the Indian gets angry with him or behaves rudely towards him, so he may complain about the Indian‘s rudeness or even return his rudeness as a response.3. What differences in body language use have you noticed between your Chinese teachers and foreign teachers?There are really some differences between Chinese teachers and foreign teachers in their use of body language. For instance, Chinese teachers in general do not use gestures as much as foreign teachers do, and their facial expressions often seem to be less varied than those of many foreign teachers.4. Do you know any gestures we often use that might be misunderstood by people from other cultures?For example, the way we Chinese motion to others to come over might be misunderstood by people from some Western countries to mean bye-bye.5. How do we Chinese people use eye contact in communication?During a conversation between two Chinese, it seems that the speaker and the hearer would usually look at each other (not necessarily in the eye) from time to time. How much eye-contact there is may depend on the relationship between the speaker and hearer and the situation they find themselves in.6. How will you eye them when you are communicating with people from the United States or people from Japan?While talking with Americans, we should look directly into the eyes of the person with whom we are talking. However; while talking with Japanese, we are not expected to look at them in the eye but at a position around the Adam‘s apple. 7. Do you often smile at others? Why or why not?It depends. For instance, it seems that we Chinese, as well as people of other Eastern Asian countries, do not usually smile at strangers as much as Americans.8. What function(s) may laughter serve in our culture? Does it sometimes cause intercultural misunderstanding?Laughter in our culture may serve various functions. Sometimes, it is used to express amusement or ridicule, and sometimes it is simply used to make one feel less embarrassed.9. Do you often touch others while talking with them? Whom do you touch more than others?We Chinese generally do not often touch others while talking with them unless they are our intimate friends or younger children.10. In small groups or in pairs, demonstrate all the possible ways you can think ofto greet another person. Is touching always part of a greeting?No. Touching is not always part of a greeting in our culture as in some other cultures.11. Will you apologize if you accidentally touch other people in public places? Why or why not?Many people will apologize if they accidentally touch other people in public places since in our culture people who are strangers to each other should not touch. However, whether people will apologize or not depends on the situations. If a person accidentally touches a stranger in a very crowded place, he or she may not apologize for it.Reading IIGender and Nonverbal Communication Comprehension questions1. What may often happen to those who do not conform to their culture‟s accepted gender “script”?There are often severe social penalties for those who act in violation of their culture‘s accepted gender ―script.2. Does touch have any connotation in different situations? Can you give some specific examples?Touch, like physical closeness, may be considered an expression of affection, support, or sexual attraction. For instance, in some cultures, it may be all right for women friends and relatives to walk arm-in-arm, dance together, and hug one another, but if men do so, they may be frowned upon, for it would be considered as having the connotation of being homosexual.3. What will possibly happen to a woman who is appreciably taller than the man?Taller women may attempt to diminish themselves, to slouch and round their shoulders so as to retreat or to occupy as little space as possible.4. Are men and women required to have the same facial expressions? Does smile mean the same things to both men and women?Men and women are not usually required to have the same facial expressions. Smile may mean different things to men and women. For females smile functions as an expression of pleasure, pleasantness, or a desire for approval, while males may resist any nonverbal display of expression to others in order to appear more masculine,because being facially expressive is often seen as a marker of ―femininity.5. Why are the African-American women less deferential than white women and less inclined to smile?African-American women are found to be less deferential than white women and, therefore, less inclined to smile, simply because it is expected of them to be so in their culture.6. In what ways may direct eye contact between individuals be interpreted?Looking directly into another person‘s eyes can connote an aggressive threat, a sexual invitation, or a desire for honest and open communication.7. What was found in a study of nonverbal communication among Hispanic couples?In a study of nonverbal communication among Hispanic couples, it was found that many Puerto Rican wives never looked directly at their husbands.8. How does clothing manifest and promote cultural definitions of masculinity and femininity?Through clothing and make-up, the body is more or less marked, constituted as an appropriate, or, as the case may be, inappropriate body for its cultural requirements. Males and females have to dress themselves appropriately according to their cultural definitions of masculinity and femininity.Case StudyCase 21Sometimes our best intentions can lead to breakdowns in cross-cultural communication. For example, one of the very common manners of touching --- handshaking --- may result in conflict when performed with no consideration of cultural differences. Among middle-class North American men, it is customary to shake hands as a gesture of friendship. When wanting to communicate extra friendliness, a male in the United States may, while shaking hands, grasp with his left hand his friend‘s right arm. However, to people of Middle Eastern countries, the left hand is profane and touching someone with it is highly offensive. Therefore, in Vernon‘s eyes, Kenneth was actually a n extremely offensive message to him.Case 22In Puerto Rican culture, as in some other Latin American and Eastern cultures, it is not right for a child to keep an eye-contact with an adult who is accusing him or her, while in the United States, failing o f meeting other person‘s eye accusing him or her would be taken as a sign of guiltiness. As the principal knew little about this cultural difference in using eye-contact, he decided that the girl must be guilty. Generally speaking, avoiding eye-contact with the other(s) is often considered as an insult in some cultures, but may signify respect for authority and obedience in other cultures. Case 23Just like smile, laughing does not always serve the same function in different cultures. Interestingly, for us Chinese, laughing often has a special function on some tense social occasions. People may laugh to release the tension or embarrassment, to express their concern about you, their intention to put you at ease or to help you comeout of the embarrassment. In this case, the people there were actually wishing to laugh with the American rather than laugh at her. Their laughing seemed to convey a number of messages: don‘t take it so seriously; laugh it off, it‘s nothing; such things can happen to any of us, etc. Unfortunately the American was unaware of this. She thought they were laughing at her, which made her feel more badly and angry, for in her culture laughing on such an occasion would be interpreted as an insulting response, humiliating and negative.Case 24It is obvious that there exists some difference between the British and Germans in their use of touch. The lack of touch that seems to be natural in Britain may be considered strange by Germans.What is required (in this case, shaking hands with each other) in one country could be taken as unnecessary in another.The appropriateness of contact between people varies from country to country. Figures from a study offer some interesting insight into this matter. Pairs of individuals sitting and chatting in college shops in different countries were observed for at least one hour each. The number of times that either one touched the other in that one hour was recorded, as follows: in London, 0; in Florida, 2; in Paris, 10; in Puerto Rico, 180. These figures indicate that touch is used very differently in different cultures.。

跨文化交际全部答案(总30页) -CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1-CAL-本页仅作为文档封面，使用请直接删除参考资料Unit 1 Communication Across CulturesReading IIntercultural Communication：An Introduction Comprehension questions1. Is it still often the case that “everyone‟s quick to blame the alien” in the contemporary worldThis is still powerful in today‘s social and political rhetoric. For instance, it is notuncommon intoday‘s society to hear people say that most, if not all, of the social and economic problems arecaused by minorities and immigrants.2. What‟s the difference between today‟s intercultural contact and that of any time in the pastToday‘s intercultural encounters are far more numerous and of greater importancethan in anytime in history.3. What have made intercultural contact a very common phenomenon in our life todayNew technology, in the form of transportation and communication systems, has accelerated intercultural contact; innovative communication systems have encouraged and facilitated cultural interaction; globalization of the economy has brought people together; changes in immigration patterns have also contributed to intercultural encounter.4. How do you understand the sentence “culture is everything and everywhere”Culture supplies us with the answers to questions about what the world looks like and how we live and communicate within that world. Culture teaches us how to behave in our life from the instant of birth. It is omnipresent.5. What are the major elements that directly influence our perception and communicationThe three major socio-cultural elements that directly influence perception and communication are cultural values, worldview (religion), and social organizations (family and state).6. What does one‟s family teach him or her while he or she grows up in itThe family teaches the child what the world looks like and his or her place in thatworld.7. Why is it impossible to separate our use of language from our cultureBecause language is not only a form of preserving culture but also a means of sharing culture. Language is an organized, generally agreed-upon, learned symbol system that is used to represent the experiences within a cultural community.8. What are the nonverbal behaviors that people can attach meaning toPeople can attach meaning to nonverbal behaviors such as gestures, postures, facial expressions, eye contact and gaze, touch, etc.9. How can a free, culturally diverse society existA free, culturally diverse society can exist only if diversity is permitted to flourish without prejudice and discrimination, both of which harm all members of the society.Reading IIThe Challenge of GlobalizationComprehension questions1. Why does the author say that our understanding of the world has changedMany things, such as political changes and technological advances, have changed the world very rapidly. In the past most human beings were born, lived, and died within a limited geographical area, never encountering people of other cultural backgrounds. Such an existence, however, no longer prevails in the world. Thus, all people are faced with the challenge of understanding this changed and still fast changing world in which we live.2. What a “global village” is likeAs our world shrinks and its inhabitants become interdependent, people from remote cultures increasingly come into contact on a daily basis. In a ―global village‖, members of once isolated groups of people have to communicate with members of other cultural groups. Those people maylive thousands of miles away or right next door to each other.3. What is considered as the major driving force of the post-1945 globalizationTechnology, particularly telecommunications and computers are considered to be the major driving force.4. What does the author mean by saying that “the …global‟m ay be more local than the …local‟”The increasing global mobility of people and the impact of new electronic media on human communications make the world seem smaller. We may communicate more with people of other countries than with our neighbors, and we may be more informed of the international events than of the local events. In this sense, ―the ‗global‘ may be more local than the ‗local‘‖.5. Why is it important for businesspeople to know diverse cultures in the worldEffective communication may be the most important competitive advantage that firms have to meet diverse customer needs on a global basis. Succeeding in theglobal market today requires the ability to communicate sensitively with people from other cultures, a sensitivity that is based on an understanding of cross-culturaldifferences.6. What are the serious problems that countries throughout the world areconfronted withCountries throughout the world are confronted with serious problems such as volatile international economy, shrinking resources, mounting environmental contamination, and epidemics that know no boundaries.7. What implications can we draw from the case ofMichael FayThis case shows that in a world of international interdependence, the ability to understand and communicate effectively with people from other cultures takes on extreme urgency. If we are unaware of the significant role culture plays in communication, we may place the blame for communication failure on people of other cultures.8. What attitudes are favored by the author towardsglobalizationGlobalization, for better or for worse, has changed the world greatly. Whether we like it or not, globalization is all but unstoppable. It is already here to stay. It is both a fact and an opportunity. The challenges are not insurmountable. Solutions exist, and are waiting to be identified and implemented. From a globalistic point of view, there is hope and faith in humanity.Translation纵观历史，我们可以清楚地看到，人们由于彼此所处地域、意识形态、容貌服饰和行为举止上存在的差异，而长久无法互相理解、无法和睦相处。