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1.Planning a CompositionA. When a topic is assigned, the student should first try to think of as manyrelevant facts as he can and write down them on a piece of paper.B.At the same time, he should try to find a proper thesis or theme. Thethesis of a composition is its main point or its central idea. It is the conclusion that should be drawn from the facts to be presented in the composition.C.After that, he should look at the list of facts again, eliminate thoseunnecessary or unimportant ones, rearrange them in a logical order, and write an outline.2.Types of OutlinesAn outline subdivides the controlling idea or thesis of the essay into smaller parts, which are then developed into separate paragraphs. Roman and Arabic numerals and letters of the alphabet are generally used to number and order ideas. There are two commonly used types of outline: the topic outline and the sentence outline.A.Topic OutlineAll entries in a topic outline consist of nouns and their modifiers, or their equivalents, that is, gerund phrases or infinitive phrases. A topic outline is brief and clear, and it gives an instant overview of the entire paper.B.Sentence OutlineThe entries in a sentence outline are complete sentences. A sentenceoutline provides a more detailed plan of the paper.3.Writing the First DraftIt is necessary to write a first draft, in which there should be enough space between lines for future corrections and improvements. While writing the draft, the writer need not be afraid of the departing form theout line at one place or another. But he had better stop to revise his outline or work out a new one if he finds his original outline entirely impracticable.4.Revising the First DraftIf possible, a student should write the first draft one to two days before the time when he has to hand in the composition to the teacher. He will then have enough time for revising the draft, and be able to examine it more objectively.While revising a composition, the student should keep in mind that revision does not mean a simple correction of mistake in grammar, spelling, punctuation, and other mechanics.5.Making the Final CopyThe very last step in writing a composition, a step that should never be forgotten, is to check the final copy. In doing so the writer is likely to find that he has made careless mistakes in grammar and spelling, and he may also want to change a word here and there.II Organization1.Some PrinciplesA.Like a paragraph, a composition must have unity. A speaker may beallowed to digress from his main subject for a little while, but a writer is not given such freedom.B. A composition consists of several paragraphs, each of which has onecentral thought. They must be arranged in some kind of order, so that one paragraph leads naturally to another to form an organic whole.C.Proportion is as important to an essay as it is to a painting. Main facts orideas deserve full treatment; minor ones should be given less space. The essential part of an essay is the body or the middle part. To give this part about seven-or eight-tenths of the total space will be just right. The beginning and the end, though important, have to be short.2.The BeginningA.The beginning rouses the reader’s interest in and secures his attention tothe subject matter of the essay or provides necessary background information.B.The middle gives a clear and logical presentation of the facts and ideasthe writer intends to put forth.C.The end winds up the essay often with an emphatic and forcefulstatement to influence the reader’s final impression of the essay and shows the implication or consequences of the argument.Concluding paragraphs should be short, forceful, substantial, and thought-provoking, made up mainly of restatements or summaries of the points that have been discussed. No new ideas should be introduced in a concluding paragraph.Sometimes it is good to link the concluding paragraph to the introductory. If. For instance, a question is raised in the introductoryparagraph, an answer should be given in the concluding paragraph.III Types of Writing1.DescriptionA description essay is generally developed through sensory details, or theimpressions of one’s senses—sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. Not all details are useful. The writer should choose those that help to bring out the dominant characteristic or outstanding quality of the person or thing described, and leave out those irrelevant ones.A. Description of a personWhile describing a person, the writer should try to reveal the person’s character, thoughts, and feelings, which may be shown in what theperson does and says, or in how he behaves to others. And it is important to grasp the characteristic features that distinguish him from all other people.B. Description of a placePlaces may be described for their own sake, as in essays on visits to famous scenic places, but also for the purpose of revealing the personality and character of a person, or creating a feeling or mood. As in describinga person, in describing a place one should mainly write about the thingsthat make it different from other places.C. Description of an objectTo describe an object we have to depend on our senses, because we need to mention its size, shape, color, texture, taste, and smell. It is also necessary to tell how it is used if it is useful, and what part it plays in a person’s life if it is in some way related to him. But emphasis should be placed on only one aspect of the object, probably its most important characteristic.D. Description of a sceneA scene usually consists of three basic factors: the setting, the people,and the actions. It is also possible to describe the scene of some natural phenomenon.The writer should try to create a dominant impression when describing a scene. Before he begins to write, he must make up his mind as to what effect he wants the description to achieve. This will help him to decide which details to delete and which to include.2.NarrationTo narrate is to give an account of an event or a series of events. In itsbroadest sense, narrative writing includes stories, real or imaginary,biographies, histories, news items, and narrative poems.Narration often goes hand in hand with description. When planning anarrative, the writer should consider these five aspects: context, selectionof details, organization, point of view, and purpose.3.ExpositionExposition means expounding or explaining. Exposition mainly dealswith processes and relationships. We are writing a descriptive essaywhen we describe the appearance of an object; but we are writing an expository essay when we explain how it is made, how it is used, and how it may change. Things can be explained by illustration, process, classification and division, comparison and contrast, and analysis of their causes and effects or definition.The most important quality of exposition is clarity. To achieve this the writer should:A.Limit his subject or the scope of discussion, or it is impossible to explainmany things clearly in a short essay:B.Prepare enough material to help his explanation; the ordinary reader oftenfinds abstract discussions hard to follow if they are not illustrated by concrete examples;C.Present his facts and views in proper order.D.Pay attention to the accuracy and clarity of words and sentences; avoidornamental as well as ambiguous expressions.4.ArgumentationThe purpose of exposition is to inform; the purpose of argumentation, on the other hand, is to convince. While an expository paper makes know something and explains it to make the reader understand, an argumentative essay tries to make the reader agree with its point of view and support it. Argumentation is actually exposition with the additional purpose of convincing or persuading.If you wish to write a good argumentative essay, you should do your best to meet the following requirements:A.A debatable pointB.Sufficient evidenceC.Good logicD.Clear logicE.Good use of the other three types of writingF.An honest and friendly attitude。
Chapter 6 Composing Essays6.2 Types of WritingThere are four types of writing: description, narration, exposition and argumentation.1. DescriptionGenerally, description is concerned with people, places and things. It is the art of translating the mental image (意象)of some object , person, place, or scene into words. It is a way of painting images in a certain logical pattern. The writer intends to tell how something looks like, sounds like, smells like, tastes like, or how one feels.2. Basic Elements of DescriptionAll descriptions involve two elements: the object –that which is seen or heard, and the observer— he who also sees or hears it.描写性文章有两大要素——描写对象和观察主体。
3. Basic Types of DescriptionDescriptions can be divided into two basic types: the objective and the subjective. Objective description attempts to report accurately the appearance of the object as a thing in itself, independent of the observer’s perception of it or feeling about it.(描写文可以分为两种：客观描写和主观描写。
