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400-080-6358 托福阅读必须掌握的70个副词在托福考试中有些托福词汇是必须要了解和应用的，这些词汇高频度的出现在每次托福考试中。
下面就给大家细数必不可少的七十个托福词汇。
1. prior to …在...之前2. reach the overwhelming consensus 达成绝对一致3. be not rivaled …没有什么能够匹敌4. be hailed as 被当作。
(好事)5. trigger 导致6. a fringe of 一小部分7. discrepancy 差异8. built-in 内置9. inclination 倾向10. develop a hit-list of our main fears 列出一串我们很担忧的事情11. in vast numbers 大量地12. appear=seem 看起来13. pose a devastating problem 带来了严重的问题14. have=share15. it will matter/work 会起作用的16. do more harm than good 弊大于利17. amount to 攀升18. to put it another way, 换言之19. launch 开始、启动20. be derived from …来自于21. the impetus/drive of ……的动力22. make sth possible/make it possible that 使…成为可能23. be known as ..以…而着称24. enjoy an unparalleled popularity 无比流行25. serve … purpose 实现…的目标26. have superiority/inferiority to 比…优越/比…自卑27. rely on/rest on 取决于28. viewed from this angle 从这个角度看29. tap into=understand30. result from 由于。
托福阅读笔记技巧Pm 4th Feb 阅读一、托福阅读文章三种类型解释说明型/立论性/历史题材的文章托福阅读文章的结构分类/比较对比/原因结果/问题解决方法二、平时练习过程中不限时,不查字典,标出不认识的单词,总结文章结构,主要讲的什么观点,之后对完答案后再查生次,分析长难句,总结错题,判断题型.三、快速阅读第一阶段:1,N1,N2,N3…..并列复合转折（有转折词）递进顺逞2, N1 of N2 核心词是N1,意思就是N2的N1。
N1of N2of N3……also….同上3,N1 or N2 N1and N2 是顺逞关系N1和N2一样重要。
4,A such as B,C,D Such A as B,C,D5,in addition to/in addition/It is not just…../rather than/)while/though 遇到此类联系词,直接空过去，读“，”以后的内容。
Example: Cooperation rather than evoking characteristic at the opposite extreme of human nature from competition ,is in reality a necessary factor in competition.只读逗号后面的,表示层次上顺成补充说明.否定的地方一般不会出题.四、more A than B “than” 之后的不读。
核心是A。
五、also/therefore/and/as well很重要Other/this n….表示前面肯定出现过同类名词。
As well as=andTips:1,平时背单词不仅仅是抱着词汇书背,平时做练习的时候遇到的生单词要注意积累.2,”also”之类的小词不能轻视.3,按照以上的快速阅读法则,阅读会变的简单无比.Reading这部分老师就具体分析讲义上具有代表性文章,他带着我们一起读这篇文章,根据他的句子结构法读文章,才发现阅读文章是这样读,并且巨简单.而且考试的时候千万不要先通读文章,直接看着题目进去找答案.下面这写东西全是讲义上的东西,他是分好几节课讲的.我现在在这边全部发出来,以后的阅读笔记会少很多.题型分析和讲解TYPE1: FACTUAL INFORMATION QUESTIONS 讲义P.7题型特征四个选项中一般只有一个被原文提及，被提及的那个就是正确答案。
托福阅读讲义一.阅读方法1.精读----句子结构分析和解析方法(1) 句子阅读中的障碍1) 定语前置定语: adj+n后置定语:n+ adj phrase形容词短语: a book useful for youprep phrase介词短语: a pen on the deskv-ing/-ed phrase分词短语: a person walking on the road; a tool developedfor the project不定式: a way to solve the problem注:✧分词短语作后置定语时,其逻辑主语是其修饰的名词✧不定代词只能用后置定语修饰✧不定式作后置定语其逻辑主语是第三方: sb use the way to solve the problem定语从句:✧关系代词引导定语从句: that, which, who, whom, whose( 其中that,which, who, whom引导的是非完整句, whose 引导的是完整句)✧关系连词: when, where, why在句子中不作成分, 引导的是完整句✧介词+关系代词: in which, 此关系代词不包括what2) 同位语: 同插入语一样处理----删除A, B( 定语从句/同位语从句)A, or BA that + 句子( 完整句)A of B: the city of Beijing3) 状语: 处理方式----隔离Adv 副词Prep phrase 介词短语分词短语不定式注: 非谓语动词作状语其逻辑主语是句子的主语4) 并列结构并列连词的用法: 并列连词连接结构\功能\性质均相同的成分----必须完全对等5) that引导的各种从句S+V+THAT+句子(完整句)----宾语从句S+系动词+表语+句子----表语从句It + Vi + that +句子It + be + adj +that +句子完整句That +句子+ VN+ that +句子+ 同位语(完整句)定语从句(非完整句)S + Vi + that+ 句子: The sun rises that is bright.S + be + adj + that + 句子: The desk is clean that is used by the student(定语从句); The fact is true that Tom is handsome(同位语从句).(2) 复杂句的阅读方法----层次化句子阅读法1) 括号匹配……关联词(完整句)…… (关联词+ 非完整句)2) 划右括号的条件:句子终结连接句子的并列连词或标点符号之前例1: However, for many years physicists thought that (atom and molecules always were much more likely to emit light spontaneously) and that (stimulated emission thus always would be much weaker)例2: It appeared that 〔Canada was once more falling in step with the trend toward smaller families (that had occurred all through the Western world since the time of the Industrial Revolution)〕.例3: The history of clinical nutrition,or the study of the relationship betweenhealth and how the body takes in and utilizes food substances(同位语,删除), can be divided into four distinct eras: the first began in the nineteenth century and extended into the early twentieth century (when it was recognized for the first time that (food contained constituents (that were essential for human function) )and that (different foods provided different amounts of these essentialagents).例4: Using techniques first developed for the offshore oil and gas industry, the DSDP‟s drill ship, the Glomar Challenger(同位语，删除), was able to maintain a steadyposition on the ocean‟s surface and drill in very deep water, extracting samples ofsediments and rock from the ocean floor.例5: The desperate plight of the South has eclipsed the fact that (reconstruction had to be undertaken also in North, though less spectacularly).例6: The technique of direct carving was a break with the nineteenth century in which (the making of a clay model was considered the creative act) and (the work was then turned over to studio assistant to be cast in plaster or bronze or carved in marble).例7: Anyone (who has handle a fossilized bone) knows that (it is usually not exactly like its modern counterpart), the most obvious difference being that( it is oftenmuch heavier) 独立主格结构.例8: The impressive gain in output 〔stemmed primarily from the way in which (workers made goods since 1790‟s)〕, North American enterpreneurs----even without the technological improvement----had broadended the scope of the outwork system (that made manufacturing more efficient by distributingmaterials to succession of workers (who each performed a single step of the production process))例9: The fact that (artisanss, (who were locked on as mechanics or skilled workers in the eighteenth century), (are frequently considered artists today) is directly attributable to the Arts and Crafts Movement of the nineteenth century) 例10: A few art collectors James Bowdoin III of Boston, William Bbyrd of Virginian, and the Aliens abd Hamiltons of Philadelphia (同位语)introduced European art traditions to those colonists〔privileged to visit their galleries, especially aspiring artists〕and established in their respective communities the idea of the value of art and the need for institutions 〔devoted to its encouragement〕.读和写作的关系：为写作提供原始模仿素材，并且是抽象结构．Basic to any understanding of thedisadvantages of building a large factory neara community is _________.例1: Herein (adv) lay(宾语) the beginning of what ultimately(最终) turned from ignorance(无知) to denial of the value of nutrition therapies in medicine(主语).例2: Surrounding the column are three sepals and three petals(主语), sometimes easily recognizable as such, often distorted into gorgeous, weird, but always functional shapes.例3:With the growing prosperity brought on by the Second World War and the economic boom( that followed it)独立主格,young people married and established households earlier and began to raise larger families than had their predecessors during the Depression. 没有倒装例4: Basic to any understanding of Canada in the 20years after the Second World War(宾语) is the country’s impressive population growth(主语).句子结构: adj + prep +B+ be + A = A + be +adj +prep +B例5: Among the species of seabirds (that use the windswept cliff of the Atlantic coast of Canada in the summer to mate, lay eggs, and rear their young) are common murres, Atlantic puffins, black-legged kittiwakes, and northern gannets(主语).句子结构: Among A + be + B = B是A的一部分例6: Implicit in it is an aesthetic principle as well: (that the medium has certain qualities of beauty and expressiveness with which (sculptors must bring their own aesthetic sensibilities into harmony)).例7: Most important perhaps, was that (they had all maintained with a certainfidelity(状语) a manner of technique and composition consistent with those of America‟s first popular landscapes artist, Thomas Cole, (who built a career painting the Catskill Mountain scenery 〔bording the Hudson River〔)).句型结构: S + Vt + prep + n1 (介词短语)+ n2, Vt的宾语实际上是n2.例8: With the turn-of-century Crafts movement and the discovery of nontraditional sources of inspiration(独立主格), such as wooden African figures and masks, there arose a new urge for hands-on, personal execution of art and an interaction with the medium(主语).例9: Accustomed though we are to(倒装) speaking of the films made before 1927 as …slient‟, the film has never been seen, in the full sense of the word, silent.句型结构: adj + though + S + be + prep + n = though + S +be + adj + prep + n, 仅发生在让步状语从句中.例10: Coincident with concerns about the accelerating loss of species and habitats has been a growing appreciation of the importance of biological diversity, the number of species in a particular ecosystem(同位语), to the health of the Earth and human well-being(主语).句型结构: the importance of A to B = A 对B 的重要性例11: Matching the influx of foreign immigrants into the larger cities of the United States during the late nineteenth century was a domestic migration(主语), from town and farm to city, within the United States.例12: Indeed, had it not been for the superb preservation of these fossils(虚拟条件句if it had not been) , they might well have been classified as dinosaurs.(4) 强调句的阅读方法构成：It + be + 强调成分＋that/ who+ 其他成分注意：把强调结构去掉句子仍然完整＼正确的就是强调句．强调句不强调形容词和代词．例1: It was just a decade before this (强调句)that many drug companies had found their vitamin sales skyrocketing and were quick to supply practicing physicians with generous samples of vitamins and literature extolling the virtue of supplementation for a vatiety of health-related conditions.例2: It was she, a Baltimore printer, (强调句)who published the first office copies of the Declaraton, the first copie (that included the names of its singers and therefore heralded the support of all thirteen colonies).例3: It was in the cities(强调句)that the elements (that can be associated with modern capitalism first appeared-----the use of money and commercial paper inplace of barter, open competition in place of social deference and hierarchy, with an attendant rise in social disorder, and the appearance of factories using coal or water power in place of independent craftspeople working with hand tools).2. 泛读----快速阅读与有效阅读(1) 阅读中的详略结合-----SKIMMING1) 需要详细阅读的内容结构主体的内容非举例性质的概括描述题目映射回原文的内容2) 可以快速浏览的内容大量的数据堆砌明显的举例: 为何而举,举例主体,结束位置对比\类比读一半让步\转折读一半(转折以后的那一半)(2) 理解单位扩大和阅读中逻辑的构建----模糊理解理论1) 阅读中的恶习----指读\声读\回读\视角高度过低\二次阅读2) 理解单位和阅读逻辑加大理解单位,变单词为意群组合----焦点训练法✓可以合并为意群的成分:✧副词✧介词短语✧分词短语✧非谓语的不定式✧主语和谓语或谓语和宾语✧固定搭配例: Generally, in order to be preserved in the fossil record, organisms must process hard body parts such as shells or bones. Soft, fleshy structures are quickly destroyed by predators or decayed by bacteria. Even hard parts left on the surface for certain length of time will be destroyed. Therefore, organisms must be buried rapidly to escape destruction by elements and to be protected against agents of weathering and erosion. Marine organisms thus are better candidates for fossilization than those living on the land because the ocean is. 1. (1) 词汇题简介和提问方式: 参见OG 第25页(2) 词汇题的解答方法认识：直接解题，沾边就对。
托福阅读经验公式汇总（20个）1．可能性语气凡选项出现相对词汇（some/maybe）一般为正确解凡选项出现绝对词汇（every/all ）一般为错误解2．中心围绕凡选项出现与文章中心一致选项则优先（强调结构制定）3．Except 型凡选项为细节（较长）一般解为下半区凡选项为归纳判断（较短）位置不定4．凡提到某个半有人物型一般解为显示作者主旨/中心5．结构题一般选三种解1)general-specific 2)chronological order 3)specific-general 6．下文主题（确定）一般注意解中应有：more, other, further, remaining, another 这种词汇7．态度题当问及作者或文中人物对某一事物观点：1）对事、物、人的态度，倾向于褒义词2）对观点态度，可倾向于贬义词8．中心题主题（按场景，上课笔记）9．读者身份题（或其它身份题）读者角度：General readers / audiences作者角度：Writer / expert10．文章来源：一般为textbook（for general use）11．相反/相对原则12．关键词汇原则（中心词、语气词、归纳词）13．抽象性优先，凡选项出现主观评论性单词或语言则优先解14．复杂关系及词汇优先：凡选项出现高难度词汇及高难度句子则优先解15．代词指代中心词规则16．对比及比较原则：different/comparsion等17．位置题（不对应）其它题对应18．最后一题对最后一句19．重要性，必要性选项优先（含义曲折）20．考古题规则托福阅读复习大纲一、文章及其操作（托福文章十大命题点）1.文章第一句（特别是当第一句为定义句）*定义句：A be BA be called B…new method …A which be B*上海道正认为一般为主题句的概率为72%左右（主要出现于科技，人物传记，地区发展等）2.列举及并列句First，…Second…Third…或A，B and C本种文章特征针对托福二种题型，Except或Not型及Which of following istrue？*关键在于识别平行概念及内容，也不一定为平行结构3.否定及转折（考率极高的文章内容）But，Yet，Nevertheless，However等*规律：否定关联，后面内容必定4.特殊写法：文章中与众不同写法1）用词特殊（如：科技文章中色彩词）2）复，长句（作者改写考率高）3）距离原则4）专有人称（第一次引入位置必考）5）破折号——表示解释与强调6）括号（□）解释与定义7）引号/冒号/惊叹号等写作手法*文章中，特殊写法在每篇文章中出现较少，但极重要5.每段主题句（这也是归纳主题的关键位置）出现于每一段第一句情型：A）if □，□答案B）not，正向为主C）定义句6.每篇文章最后一句（托福中一般必考）*规律：文章最后一题对最后一句7.最高级及作者强烈肯定1）最高级词汇：all，every，each，only2）连作者自己也觉得明显：apparent，clearly，evidently，obvious 3）作者认为“重要”：important ，impressive，remarkable4）作者语气“坚决”：surely，certainly ，inevitable，by all means 5）插入语：that is ，namely*凡出现该种模式词汇必考8.因果句及因果关联1）连词：because ，since，so2）动词：cause ，originate from，derive from3）名词：consequence，result，basis*因果句在托福考题中出现的考点是推理题9.比较级及比喻1）such…as/like/compare2）夸张的比较：a good deal，more，very much alike10.转换语气句（主要体现在“不是…而是…“）Not…but/instead/not so much…than rather/not…in fact二、阅读文章的手段与方式1.主题支配性*所有题目解遵循此规律（中心词一致）*不理解的信息也遵循此规律2.主题常见形式*人物传记：sb’s background and worksThe highlights of sb’s lifesb’s contribution to thedevelopment of modern life(规律:主要集中于贡献,生平,及背景,且此类文章出现概率为每次考试0.65)*艺术评论(本类文章较难)评论某一事件,物体的特性(规律:先批驳过去观点(或一般观点),再竖立自己(作者)观点,并提出相关的理由) *历史事件常见于西部探险/印第安人历史/教育史规律:历史过程/评估方面名词of 对象(或带有early, prehistory等方面修饰词)*动物主题文章:习性或特性(具体)migratory locusts in U.S.A习性或特性或机理(抽象)habits/characteristics of sth.人对动物tame/effects on(规律:植物与动物相似: The physical characteristics of theNeanderthals)*科技类文章(最新托福试题中常见三大类:地质地理,天文气象,生物化学及医学) 规律:1)介绍新科技a new machine in/for sth.2)描述发展过程development of sth.3)对人类影响effects/influence4)过程描述process/outline5)特征/特点/机理mechanics/natures/characteristic三、解题方法汇总1.托福试题性质分类主题型+归纳型+重要细节型+次要细节型（次要细节型为检索型，包括时间，地区，数字等）（归纳型题按主题指导而行）2.解的特点1）相对为解：can/could/may/often/some/more or less impossible等2）主观评定性词汇（在于文章中不出现该类词汇relatively/reasonably/arguably3）主题与中心词汇一致为解3.混淆项特点1）绝对含义词汇all/only/any/entirely/never2）部分对，部分错（比原文具体的项一般为错项）3）答非所问4）反向（与原文相反）4.各类问题解法ⅰ，主题及目的解法：中心词+特征词+文章主题句+段中心prupose：以inform/explain/provide information forⅱ，细节性题目a，关键结构对应（见前）b，其他特征*大写字母/人物mention题型（Why does the author mention Mr Smith in line 7？）解法，人物：选对文章主人公的影响，衬托事物：说明，解释与中心事物相关性*目的（作者提到某物，某人的目的）选，为作者中心服务ⅲ，应用型题型a，作者身份（一般选expert）b，读者身份* The passage was addressed to which of the following people？解为普通读者/听众或大学生*The author raised issues that would most concernWhich of the following groups？解为专家c，文章来源（可能选解为课本或论文）d，文章体裁scholarly style----高深词汇与句子florid style----绚丽词汇与修辞手段understated style----平静，含蓄手法hyperbolic style----夸大，扩张手法formal正式/informal非正式/optimism乐观pessimism 悲观/sceptical怀疑/didactic教诲critical批评/questioning质问/prosaic诗意objective 客观/enthusiastic热情/aloof冷漠cautionary警世/compassionate富有同情心satirical讽刺/defensive反驳/detachment超然ⅳ，推理题a，推理上，下篇文章的主题（文章第一句，或最末一句，关键在于主句）b，数字推理the three years later型c，比较级推理同级推理：x与y性质相同，已知x具有特征z，就可得知y也有z异级推理：x>y 就可推知y反向特征d，时间推理过去A----B，推知现在A----Be，主观意向与客观状态A want to V推知A不具备此特征f，as 结构A is not B，as C，but is D（由此可知A=D，C=B，其中A，C 为主体事物，B，D为特征g，作者观点与一般人观点一般在托福中作者观点与一般人观点相反例：若文章中A=B题The author implies that many people attribute sth to （sth=A）key：A≠Bh ，部分与整体（补集效应）some----othersi ，一般与特殊generally----speciallyj，归纳推理（此类选项易见）ⅴ，态度性试题*文章作者态度*文章中主人公态度*文章中特殊人物态度*文章中一般媒体或大众态度规律：作者态度对于一般客观事实，人物均为褒义词作者态度对于某些人某些观点一般为贬义词其他态度=客观真理+检索ⅵ，结构性试题*organization看文章整体判断*提供信息无检索The passage provides information to answer which of the following questions？按主题及主题词出现频率选择ⅶ，解词题*代词指代对象代词分类：①纯代词：it ，its，they②形容词：former，latter ，same，next③序数词：first，second④副词：there ，here，thus⑤其他：in that way，like that规律：中心词优先（其他词汇复习另注）5.阅读操作*客观与真理（合理性原则）*整体中心一致（主题围绕性）*支配性文字（注重）basic facts，simple principle，predominant mood*总结性文字in general/in short/in a word/briefly托福阅读词汇cacia 金合花accordion 手风琴acquamarine 海蓝宝石acre 英亩acronym首字母缩拼词acute 敏锐的adobe 土墙adorn 装饰adrenaline 肾上腺素affiliate 使隶属于affinity 密切关系afloat 漂浮着aide 副官airborne 在空中alchemist 炼丹家aldosterone 醛固酮alga 水藻allegory 寓言all-star 由明星演员组成的allusive 含暗示的；含典故的aloof 远离的；孤零的devour 吞食dial 日晷dime 一角dinosaur 恐龙dismal 阴沉的dismemberment 瓜分distort 扭弯ditch 水沟divert 转移dizzy 使头昏眼花doggedly 顽强地dolphin 海豚don 披上drape 呈褶状垂下dread 令人敬畏的drill 钻探duke 公爵dulcimer 扬琴dump 倾倒dupe 易受骗的人dwarf 侏儒星aluminum 铝 alumni 男校友 amateur 外行的ambidextrous 两手都善用的 ameliorate 改善 amethyst 紫晶 amin acid 氨苦酸 ammonia 氨 an array of 大量的 anatomy 解剖 anchor 锚 ancillary 附属的 angiotensin 高血压素 annex 并吞 apothecary 药剂师 appeal 吸引力 apply 涂appreciable 相当可观的 arboreal 栖于树木的 arcade 拱形建筑物 arduous 艰苦的 arena 场地 arithmetic 算术 armour 盔甲 aromatic 芳香的dye 染料ecosystem 生态系统 eerily 神秘地 ehthycsaur 鱼龙 elixir 精华eloquent 生动逼真的 emboss 使凸起 embryo 胚 eminence 高地 encroachment 侵占 endocrinology 内分泌素 endotherm 混血动物 entail 必须包括 entrench 保证 entry 参加比赛的人 envision 预测 enzyme 酶 eohippus 始祖马 eons 万古 ephemeral 瞬息的 episode 片段 escalator 自动扶梯 esoteric 秘传的 etch 刻划 excavation 发掘arsenal 军工厂 arthritis 关节炎 artistry 艺术才能 asphalt 沥青assembly line 流水作业线 asteroid 小行星 astrobleme 损星坑 astronaut 宇航员 astute 敏锐的 auction 拍卖 auditorium 礼堂 avalanche 雪崩 avand-garde 先锋 aviation 航空 baboon 狒狒 baleen 鲸须 ballad 民谣 balsam fir 香脂冷杉 bandanna 印花大手帕 barge 驳船 bark 树皮 barn 仓库 barrel 桶 barren 不毛的 basin 流域excel 突出 exert 产生影响 exocrine 外分泌 exotic 奇异的 expenditure 花费 explicit 明确的 external 外部的 extremity 尽头 eyelid 睑facelift 改建；整容 faint 浅淡的 fair 集市 farce 笑剧 fate 命运 faucet 水龙头 fauna 动物群 ferromagnetic 铁磁的 fertile 丰富的 feud 长期不和 firn 粒雪 fix 规定 flagella 鞭毛虫 flair 天才flamboyant 炫耀的 flannel 绒布beacon 灯塔 beam 光线 beaver 河狸 bedrock 基岩 belle 靓女 beluga 白鲸 besiege 围困 bestow 给予 bifocal 双焦点的 bison 野牛 bituminous 沥青的 blaze 闪耀 bleak 荒凉的 blink 眨眼睛 bombard 不断攻击 bonanza 富源 bud 芽 buffalo 野牛buggy 四轮单马轻便马车 bugle 军号 bulldoze 推平 bunch 群 burgeon 发芽 burrow 穴 cabinet 储藏柜fluffy 蓬松的 fluorine 氟 flute 笛子 foliage 叶 foray 突袭 fort 要塞 foster 促进 foul 难闻的 frenzy 疯狂fresco 在…上作湿壁画 frisky 活蹦乱跳 frivolity 轻浮 fumarole 喷气孔 fungus 真菌 funnel 传送 fur 毛 gang 群 garb 空白gem topaz 宝石黄晶 genre 类型 gesso 底料 gibe 嘲笑gingham 花格方布的 gland 腺 glaze 釉cacti 仙人掌 camouflage 化装 bond 债券 boom 兴旺 border 边界 bore 内膛 brawl 争吵；吵架 breeze 微风 brittle 易碎的 bromine 溴 bubble 沸腾 canary 金丝雀 canoe 小划子 carat 公制克拉 cardinal 基本的 caribou 北美驯鹿 carnivorous 食肉的 cartoon 漫画 catch 袭击 caterpillar 毛虫 cathedral 大教堂 cavity 洞 chafe 擦伤 chain 拘禁 chaos 混乱glean 收集体 glide 滑动 glimpse 瞥视 global 完整的 glow 发光 gnaw 咬 golly 天哪 gorgeous 华丽的 gospel 信条；福音 gouache 树胶水彩画 gourd 葫芦 gourmet 美食家 gratuitous 免费的 graze on 吃 grind 磨制 grit 勇气 groom 打扮 grope 摸索 grumble 抱怨 gulf 海湾 gush 涌 hacienda 庄园 hairdo 发型 hamper 妨碍 hander 渴望chimpanzee 黑猩猩 chlorophyil 叶绿素 chondrite 球粒陨石 choppy 波涛起伏的 chunk 大块 churn 翻腾 cipher 运算 citadel 堡垒 clan 家族 clash 冲突 clavichord 古钢琴 cliff 悬崖 clip 删 cluster 丛生 coaming 舱口拉板 codify 编集成典 coelenterate 腔肠动物 colonel 陆军上校 colored filter 彩色滤光片 colossal 巨大的 comical 可笑的 concave 凹面的 condemn 批评；责备 condor 大秃鹫 confer 授予handicap 残疾；障碍 haphazardly 随意地harem 由一群雄性动物支配的一群雌性动物 harness 应用harpsichord 拨弦古钢琴 hatchet 短柄小斧 haunt 常去 haven 避风港 hay 干草 helium 氦 hemlock 铁杉 herald 欢迎 herculean 非常大的 hexagon 六边形 hippopotamus 河马 hive 蜂巢homeotherm 恒温动物 hominid 人种 hook up 连接 horde 群hormone 激素；荷尔蒙 host 寄主 humble 卑下的 hump 峰congenial 协调的 congestion 拥挤 conifer 松柏目植物 connoisseur 行家 conscription 征募 consortium 国际性协会 convection zone 对流层 converge 汇合 converse 交谈 convex 凸的 convey 传递 coral 珊瑚 corona 日冕 corps 队 corral 占有 corridor 地带 corset 紧身衣 counterfeit 伪造 crater 火山口 crevice 裂缝 crisscross 交叉 crooked 弯曲的 crowbar 撬棍 crumple 扭弯 crunch 艰难的局面hydra 水螅 hygiene 卫生 icicle 冰柱iconographic 肖像学 idiosyncracy 独特风格 idleness 懒散 idyllic 田园诗般的 impediment 妨碍 imperative 命令 impetus 促进improvise 即席创作inanity 愚蠢incandescent 炽热的 incur 招致 indenture 师徒契约 inexorably 不可阻挡地 infiltration 渗入 infinitely 无限地 influx 涌入 infrared 红外线 innate 天生的 insanity 疯狂 insulation 隔离 intact 完好无损的 intestine 脉crustacean 甲壳动物 cucumber 黄瓜 cumbersome 笨重的 curio 古董；珍品 cyan 青色 cylinder 汽缸 dam 坝 dampen 使潮湿 dart 飞奔 daunt 威吓 dazzlingly 耀眼地 deaccess 拍卖；出售 debut 首次登台演出 deccication 脱水 décor 装饰 delectable 美味的 demolish 毁坏 departure 脱离 depot 货栈；仓库 derrick 铁架塔 desalination 脱盐 desolate 荒凉的 desperate 绝望的 devastate 破坏intimate 亲密的 intrepid 勇敢的 intricate 复杂的 intriguing 有迷惑力的 iodine 碘isolated 与世隔绝的 jack 千斤顶 jagged 参差不齐的 jibe with 符合… jolt 少量 jostle 挤 juggle 变戏法 jumble 乱堆 kennel 狗窝 kerosene 煤油托福听力长段文章及阅读攻略新方法根据上海道正学校教学与研究发现托福考试中听力PART C 文章与阅读部分文章的主题，即文章的内容有极大相似性，若从内容上划分大概可分成如下30大部分：托福考试旨在测验外国学生的英语、文化程度，内容以北美大学及校园生活为主。
托福阅读常见语法现象解读托福阅读常见语法现象解读不定式用法详细分析1. 动词不定式的否定式not toShe decided not to be late again.2. 动词不定式的完成式完成式表示的动作或状态发生在位于动词表示的动作或状态之前。
I am sorry to have kept you waiting.3. 在It is/was + 形容词+不定式的复合结构若形容词侧重于评价人物的特性、特征，则构成不定式复合结构的介词应为of。
常用形容词有：kind, nice, foolish, silly, stupid, rude, cruel, wise, clever, brace, selfish, crazy, good, careful, careless, impolite, right, wrong 等。
It is very kind of you to help me.区别It is important for us to learn English well.4. 在某些动词后，可用it做形式宾语，然后加宾语补足语，最后加不定式作真正的宾语。
常见的动词有find, think consider, feel, make等。
They find it difficult to repay the money.5. 动词+不定式作宾补ask, want, invite, get, force, expect, allow, persuade, order, warn, remind order, cause, permit, forbid, advise, teach等。
6. 在使役动词make, have, let和感官动词see, watch, notice, observe, feel, hear, listen to, look at等词后接不定式作宾补，不定式不带to，表示做某事的全过程。
阅读部分1. 句子简化题The Great Red SpotOne distinctive feature of the planet Jupiter is the Great Red Spot, a massive oval of swirling reddish-brown clouds. Were Earth to be juxtaposed with the Great Red Spot, our planet would be dwarfed in comparison, with a diameter less than half that of the Great Red Spot. The Spot’s clouds, most likely tinted red as a result of the phosphorus that they contain, circulate in a counterclockwise direction. The outer winds require six Earth days to complete the circumference of the Great Red Spot, a length of time indicative of vastness of the Great Red Spot.1. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A. The density of the Great Red spot is much higher than that the Earth.B. If the diameter of the Great Red Spot were doubled, it would equal that of the Earth.C. By placing the Earth next to the Great Red Spot, one could see the Earth has a much smaller diameter.D. Because the Earth is close to the Great Red Spot, Earth is influenced by its huge size.答案：C2.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A. The Earth’s outer winds move a distance equal to the circumference of the Great Red Spot.B. The outer winds of the Great Red Spot move more quickly than do those on Earth.C. The Winds moving across the Great Red Spot finally change direction every six Earth days.D. The fact that the winds take so long to move around the Great Red Spot proves how big it is.答案：DPassage One (Question 1-2)CamouflageCamouflage is one of the most effective ways for animals to avoid attack in thetreeless Arctic. However, the summer and winter landscapes there are so diverse that a single protective coloring scheme would, of course, prove ineffective in one season or the other. Thus, many of the inhabitants of the Arctic tundra change their camouflage twice a year. The arctic fox is a clear-cut example of this phenomenon; it sports a brownish-gray coat in the summer which then turns white as cold weather sets in, and the process reverses itself in the springtime. Its brownish-gray coat blends in with the barren tundra landscape in the months without snow, and the white coat naturally blends in with the landscape of the frozen wintertime tundra.1. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the first highlighted sentence in the passage?Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.Opposite conditions in summer and in winter necessitate different protectivecoloration for Arctic animals.B.The coloration of the summer and winter landscapes in the Arctic fails toprotect the Arctic tundra.C.In a single season, protective coloring scheme are ineffective in the treelessArctic.D.For many animals, a single protective coloring scheme effectively protectsthem during summer and winter months.答案：A2. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the second highlighted sentence in the passage?Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.The arctic fox is unusual in that he color of its coat changes for no reason.B.The arctic fox lives in an environment that is brownish gray in the summerand white in the winter.C.It is a phenomenon that the coat of the arctic fox turns white I the springtimeand gray in the fall.D.The arctic fox demonstrates that protective coloration can change duringdifferent seasons.答案：DPassage Two (Question 3-6)Post-it NotesPost-it Notes were invented in the 1970s at the 3M company in Minnesota quite by accident, Researchers at 3M were working on developing different types of adhesives, and one particularly weak adhesive, a compound of acrylate copolymer microspheres, was developed. Employees at 3M were asked if they could think of a use for a weak adhesive which, provided it did not get dirty, could be reused. Onesuggestion was that it could be applied to a piece of paper to use as a bookmark that would stay in place in a book. Another use was found when the product was attached to a report that was to be sent to a colleague with a request for comments on the report; the colleague made his comments on the paper attached to the report and returned the report. The idea for Post-it Notes was born.It was decided within the company that there would be a test launch of product in 1977 in four American cities. Sales of this innovative product in test cities were less than stellar, most likely because the product, while innovative, was also quite unfamiliar. A final attempt was then made in the city of Boise to introduce the product. In that attempt, 3M salesmen gave demonstrations of the product in offices throughout Boise and gave away free samples of the produce. When the salesmen returned a week later to the office workers, having noted how useful the simple little product could be, were interested in purchasing it. Over time, 3M came to understand the huge potential of this new product, and over the next few decades more than 400 varieties of Post-it products - in different colors, shapes, and sizes – have been developed.3. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the first highlighted sentence in the passage 1?Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.Of the many adhesives that were being developed at 3M, one was not aparticularly strong adhesive.B.Researchers at 3M spent many years trying to develop a really weak adhesive.C.Numerous weak adhesives resulted from a program to develop the strongestadhesive of all.D.Researchers were assigned to develop different types of uses for acrylatecopolymer microspheres.答案：A4. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the second highlighted sentence in the passage 1?Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.The 3M company suggested applying for a patent on the product in a reportprepared by a colleague.B.One unexpectedly-discovered use for the adhesive was in sending andreceiving notes attached to documents.C. A note was attached to a report asking for suggestion for uses of one of 3M’sproducts.D. A colleague who developed the new product kept notes with suggestions byother workers.答案：B5. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the first highlighted sentence in the passage 2?Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.The 3M company was unfamiliar with the process of using test cities tointroduce innovative products.B.Sales of the product soared even though the product was quite unfamiliar tomost customers.C.The new product did not sell well because potential customers did notunderstand it.D.After selling the product for a while, the company understood that the productwas not innovative enough.答案：C6. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the second highlighted sentence in the passage 2?Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.The company immediately understood the potential of the product and beganto develop it further.B.The company worked overtime to develop its new product, initially creatingnumerous varieties to make it successful.C.The company initially introduced 400 varieties of the product and then watchedfor decades as sales improved.D.It took some time for the company to understand how important its newproduct was and how many variation were possible.答案：D2. 排除列举题The geology of the Earth's surface is dominated by the particular properties of water.Present on Earth in solid, liquid, and gaseous states, water is exceptionally reactive. Itdissolves, transports, and precipitates many chemical compounds and is constantlyLine modifying the face of the Earth.(5) Evaporated from the oceans, water vapor forms clouds, some of which are transportedby wind over the continents. Condensation from the clouds provides the essential agent ofcontinental erosion: rain. Precipitated onto the ground, the water trickles downto formbrooks, streams, and rivers, constituting what are called the hydrographic network. Thisimmense polarized network channels the water toward a single recepatcle: an ocean.(10) Gravity dominates this entire step in the cycle because water tends to minimize itspotential energy by running from high altitudes toward the reference point, that is, sealevel.The rate at which a molecule of water passes through the cycle is not random but is ameasure of the relative size of the various reservoirs. If we define residence time as the(15) average time for a water molecule to pass throught one of the three reservoirs —atmosphere, continent, and ocean—we see that the times are very different. A watermolecule stays, on average, eleven days in the atmosphere, one hundred years on acontinent and forty thousand years in the ocean. This last figure shows the importance ofthe ocean as the principal reservoir of the hydrosphere but also the rapidity of water(20) transport on the continents.A vast chemical separation process takes places during the flow of water over thecontinents. Soluble ions such as calcium, sodium, potassium, and some magnesium aredissolved and transported. Insoluble ions such as aluminum, iron, and silicon stay wherethey are and form the thin, fertile skin of soil on which vegetation can grow. Sometimes(25) soils are destroyed and transported mechanically during flooding. The erosion of thecontinents thus results from two closely linked and interdependent processes, chemicalerosion and mechanical erosion. Their respective interactions and efficiency depend ondifferent factors.8. All of the following are example of soluble ions EXCEPT(A) magnesium(B) iron(C) potassium(D) calcium答案：BThe canopy, the upper level of the trees in the rain forest, holds a plethora of climbingmammals of moderately large size, which may include monkeys, cats, civets, andporcupines. Smaller species, including such rodents as mice and small squirrels, are notLine as prevalent overall in high tropical canopies as they are in most habitats globally.(5) Small mammals, being warm blooded, suffer hardship in the exposed and turbulentenvironment of the uppermost trees. Because a small body has more surface area perunit of weight than a large one of similar shape, it gains or loses heat more swiftly.Thus, in the trees, where shelter from heat and cold may be scarce and conditions mayfluctuate, a small mammal may have trouble maintaining its body temperature.(10) Small size makes it easy to scramble among twigs and branches in the canopy forinsects, flowers, or fruit, but small mammals are surpassed, in the competition forfood, by large ones that have their own tactics for browsing among food-rich twigs.The weight of a gibbon (a small ape) hanging below a branch arches the terminalleaves down so that fruit-bearing foliage drops toward the gibbon's face. Walking or(15) leaping species of a similar or even larger size access the outer twigs either by snapping offand retrieving the whole branch or by clutching stiff branches with the feet or tail andplucking food with their hands.Small climbing animals may reach twigs readily, but it is harder for them than forlarge climbing animals to cross the wide gaps from on tree crown to the next that(20) typify the high canopy. A macaque or gibbon can hurl itself farther than a mouse can: itcan achieve a running start, and it can more effectively use a branch as aspringboard,even bouncing on a limb several times before jumping. The forward movement of a smallanimal is seriously reduced by the air friction against the relatively large surface area of its body. Finally, for the many small mammals that supplement their insect(25) diet with fruits or seeds, an inability to span open gaps between tree crowns may beproblematic, since trees that yield these foods can be sparse.2. Which of the following animals is less common in the upper canopy than in other environments?(A) Monkeys(B) Cats(C) Porcupines(D) Mice答案：DDuring the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, almost nothing was written about thecontributions of women during the colonial period and the early history of the newlyformed United States. Lacking the right to vote and absent from the seats of power,Line women were not considered an important force in history. Anne Bradstreet wrote some(5) significant poetry in the seventeenth century, Mercy Otis Warren produced the bestcontemporary history of the American Revolution, and Abigail Adams penned importantletters showing she exercised great political influence over her husband, John, the secondPresident of the United States. But little or no notice was taken of these contributions.During these centuries, women remained invisible in history books.(10) Throughout the nineteenth century, this lack of visibility continued, despite the effortsof female authors writing about women. These writers, like most of their male counterparts, were amateur historians. Their writings were celebratory in nature, andthey were uncritical in their selection and use of sources.During the nineteenth century, however, certain feminists showed a keensense of(15) history by keeping records of activities in which women were engaged. National,regional, and local women's organizations compiled accounts of their doings. Personalcorrespondence, newspaper clippings, and souvenirs were saved and stored. These sourcesform the core of the two greatest collections of women's history in the United States; oneat the Elizabeth and Arthur Schlesinger Library at Radcliffe College, and the other the(20) Sophia Smith Collection at Smith College. Such sources have provided valuablematerials for later generations of historians.Despite the gathering of more information about ordinary women during the nineteenth century, most of the writing about women conformed to the "great women"theory of history, just as much of mainstream American history concentrated on "great(25) men." To demonstrate that women were making significant contributions to Americanlife, female authors singled out women leaders and wrote biographies. or else importantwomen produced their autobiographies. Most of these leaders were involved in publiclife as reformers, activists working for women's right to vote, or authors, and were notrepresentative at all of the great of ordinary woman. The lives of ordinary people(30) continued, generally, to be untold in the American histories being published.9. In the last paragraph, the author mentions all of the following as possible roles of nineteenth-century "great women" EXCEPT(A) authors(B) reformers(C) activists for women's rights(D) politicians答案：DPotash (the old name for potassium carbonate) is one of the two alkalis (the otherbeing soda, sodium carbonate) that were used from remote antiquity in the making ofglass, and from the early Middle Ages in the making of soap: the former being theLine product of heating a mixture of alkali and sand, the latter a product of alkali and(5) vegetable oil. Their importance in the communities of colonial North America needhardly be stressed.Potash and soda are not interchangeable for all purposes, but for glass-or soap-making either would do. Soda was obtained largely from the ashes of certain Mediterranean sea plants, potash from those of inland vegetation. Hence potash was(10) more familiar to the early European settlers of the North American continent.The settlement at Jamestown in Virginia was in many ways a microcosm of theeconomy of colonial North America, and potash was one of its first concerns. It wasrequired for the glassworks, the first factory in the British colonies, and was produced insufficient quantity to permit the inclusion of potash in the first cargo shipped out of(15) Jamestown. The second ship to arrive in the settlement from England includedpassengers experts in potash making.The method of making potash was simple enough. Logs were piled up and burned inthe open, and the ashes collected. The ashes were placed in a barrel with holes in thebottom, and water was poured over them. The solution draining from the barrel was(20) boiled down in iron kettles. The resulting mass was further heated to fuse the mass intowhat was called potash.In North America, potash making quickly became an adjunct to the clearing ofland for agriculture, for it was estimated that as much as half the cost of clearing landcould be recovered by the sale of potash. Some potash was exported from Maine and New(25) Hampshire in the seventeenth century, but the market turned out to be mainly domestic,consisting mostly of shipments from the northern to the southern colonies. For despitethe beginning of the trade at Jamestown and such encouragements as a seriesencourage the making of potash," beginning in 1707 in South Carolina, the softwoodsin the South proved to be poor sources of the substance.1. What aspect of potash does the passage mainly discuss?(A) How it was made(B) Its value as a product for export(C) How it differs from other alkalis(D) Its importance in colonial North America答案：C2. All of the following statements are true of both potash and soda EXPECT:(A) They are alkalis.(B) They are made from sea plants.(C) They are used in making soap.(D) They are used in making glass.答案：B7. According to paragraph 4, all of following were needed for making potash EXCEPT(A) wood(C) sand(D) water答案：CPennsylvania's colonial ironmasters forged iron and a revolution that had bothindustrial and political implications. The colonists in North America wanted the right tothe profits gained from their manufacturing. However, England wanted all of theLine colonies' rich ores and raw materials to feed its own factories, and also wanted the(5) colonies to be a market for its finished goods. England passed legislation in 1750 toprohibit colonists from making finished iron products, but by 1771, when entrepreneurMark Bird established the Hopewell blast furnace in Pennsylvania, iron making hadbecome the backbone of American industry. It also had become one of the major issuesthat fomented the revolutionary break between England and the British colonies. By the(10) time the War of Independence broke out in 1776, Bird, angered and determined, wasmanufacturing cannons and shot at Hopewell to be used by the Continental Army.After the war, Hopewell, along with hundreds of other "iron plantations," continued toform the new nation's industrial foundation well into the nineteenth century. The rurallandscape became dotted with tall stone pyramids that breathed flames and smoke,(15) charcola-fueled iron furnaces that produced the versatile metal so crucial to the nation'sgrowth. Generations of ironmasters, craftspeople, and workers produced goods duringwar and peace—ranging from cannons and shot to domestic items such as cast-ironstoves, pots, and sash weights for windows.The region around Hopewell had everything needed for iron production: a wealth of(20) iron ore near the surface, limestone for removing impurities from the iron,hardwoodforests to supply the charcoal used for fuel, rushing water to power the bellows thatpumped blasts of air into the furnace fires, and workers to supply the labor. By the1830's, Hopewell had developed a reputation for producing high quality cast-iron stoves,for which there was a steady market. As Pennsylvania added more links to its (25) transportation system of roads, canals, and railroads, it became easier to ship parts madeby Hopewell workers to sites all over the east coast. There they ware assembled intostoves and sold from Rhode Island to Maryland as the "Hopewell stove". By the time thelast fires burned out at Hopewell ironworks in 1883, the community had produced some80,000 cast-iron stoves.5. Pennsylvania was an ideal location for the Hopewell ironworks for all of the following reasons EXCEPT(A) Many workers were available in the area(B) The center of operations of the army was nearby(C) The metal ore was easy to acquire(D) There was an abundance of wood答案：BUnder the Earth's topsoil, at various levels, sometimes under a layer of rock, there aredeposits of clay. Look at cuts where highways have been built to see exposed clay beds;or look at a construction site, where pockets of clay may be exposed. Rivers also revealLine clay along their banks, and erosion on a hillside may make clay easily accessible.(5) What is clay made of? The Earth's surface is basically rock, and it is this rock thatgradually decomposes into clay. Rain, streams, alternating freezing and thawing, roots oftrees and plants forcing their way into cracks, earthquakes, volcanic action, and glaciers—all of these forces slowly break down the Earth's exposed rocky crust intosmaller andsmaller pieces that eventually become clay.(10) Rocks are composed of elements and compounds of elements. Feldspar, which is themost abundant mineral on the Earth's surface, is basically made up of the oxidessilica and alumina combined with alkalis like potassium and some so-called impuritiessuch as iron. Feldspar is an essential component of granite rocks, and as such it is thebasis of clay. When it is wet, clay can be easily shaped to make a variety of useful(15) objects, which can then be fired to varying degrees of hardness and covered withimpermeable decorative coatings of glasslike material called glaze. Just as volcanicaction, with its intense heat, fuses the elements in certain rocks into a glasslike rockcalled obsidian, so can we apply heat to earthen materials and change them into a hard,dense material. Different clays need different heat levels to fuse, and some, the low-fire(20) clays, never become nonporous and watertight like highly fired stoneware. Each clay canstand only a certain amount of heat without losing its shape through sagging or melting.Variations of clay composition and the temperatures at which they are fired account forthe differences in texture and appearance between a china teacup and an earthenwareflowerpot.2. It can be inferred from the passage that clay is LEAST likely to be plentiful in which of the following areas?(A) in desert sand dunes(B) in forests(C) on hillsides(D) near rivers答案：AIn July of 1994, an astounding series of events took place. The world anxiouslywatched as, every few hours, a hurtling chunk of comet plunged into the atmosphere ofJupiter. All of the twenty-odd fragments, collectively called comet Shoemaker-Levy 9Line after its discoverers, were once part of the same object, now dismembered and strung out(5) along the same orbit. This cometary train, glistening like a string of pearls, had been firstglimpsed only a few months before its fateful impact with Jupiter, and rather quicklyscientists had predicted that the fragments were on a collision course with the giantplanet. The impact caused an explosion clearly visible from Earth, a bright flaming firethat quickly expanded as each icy mass incinerated itself. When each fragment slammed(10) at 60 kilometers per second into the dense atmosphere, its immense kinetic energy wastransformed into heat, producing a superheated fireball that was ejected back through thetunnel the fragment had made a few seconds earlier. The residues form these explo-sions left huge black marks on the face of Jupiter, some of which have stretched out tofrom dark ribbons.(15) Although this impact event was of considerable scientific importance, it especially piquedpublic curiosity and interest. Photographs of each collision made the evening televisionnewscast and were posted on the Internet. This was possibly the most open scientificendeavor in history. The face of the largest planet in the solar system was changed beforeour very eyes. And for the very first time, most of humanity came to fully appreciate the(20) fact that we ourselves live on a similar target, a world subject to catstrophe by randomassaults from celestial bodies. That realization was a surprise to many, but it should nothave been. One of the great truths revealed by the last few decades of planetary explo-ration is that collisions between bodies of all sizes are relatively commonplace, at least ingeologic terms, and were even more frequent in the early solar system.3. The author compares the fragments of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 to all of the following EXCEPT(A) a dismembered body(B) a train(C) a pearl necklace(D) a giant planet答案：DBy far the most important United States export product in the eighteenth andnineteenth centuries was cotton, favored by the European textile industry over flax orwool because it was easy to process and soft to tile touch. Mechanization of spinning andLine weaving allowed significant centralization and expansion in the textile industry during(5) this period, and at the same time the demand for cotton increased dramatically. Americanproducers were able to meet this demand largely because of tile invention of the cottongin by Eli Whitney in 1793. Cotton could be grown throughout the South, but separatingthe fiber—or lint—from the seed was a laborious process. Sea island cotton wasrelatively easy to process by hand, because its fibers were long and seeds were (10) concentrated at the base of the flower, but it demanded a long growing season, availableonly along the nation's eastern seacoast. Short-staple cotton required a much shortergrowing season, but the shortness of the fibers and their mixture with seeds meant that aworker could hand-process only about one pound per day. Whitney's gin was a hand-powered machine with revolving drums and metal teeth to pull cotton fibers away from(15) seeds. Using the gin, a worker could produce up to 50 pounds of lint a day. The laterdevelopment of larger gins, powered by horses, water, or steam, multiplied productivityfurther.The interaction of improved processing and high demand led to the rapid spread ofthe cultivation of cotton and to a surge in production. It became the main American(20) export, dwarfing all others. In 1802, cotton composed 14 percent of total Americanexports by value. Cotton had a 36 percent share by 1810 and over a 50 percent share in1830. In 1860, 61 percent of the value of American exports was represented by cotton.In contrast, wheat and wheat flour composed only 6 percent of the value of Americanexports in that year. Clearly, cotton was king in the trade of the young republic. The(25) growing market for cotton and other American agricultural products led to anunprecedented expansion of agricultural settlement, mostly in the eastern half of theUnited States—west of the Appalachian Mountains and east of the Mississippi River.3. All of the following are mentioned in the passage as reasons for the increased。
一、题型概述（一）填空：1-15个题，考句法句法包括简单句，并列句，主从复合句和一些常见错误用法等。
（二）挑错：16-40个题，考词法好下面我们就一些特殊热点问题给大家做一个概述性介绍。
二、基础语法规则（一）词法第一章名词正确区分可数名词与不可数名词、正确选择可数名词单复数、名词之前的限定词与名词数（单复数）之间的关系以及名词在句子中承担的成分是TOEFL中常考的内容1．重要的名詞（1）重要的可數名詞discovery, cloud, mineral, metal, material, substance, population, efforts, effect, animal, plant, mammal, insect, tree, herb, shrub, element, function, feature, picture, result, clue, star, reason, audience, device, structure, human, human being, system, fashion, resource, source, origin, pioneer, automobile, purpose, style, response, number, amount, variety, quantity, type, kind, influence, emotion, change（2）常见的不可数名词①流体：air, smoke, coffee, oil②自然现象：thunder, weather, darkness, [a heavy rain, raindrops]③微粒：sugar, salt, rice, powder, dust④抽象名词：intelligence（情报）, evidence, wisdom, advice⑤学科：mathematics, economics, statistics （统计学，作统计数据讲时可数）, physics, politics,mechanics, genetics遗传学, geology，geography, chemistry, philosophy, biology,history⑥医学疾病：measles（麻疹）, mumps（腮腺炎）, diabetes（糖尿病）⑦总称名词：furniture, luggage, clothing, equipment, poetry, jewelry, machinery, weaponry,scenery, information, knowledge, homework, evidence, foliage, advertising（广告业）, health例题: 交易Historians (believe that) some (forms) of (an advertising) must be as old (as barter) and trade.答案: C an advertising advertising（3）常见不规则单复数，一般考复数man/men, woman/women, tooth/teeth, foot/feet, goose/geese, basis/bases,analysis/analyses, crisis/crises, hypothesis/hypotheses, axis/axes, alga/algae, larva/larvae, fungus/fungi, stimulus/stimuli, datum/data, bacterium/bacteria, medium/media, spectrum/spectra, mouse/mice, child/children, phenomenon/phenomena（4）常见的单复数同形的名词（注意鱼！好多鱼~）aircraft, spacecraft, series, species, means,（sheep, deer, bison, salmon, trout, carp, fish）·-craft后缀单复数相同（5）只能用复数的名词：clothes, fireworks, riches, wages, ashes, thanks, sweets, scissors, spectacles, trousers集合名词：people（人们，作民族时可数）, folk（人们）, cattle（牛）, police, livestock（牲畜）（6）单复数意义不同的名词air- airs（气派）good（好处，利益）- goods（货物）part- parts（才能，划线永远对）mean（均值/中间）- means（手段/财富）arm- arms（武器）custom（习俗）- customs（海关）letter- letters（文学）spectacle（光景）- spectacles（眼镜）force- forces（武装部队）water- waters（水域，划线永远对）sky- skies（气候）（7）既有可数又有不可数]的名词（注意有无数的概念，具体还是抽象）sugar, cloth, detail, light, science, form, interest, color, disease, illness, rock, stone, matter, food, culture, noise, liquid, solid, gas, climate, film, material, population, temperature, experience, speech, use, life, actionwork（工作，作品）- works（工厂，工程，工事，著作）area（面积）- areas（区域，领域）time（时间）- times（倍数，此书，时代）paper（纸）- papers（报告，文件）collection（不同种收藏品组成的集）- collections（同种藏品的集）room（空间）- rooms（房间）18 pieces of newspaper/ 18 newspapers （报纸种类）art/ in art/ .be described as an art/ all arts land（面积）-lands（区域）注意：* 当不可数名词与种类相关时可转化为可数名词：a vacuum, a liquid, foods, beverages （饮料）（8）同源近形词义区别bank/banking, advertisement/advertising, architect/architecture, reason/reasoning,author/authority/authorization, poem/poet/poetry, cloth/clothes/clothing,human/humanity/humanities, produce/product/production/productivity,editor/edit/edition/editorial, variable/variety/variation, critic/critical/criticize,chemical/chemistry, management/manager, weapon/weaponry, logic/logical,measure/measurement, publish/publication, weighing/weight,nourishment/nutrition/nutritious/nutrient, machine/machinery总规律：(1) –ing动作抽象化，不可数（一般）(2) sugar,fish,cloth,作物质名词，不可数；表种类，则可数(3) –or/er/ee 具体，tion/sion/ment/ness/ship/ing 抽象2．重要的限定詞与名词单复数（1）many+复数可数n.；much+不可數n.例题:Since (the) 1950’s, folk music (has had) a (significant) influence on (many) popular vocal and instrumental music.答案: D many→muchIn the practice of Gestalt therapy, (many) attention is (given) to nonverbal (aspects) of (behavior).答案: A many→much※看到many, various, diverse, numerous往后找[C]，看到much往后找[UC]many..music ×As many as 50 percent of the income ×As much as 2,000 kilometers √（一个距离是整体，不可数）例题：The asphalt (deposits) of La Brea Tar Pit in California (have yielded) fossils of numerous (animal) of the Pleistocene epoch, including (the giant) ground sloth.答案：C animal→animalsRodents (dwell) in various (habitat), some species (being) aquatic, (some terrestrial).答案: B habitat→habitatsEven as he (wrote) copiously on such (diverse topic) as education, politics, and religion, Lewis Mumford (remained) active (in city) and regional planning.答案：B diverse topic→ topicsmuch 和many可以做代词：Many are.. .. by many. Much of the information..（2）some 和any，二者都可加单复数，都可加可数和不可数，都可做代词（同few/little 代词的作用）some kinds 某些种some kind 某一种例题：For thousands of years, people (have used) some (kind) of refrigeration (cooling) beverages and preserve (edibles).答案: C cooling→to cool（3）few little 否定a few, a little 肯定+複數可數n. +不可數n.few equipment ×to few extent ×可做代詞：a few/few of the books例题：The Dinee, a Native American (people) of the southwestern United States, were (once) semi- nomadic hunters who (practiced) a (few) agriculture.答案: D few→little（4）數詞/ several/ one of/ among + 複數可數n.※看到several, one of, among 往后找複數[C]eg: five aircraft ×several setting ×several settings √one of the philosophers √among the schools √例题：The United States census人口普查(for) 1970 (showed that) the French-speaking residents of Louisiana (were) one of the country’s most compact regional linguistic (minority)答案: D minority→minorities39. Beverly Sills was (a child) radio star (who) became one of the world’s most dramatically gifted opera (singer), making her debut初演(at) seventeen.答案: C singer→singers40. In the practice of Gestalt therapy, (many) attention is (given) to nonverbal (aspects) of (behavior).答案: A many→muchThe Guggenheim Museum in New York City is one of the major (center) for (the collection) and display of (works) of (abstract art) in the United States.答案: A center→centersGeraldine Farrar, (who) debuted as (an) opera singer in 1901, later appeared (both) on stage and in several silent (film).答案：D film→filmsSeveral (comet)彗星are discovered each year, but very few of (them) are (bright) enough (to be seen) without the aid of magnification.放大答案: A comet→comets（5）every/ each 直接加單數可數n. 或者加数词和复数名词(every/ all常考，almost all加复数)eg: each major styles ×each ten boys √every four years √（every/each 修飾數詞）例题：7. Almost (every) fruits and vegetables contain riboflavin核黄素; the (richest) sources are (leafy) green vegetables (such) as spinach菠菜, kale甘蓝, or turnip greens.另一种甘蓝答案: A 。
