中国海洋大学跨文化交际期末重点整理.doc

重点1 Definition of cultureCulture is the total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, institutions and munication patterns that are shared, learned and passed through the generations in an identifiable group of people.重点2 Characteristics of culture(10) 1、Culture is sharedCulture is a system of shared values beliefs or patterns of behaviors held in a group ,organization or society.It is not property of any individual.2、culture is cumulativeHuman beliefs, arts etc. are results of many generations.Every generations can discover the new things.The new knowledge are added to what was learned in previous generations.3、culture is learnedCulture is not inherent with any people.Culture can not be genetically and automatically passed down from previous generations.And it should be taught and learned by people.4、culture is adaptiveCulture is created by humans. Humans have to adapt the environment . thus is in development bears the trait of being adaptive5、culture is dynamicAt the same time that new culture are added, and the old ones are lost because they are no longer useful.6、culture is symbolicSymbols generally serve as municative tools for a multitude purposes, on a persons as well as culture level.7 、culture is relationalCulture is an organic whole. All the ponents of culture are interlinked.8 、culture is implicit and e*plicitSome layers culture are easy to be observe, like eating ,dressing, talking. But the ideas underlying the behaviors are generally hard to know. Many scholars label the culture as iceberg.9、 culture is universal10 、culture is diversified重点3 Hall，s dimensionsHigh conte*tHigh-conte*t munication relies heavily on nonverbal, conte*tual and shared cultural meanings.The meanings are not fully e*pressed.Meanings are determined by 〞 things are said , rather than 〞 is said.日本欧洲东部和南部阿拉伯CollectivismLow conte*tVerbal codes rather than the information impliesClear straight and to-the-point munication美国德国斯堪的纳维亚IndividualismMonochromic cultureDo one thing at one time, Concentrate on the job, take time seriously, low-conte*t and need information, mit to the job, religiously to the plans, not disturbing others, seldom borrow or lend things, emphasize promptnessPolychromic cultureDo many things at once, subject to interruptions, consider time mitments an objective to be achieved, high-conte*t and already have information. Change plans often. Emphasize the relationships.重点4 Triandis，s individualism & collectivismIndividualismFosters independence and individual achievement,Promotes self-e*pression ,personal choice, individual thinkingAssociated with egalitarian relationships and fle*ibility in rolesUnderstand the physical world as knowable apart of human lifeCollectivismInterdependence and group successPromotes adherence to normsAssociated with stable, hierarchical rolesShared property, group ownership重点5 Elements of municationSource (sender)EncodingMessageMedium(channel)ReceiverDecodingResponseFeedback重点6 Grice，s cooperative principle Quantity ma*imMake your contribute as informative as is required for the current purpose of e*change.Do not make your contribution more information than isrequired.〔量的准则——话语提供充分而不多余的信息〕Quality ma*imMake your contribution is ture〔质的准则——话语的容是真正的〕Relation ma*imBe relevant〔关系准则——话语与话题有关，即与所要实现的意图有关〕Manner ma*imBe perspicuousAvoid obscurity of e*pressionAvoid ambiguityDe brief and orderly(方式准则——说话要清晰明白、简洁而有条理)重点7 Brown & levinson’s face theoryFace is something that is emotionally invested, can be lost, maintained, or enhanced, and must be often attended to in municationPeople cooperate while maintaining face in interaction. Face theory : face threatening acts (FTAs)Politeness strategiesPoliteness 子威胁行为威胁行为strategies: bald on-record不使用补救措施赤裸裸的公开实行面off-record indirect strategy 非公开的实行面子negative politeness 消极礼貌策略Positive politeness 积极礼貌策略Face: negative facePositive face重点8 Thought patternsField dependence场依存性Holistic thinking eastern peoplePerspective of the whole, all the relevant parts take into account.Easily influence by othersField independence场独立性Analytic thinking western peopleDivinding the whole into parts to analyze the features or relations between the partsHardly influence by othersEastern: field-dependence, holistic thinking, high-conte*t Western: field-independence, analytic thinking, low-conte*t 重点9 Phases of negotiationPreparation 准备Non-task sounding 非任务测探Task-oriented e*changePersuasion 劝说ConcessionConclusion重点10 ponents of a brandBrand name 品牌名称〔产品〕Brand mark 品牌标志〔产品〕Trade name 商号〔公司名字〕Trade mark 品牌商标重点11 SWOT analysisStrengthsWeaknessesOpportunitiesThreats重点12 Intercultural advertising strategiesStandardization strategyConvey and e*tend the same advertising message to different markets and culturesKey point:Deal with the different markets using the same massageE*ample:MarlboroPhilips优点： reinforce the corporate imageSaving energyBe convenient to manage pared with several ads缺点: unlikely to be adaptive without change to all foreigncultureResult in misunderstanding or conflict even ruin a businessLocalization strategyStresses the specialties of the local market and adaptation to the local market environment重点13 Three meaning layers of adsthe surface meaningthe intended meaningthe cultural meaning。

UNIT1ObjectivesThis course aims at leading students to a general understanding of the complexities of intercultural communication and providing them with a cultural perspective in dealing with the common problems in intercultural communication. With the help of the this course the learners will:11. Come to see how culture influences our interaction with people of different cultural groups;2. Increase their cross-cultural awareness;3. Learn to predict and solve possible problems in intercultural communication;4. Overcome cultural barriers in EFL learning and teaching;5. Better understand and appreciate the Chinese people, Chinese language and Chinese culture.2课程的目的和主要任务本课程主要介绍跨文化交际学的基本概念和基本理论，重点学习东西方文化在感知方面（包括价值观、世界观、和宗教观等）、言语方面（包括言语交际模式、交际风格、交际策略及思维方式）和非言语交际方面（包括体态语言等）异同。

宗旨是培养学生跨文化交际意识，了解和掌握跨文化交际基本理论和基本内容，提高跨文化交际能力。

一、跨文化交际概论1.什么是跨文化交际跨文化交际是不同文化背景的人们之间的交际. 一个层面指不同国家和民族的人们之间的交际. 另一个层面指同一个国家或民族中, 不同性别、年龄、职业、地域的人们之间的交际.2.跨文化交际的特点是什么跨文化交际主要指人与人、面对面的交际；跨文化交际中涉及很多差异性；跨文化交际容易引起冲突；跨文化交际的误解和冲突大多属于“善意的冲突〞；跨文化交际常常引起情绪上的强烈反响；跨文化交际是一种挑战,更是一种收获.3.国际汉语教师为什么要学习跨文化交际学国际汉语教师学习跨文化交际的必要性表达在：更好地理解中国文化；建立敏锐的跨文化意识；提升文化适应能力；建立开放、宽容、尊重的文化态度；提升在不同文化环境中进行汉语教学的水平；掌握培养学习者跨文化交际水平的方法和策略.4.跨文化交际主要学习内容有哪些文化与交际；价值观与文化模式；语言交际; 非语言交际；文化身份&认同；文化适应；跨文化交际的心理因素；不同领域的跨文化交际；跨文化交际水平；跨文化交际练习.二、交际与文化1.什么是文化关于文化的定义,学界至今未有统一的定论.而作为跨文化交际的学习者,我们最关心的并不是哪位学者提出的文化定义最全面、最精确,而是哪个文化定义与跨文化交际最相关,最能表达文化与跨文化交际的关系.教材推荐跨文化交际学者Brislin(2000)的文化定义：文化是大多数说同一种语言和住在一起的人们所分享的价值和观念,这些价值和观念是世代相传的而且为人们提供对日常行为的指导.2.什么是文化要素文化要素包罗万象.其中与跨文化交际关系最为密切的是历史、宗教、社会组织、语言.理解这些文化要素,有助于我们理解文化在跨文化交际中的影响和作用.3.G. Hofstede与G.J.Hofstede(2004) 提出的文化要素包括几个层次包括象征符号、英雄人物、礼仪、价值观4个层次.4.在跨文化交际领域,常用的文化分类方法有几种分别是什么有两种文化分类的方法在跨文化交际领域最为常用.一种是客观文化与主观文化.另二种是主导文化与亚文化.5.文化有什么特点呢〔1〕文化是后天习得的.〔2〕文化是共享的,并世代相传.〔3〕大局部文化是无意识的.〔4〕文化是象征的.〔5〕文化是动态的.6.什么是交际与文化的定义相似,关于交际的定义也非常丰富和复杂.教材仅推荐与跨文化交际语用领域相关的定义.即Gudykunst& Kim〔2003〕提出的关于交际的定义：交际是编码和解码的过程,但是这种编码和解码的过程并非单纯的传递和接受过程,而是包含着意义的协商和共建.7.交际的要素是什么交际是互相交往的过程,交际的全部过程包含以下要素：传送者、信息、编码、解码、媒介、反响、噪音.8.交际有什么特点〔1〕交际是象征的〔2〕交际是动态的过程〔3〕交际涉及意义的协商和共建〔4〕交际发生在意识的各个层面.〔5〕交际是特定语境中发生的.9.文化对交际有什么影响文化从两个层面影响交际：一是从文化标准的层面,二是从个人层面.文化影响着人们的感知.首先, 文化影响人们对外部刺激的选择.其次,文化影响人们对外部刺激的分类.第三,文化影响人们对外部刺激的意义联想.最后,文化影响人们对外部刺激的解释.文化的特征值是它为行为提供指南.文化影响人们的饮食行为.文化还影响人们的衣着打扮.文化影响居住方式.文化影响人们的出行方式.文化也影响了人与人交往的方式.1.什么是价值观价值观不是实际的行为, 而是关于行为的规那么；价值观是一套关于什么是真善美的标准系统；这些规那么和标准是用来判断和指导人们的行为的；价值观不是个人的爱好或倾向,而是一种集体的文化意识.2.价值观如何分类一类是终极性价值观, 它是关于生命、生存等终极目标的价值观,另一类是工具性价值观,它是关于道德和水平的价值观.3.价值观有什么特点〔1〕价值观属于深层文化.〔2〕价值观是人们的行为指南. 〔3〕价值观既是稳定的,也是变化的.〔4〕不同文化的价值观既有相同的也有不同的成分.〔5〕价值观被违背时会引起情感上的强烈反响.4.关于价值观模式的研究具有影响力的理论是哪些1.价值取向理论〔由kluckhohn与Strodtbeck提出〕2.文化尺度〔由Hofstede提出〕3.高语境文化与低语境文化〔由Hall提出〕.5.中国文化模式有什么特点〔 1〕集体主义〔2〕以家庭为中央〔3〕尊重传统〔4〕等级观念〔5〕面子观念〔6〕重视人情6.美国文化模式有什么特点〔 1〕个体主义〔2〕平等观念〔3〕强调变化和进步〔4〕物质享受〔5〕科学与技术〔6〕工作与娱乐〔7〕竞争意识四、跨文化的语言交际1概念提要：1.萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说的含义萨丕尔-沃尔有三层含义.〔1〕不同的语言以不同的方式感知和划分世界.〔2〕一个人所使用的语言结构影响他感知和理解世界的方式.〔3〕讲不同语言的人感知世界是不同的.2.语言与价值观之间是什么关系语言与文化的关系最直接的表达是语言表达了人们对世界的看法、态度和价值取向.每种语言都拥有丰富的格言、警句和俗语.这些句子往往就是价值观的表达.3.词义与文化是什么关系在语言的各要素中,词汇与文化的关系最为密切,其对跨文化交际的影响也最为突出.语言的含义不具有普遍性,它受到文化和语境的制约.不同语言和文化的人们进行跨文化交际时,可能会由于对词语含义的误解而产生交流的障碍.4.什么叫委婉语学习它有什么意义禁忌是人类社会普遍存在的文化现象, 人们对诸如生老病死、隐私等许多方面多有避讳,因此产生了大量的委婉语. 了解不同文化中的禁忌和相应的委婉语不仅可以深入理解不同文化的价值取向,也可以防止在跨文化交际中出现不必要的误会.四、跨文化的语言交际2概念提要：1.礼貌原那么包括哪些准那么〔1〕得体准那么〔2〕慷慨准那么〔3〕赞扬准那么〔4〕谦虚准那么〔5〕一致准那么〔6〕同情准那么.2.中国人的礼貌特征包括哪些〔1〕贬己尊人〔2〕称呼准那么〔3〕文雅准那么〔4〕求同准那么〔5〕德、言、行准那么.3.礼貌策略的使用受到什么因素的制约〔1〕说话人与听话人之间的权力距离〔2〕说话人与听话人之间的社会距离〔3〕言语行为的强加程度4.什么是交际风格交际风格是指说话的特点.5.在跨文化交际领域中,常见的交际风格包括哪些〔1〕直接与间接的交际风格〔2〕谦虚与自信的交际风格〔3〕归纳与演绎的交际风格五、跨文化的非语言交际概念提要：1.什么是非言语交际非言语交际不包括语言,而是包括了各种非语言的交际行为；非语言交际具有互动性,涉及信息的发出者和接受者的编码和解码过程；非言语交际是在特定情境中产生的,与语境有密切关系；非语言交际可能是有意的,也可能是无意的.2.非语言交际的功能有哪些〔 1〕传达真实的内在感情〔2〕营造交际印象〔3〕进行会话治理3.非语言交际与语言交际是什么关系非语言交际对语言信息起着重复、补充、代替、标准和否认等作用.4.体态语包括哪些人们的外貌服饰、面部表情、眼神交流、手势、姿势以及身体接触都是体态语,都参与了交际,是非语言交际的一局部.5.时间观念与文化之间有什么联系时间观念是非语言交际的重要维度, 也是价值观的表达.6.什么是单时制文化其特点是什么单时制文化中的时间是线性的,可以向前延伸到未来,向后延伸到过去.单时制文化的人们通过方案和预约来限制时间,在一段时间内只做一件事,强调准时、预约和最后期限.7.什么是多时制文化其特点是什么多时制文化并不把时间看做是线性的.多时制文化中的人认为时间围绕着生活,在同一时间内可以做多件事情.工作常常被打断,方案也常改变.身处多时制文化中的人,维系人际关系和谐远比遵守时间重要.8.人们对于空间的利用与文化之间有什么联系空间利用也是非语言交际的重要内容.空间利用方式表达了特定文化中人际关系的特点.六、文化适应概念提要：1.文化适应策略有哪些同化、别离、融合以及边缘化.2.文化适应是一个复杂、动态的开展过程.短期旅居者的跨文化适应过程分为哪几个阶段蜜月期、挫折期、恢复期和适应期.3.焦虑处理理论认为什么因素影响跨文化适应个体性格因素、社会支持、性别、民族、处理文化适问题的策略等.4.什么是文化休克文化休克是一种因失去了熟悉的社会交往符号而产生的心理焦虑.5.应对文化休克可采取什么策略应对呢广交朋友,建立良好人际关系；学习目的国的语言；了解目的文化的知识；做自己感兴趣的事情；参加社会文化活动；改变自己的思维.6.什么是文化适应假说第二语言教学领域的学者很早注意到了文化适应与第二语言学习的关系.Schuman(1986跟出了文化适应假说〞.他认为, 学习者只有适应了第二文化以后才能习得第二语言,文化适应的程度决定第二语言学习的程度.7.Schuman(198觎出的社会距离的概念是什么社会距离指的是学习者的原有文化与目的语文化之间的差异程度.七、跨文化的人际交往概念提要：1.人际关系与文化的联系表达在哪几方面不同文化间的朋友关系、人情关系、工作关系、与陌生人之间的关系都受到文化的影响.2.交往习俗与文化之间有什么联系在社会交往中,人们需要遵循社交礼仪和规那么,而这些规那么会因文化而异.一种文化中得体、礼貌的规那么到了另一种文化中可能是不得体的,甚至还造成了冒犯.了解不同文化的社交习俗和礼仪,对提升跨文化交际的有效性和得体性是非常有必要的.3.公共礼仪与文化之间有什么联系遵守公共秩序和礼仪是现代人的基本素养,也是一个国家文明程度的表达. 在跨文化交往中,了解和遵守不同文化的公共礼仪非常重要.不遵守公共礼仪会给人留下负面的印象,甚至引起跨文化交往中的冲突.八、跨文化人际交际的心理与态度概念提要：1.什么是刻板印象刻板印象又作成见〞与谊型观念〞,是指一个群体成员特征的概括性看法.2.刻板印象有什么特点〔1〕刻板印象是人们正常思维的一局部.〔2〕刻板印象是文化的一局部.〔3〕刻板印象的最大局限是以偏概全,无视个体差异.3.如何克服刻板印象〔1〕意识到刻板印象的存在.〔2〕改变懒惰和简化的思维习惯.〔3〕扩大与不同文化的人的接触范围.〔4〕试图寻找充分的证据和例外的情况.〔5〕对于来自其他文化的个人的行为的描述,应采用表达性语言,而不是对这一文化群体进行评价和简单概括.4.什么是偏见偏见是对一个群体的成员建立在错误而僵化的概括根底上的负面感情5.如何克服偏见〔1〕坦诚面对自己的偏见.〔2〕扩大与不同文化的人的接触范围.〔3〕参加课程学习和培训.〔4〕在交际中防止使用带有偏见或歧视色彩的表达方式,特别是对弱势群体要注意使用委婉而礼貌的称呼.6.什么是种族中央种族中央指的是在思考和评价别的文化时,把自己的文化放在一切事物的中央位置,并且以自己文化的框架作为衡量的标准.7.什么是文化相对主义文化相对主义是与种族中央主义相对的概念.它最早由美国著名人类学家弗朗兹博厄斯所倡导.其包括两个方面的内容.第一, 每种文化都有自己长期形成的独特历史, 其形态并无上下之分；第二,任何一个民族都有自己的社会思想、世界观和道德观,人们不应该用自己的一套标准来衡量其它民族的文化.。

Chapter 1 CultureDefinitions:1 Culture is the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, actions, attitudes, hierarchies, religions, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving. 文化是个人和群体在种族发展过程中所获得的知识、经验、信仰、价值观、行为、态度、阶级、宗教、时间观、角色、空间观、宇宙观和艺术品的集合。

(P12/P29)2 Cultural Identity refers to one’s sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group.文化身份：认为自己归属于某一文化或民族群体的感觉。

(P19/29)3 Subculture exist within dominant cultures and are often based on economic or social class, ethnicity, race, or geographic region.指存在于主流文化中的文化，其划分通常基于经济地位、社会阶层、民族、种族或地理区域.(P23/29)4 Subgroups usually do not involve the same large number of people and are not necessarily thought of as accumulating values and patterns of behavior over generations in the same way as culture do.相对于亚文化和共文化群体，亚群体通常规模不大，也不一定有文化群体世代相传积累的价值观念和行为模式。

跨文化交际重点梳理跨文化交际是指在不同文化背景下进行交流和互动。

在一个全球化的世界中，跨文化交际变得越来越重要。

跨文化交际的目标是建立和维持不同文化之间的理解和合作关系。

然而，由于不同文化之间的差异，跨文化交际面临着许多挑战。

本文将重点梳理跨文化交际的关键点。

第一点是尊重和理解。

在跨文化交际中，尊重对方的文化背景和价值观是非常重要的。

了解对方的文化习俗和礼仪，避免不必要的冒犯。

同时，要有开放的心态去接纳和理解不同文化之间的差异，避免以自己的文化标准来评判对方。

第二点是语言和沟通。

语言是跨文化交际中最基本的工具。

如果能够掌握对方的语言，会更容易建立起良好的沟通。

即使不懂对方的语言，也可以通过非语言交流来进行沟通，比如表情、手势等。

在沟通中，要注意言辞的选择和表达方式，避免使用可能引起误解或冲突的词语和表达方式。

第三点是文化差异的认知和适应。

不同文化之间存在许多差异，包括价值观、信仰、习俗等。

了解这些差异并适应它们是跨文化交际的关键。

要学会尊重和接受不同文化的观点，不以自己的文化为标准去评判对方。

同时，要学会调整自己的行为和态度，以适应不同文化的环境和习俗。

第四点是文化敏感性和适应能力。

在跨文化交际中，对不同文化之间的差异有敏感性是非常重要的。

要善于观察和理解对方的行为和表达方式，避免陷入误解和冲突。

此外，要学会调整自己的行为和表达方式，以适应对方的文化习俗和社交规则。

第五点是跨文化交际的意识和知识。

了解不同文化的历史、政治、经济等方面的知识是非常有帮助的。

这些知识能够帮助理解对方的思维方式和价值观，并帮助建立起更深入的交流和合作关系。

同时，要保持对不同文化的持续学习和探索的意识，以不断提升自己的跨文化交际能力。

综上所述，跨文化交际是一项复杂而重要的能力。

尊重和理解、语言和沟通、文化差异的认知和适应、文化敏感性和适应能力，以及跨文化交际的意识和知识，是跨文化交际的关键点。

通过不断学习和实践，我们可以提升自己的跨文化交际能力，建立起更加和谐和有效的跨文化关系。

Intercultural communication in English1. Globalization (what & why)1)Dictionary: to organize or establish worldwide2)Wiki: Globalization refers to the increasingly global relationships of culture, people andeconomic activity.3)Globalization refers to the establishment of a world economy, in which national borders arebecoming less and less important as transnational corporations, existing everywhere and nowhere, do business in a global market.4)Globalization refers to “time-spaces compression”. That is, the way in which the worldappears to be getting smaller. (Reasons: the increasing global mobility of people; the impact of new electronic media on human communications)5)At the same time, people all over the world are faced with the same environmental issuesthat affect all cultures.6)Global instability stems from clashes between cultures as humankind createscatastrophes(灾难) that are far worse than natural disasters.7)Culture interdependence: people from different cultures attempt to get along with eachother and try to decrease conflicts.Driving force: technology, particularly telecommunications, computers2. Culture1)People who are raised or live in a particular place probably speak the same language, holdmany of the same values, and communicate in similar ways.2)the group of people who share the same ancestry3)commodities or products that are internationally exported and imported4) a particular way to satisfy our human needs. Maslow: physiological, safety, belongingness,esteem, self-actualization5)The coherent learned, shared view of a group of people about life’s concerns that rankswhat is important, furnishes attitudes about what things are appropriate and dictates behavior.6)Culture is coherent, learned, the view of a group of people, ranks what is important,furnishes attitudes2.1 elements of communication1)Context: the interrelated conditions of communication(aspects: physical settings, historical,psychological, culture)2)Participants: the participants in communication play the roles of sender and receiver,sometimes of the messages simultaneously.3)Messages: elements: meanings, symbols, encoding and decoding.4)Channels: a channel is both the route traveled by the message and the means oftransportation.5)Noise: noise is any stimulus, external or internal to the participants, that interferes with thesharing of meaning. They include: external noise, internal noise, semantic noise6)Feedback: some kind of verbal or nonverbal response3. Different lands, different friendships1)European: friendship is quite sharply distinguished from other, more casual relations, and isdifferently related to family life.2)American: a friendship may be superficial, casual, situational or deep and enduring.3)French: F is one to one relationship that demands a keen awareness of the other person’sintellect, temperament and particular interests; friends generally are of the same sex;disagreement and argument are the breath of live; compartmentalized (a man play chess with a friend for years without knowing his political opinion)4)Germany: F is much more articulately a matter of feeling; friends are brought to the family;disagreement on any subject that matters to both is a tragedy.5)English: F is based on shared activity, and are formed outside the family circle.4. Comparing and contrasting culturesFrederick:Human nature orientation; man-nature orientation; time orientation; activity orientation; social orientationKluckhohns and Strodtbeck:Human nature; relationship of man to nature; sense of time; activity; social relationships4.1Cultural dimensions (Geert Hofstede)Individualism versus collectivismUncertainty avoidancePower distanceMasculinity versus femininityLong-term versus short-term orientation5. High & low context culturesAdding: from wikipediaLow context culture and the contrasting "high context culture" are terms presented by the anthropologist Edward T. Hall in his book Beyond Culture. Low context culture refers to a culture’s tendency not to cater towards in-groups. An "in-group" is defined by the authors as being a discrete group having similar experiences and expectations, from which, in turn, inferences are drawn. Low context cultures, such as Germany or the United States make much less extensive use of such similar experiences and expectations to communicate. Much more is explained through words or verbalization, instead of the context.High context culture and the contrasting "low context culture" are terms presented by the anthropologist Edward T. Hall in his 1976 book Beyond Culture. It refers to a culture's tendency to use high context messages over low context messages in routine communication. This choice of communication styles translates into a culture that will cater to in-groups, an in-group being a group that has similar experiences and expectations, from which inferences are drawn. In a high context culture, many things are left unsaid, letting the culture explain. Words and word choice become very important in higher context communication, since a few words can communicate a complex message very effectively to an in-group (but less effectively outside that group), while in a lower context culture, the communicator needs to be much more explicit and the value of a single word is less important.6. How is language related to culture?1)Culture and language are intertwined and shape each other.2)Culture influences language by way of symbols and rules for using those symbols, as well asour perceptions of the universe.3)All languages have social questions and information questions. The meaning comes out ofthe context, the cultural usage.4)Language reflects cultural values.5)Sometimes different cultures use identical words that have rather different meanings. Theresults can be humorous, annoying, or costly, depending on the circumstances.6)Even if two people from different cultures can speak a common language, they maymisinterpret the cultural signals.7)To summarize, in the culture itself, language-and-culture is embedded in cultural products,practices, perspectives, communities, and persons. One reflects the other, and they are best seem as joined. Language , as a product of culture, is infused with culture.7. The sapir-whort hypothesis8. Nonverbal communication (what)Nonverbal communication is usually understood as the process of communication through sending and receiving wordless,(mostly visual) messages between people. Messages can be communicated through gestures and touch, by body language or posture, by facial expression and eye contact. Nonverbal messages could also be communicated through material exponential; meaning, objects or artifacts (such as clothing, hairstyles or architecture). Speech contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, rate, pitch, volume, and speaking style, as well prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation, and stress. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the physical layout of a page. However, much of the study of nonverbal communication has focused on face-to-face interaction, where it can be classified into three principal areas: environmental conditions where communication takes place, physical characteristics of the communicators, and behaviors of communicators during interaction.I.e. voices, handshakes, hand gestures, eyes movement, face expressions (smile, laugh),touching behaviorIt is governed by culture.Functions: repeating, complementing, substituting, regulating, and contradicting.9. Social timethe peculiarities of the Past-Present-Future in social processes, and their unbreakable connection.10. Improving intercultural communication1)To begin with your own culture, regardless of what that culture might be.2)To identify those attitudes, prejudices, and opinions that we all carry around and that biasthe way the world appears to us.3)To learn to recognize your communication style.Advices:1)Both parties involved in intercultural communication should seek a common language andattempt to understand cultural differences in using the language.2)To develop empathy - be able to see things from the point of view of others so that we canbetter know and adjust to the other people.3)To be flexible when deciding on how to present yourself to another person.。

跨文化交际期末试题及答案试题一：1. 跨文化交际的概念是什么？2. 跨文化交际中可能遇到的困难有哪些？如何应对？3. 请列举两个不同文化背景下的沟通误解，并说明产生误解的原因。

4. 如何加强跨文化交际的能力？5. 请描述一次成功的跨文化交际经历，并谈谈你从中学到了什么。

答案如下：1. 跨文化交际是指不同文化背景的个体之间进行信息传递和相互理解的过程。

它涉及到语言、行为、价值观等方面的差异，需要在尊重和理解对方文化的基础上进行有效交流。

2. 在跨文化交际中，可能遇到语言障碍、文化差异导致的误解、价值观冲突等困难。

要应对这些困难，首先需要学习对方的语言，尽量减少语言障碍。

其次，要了解对方文化的特点，避免由于文化差异而引起的误解。

最后，要保持开放心态，尊重不同的价值观，通过倾听和理解来解决潜在的冲突。

3. （1）例子一：在西方国家，直接表达意见被视为开放和直率的表现，但在东方文化中，过于直接的表达会被视为冒犯和不尊重他人。

这种差异可能导致沟通中的误解和冲突。

原因：西方文化注重个人主义和直接表达，而东方文化注重集体主义和含蓄表达。

双方的价值观和文化习惯差异导致了沟通误解。

（2）例子二：在某些非洲国家，左手被视为不洁之手，不可用于触摸或传递物品；而在西方国家，左手并没有特殊的意义。

如果一个西方人无意中用左手递给非洲人物品，可能会被视为不尊重对方的文化。

原因：非洲文化中，左手被认为是不洁的，使用左手被视为不尊重和不礼貌的行为。

而在西方文化中，没有类似的禁忌。

4. 加强跨文化交际的能力需要多方面的努力。

首先，要增加对不同文化背景的了解，包括语言、历史、价值观等方面。

其次，要培养跨文化沟通的敏感性和意识，学会观察和尊重不同文化之间的差异。

此外，多与来自不同文化的人交流，积累经验和技巧，不断提升自己的跨文化交际水平。

5. 描述一次成功的跨文化交际经历，得以学习到很多。

我在一次国际研讨会上结识了一位来自日本的研究者。

30个选择30分，10道判断10分，20个填空20分，4小段，每段5个空3个简述30分，2个概念10分1.Cross(Inter)cultural communication refers to communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems(符号系统) are distinct enough to alter the communication event. It includes interpersonal communication, intra(inter)cultural communication, international, interethnic, interracial, and interregional communication.In cross(inter)cultural communication situations, it is natural for people to be aware of the potential for various misunderstandings and want to avoid them.intercultural communication: communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.munication:to share with or to make common, as in giving to another a part or share of your thoughts, hopes, and knowledge.3.Culture: a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, and norms, which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people.4. Social Organizations in ChinaAll power within the government of the People's Republic of China is divided among several bodies:the legislative branch, the National People's Congress.the executive branch, the State Councilthe judicial branch, the Supreme People's Court and the Supreme People's Procuratorate（检察院）the military branch, People's Liberation Army (PLA) via the Central Military Commission5. Federal government of the United StatesThe Government of the United States of America is the federal government of the republic of fifty states that constitute the United States, as well as one capital district, and several other territories. The federal government is composed of three distinct branches: legislative, executive and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U.S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the federal courts, including the Supreme Court, respectively. The powers and duties of these branches are further defined by acts of Congress, including the creation of executive departments and courts inferior to the Supreme Court.6. Social Intercourse is sometimes named Social Interaction Customs. Broadly, it refers to social rules and routines which make interaction smooth and which tend to vary with cultures. So miscommunication is quite frequent across cultures. Different cultures have different social customs regarding greetings and farewells, invitations and responses, appointments and visiting, and compliments and responses.7. Teacher-student RelationshipsTeacher-student relationships are also very different due to distinct cultural values. For instance, the east prefers a hierarchical order as opposed to the equality emphasized in the west and this is visible in classroom teaching: the eastern style is teacher-centered and the teacher-talking-time is privileged, while the western style is student-centered and the student-talking-time is emphasized.For instance, due to different cultural values - individualism versus collectivism - in the west, one has power to choose and shape individual relationships while, in the east, one is subject to group harmony. Likewise, in the west, equality and assertiveness are valued in both educational and business contexts, while, in the east, conformity and hierarchy are cherished.8. American EducationIn the United States elementary education begins at the age of six. Classes of students are divided into twelve academic levels called grades. Generally, one academic year (from September through June) is required to complete each grade. In some school systems, elementary school includes grades one through eight. The next four years are called high school. In other school systems, there are three divisions, elementary school (grades one through six), junior high school (grades seven through nine), and senior high school (grades ten through twelve).The students go to high school automatically after-finishing their elementary school education. There is no entrance exam. In some lower grade classes they actually go into the class during a lesson and help the teachers with plays and class reading, and most schools have highly successful Parent=Teacher Associations.In high school, subject matter becomes more specialized. English classes stress grammar and literature. Social studies are split into separate courses in American history, American government, and European history, Algebra, geometry, and trigonometry are offered. High school students usually take a one-year general science course, then more detailed courses in biology, chemistry, and physics. Most high school students study a foreign language usually Latin, French, Spanish, or German. Courses in music, art, and physical education are often required. The high school student's day may be divided into nine periods: five for academic subjects, one session for physical education, a lunch period, and two study periods. The study periods may be used for visiting the library or participating in an extracurricular activity such as the school orchestra, newspaper staff, or math club.For a long time, America has led the world in higher, education, quantitatively: at least. The aggregate number of U.S. institutions of higher education is, at last count, 3,280. In American colleges and universities, a vast array of subjects is offered. The student can sample different fields of knowledge, but he usually majors in one field during last two years of college. If he wishes, he may obtain professional training at the undergraduate level.Some students complete college in less than four years by at- tending summer sessions. College grades, from highest to lowest, run A, B, C, D, F. An F is a failing grade; if a student receives an F in a particular course, he does not get credit for having taken the course. College students must maintain at least a low C average in order to remain in school.American universities offer three main categories of graduate degrees. In most fields of specialization, a master's degree can be earned by one or two academic years of study beyond the bachelor's degree. A Ph. D. degree (doctor of philosophy) usually takes at least three years beyond the master's. To earn a Ph. D. in almost any field, the student must generally pass oral and written examinations in his specialty, produce a longresearch paper which makes an original contribution to his field of study, and pass reading examinations in one or two foreign languages. There are also graduate professional schools in medicine, dentistry, and law, among other fields.IT industryfinancial industrybuilding industry11. Kinds of popular jobs in the US top10doctor/surgeon/dentist/physician/family doctor, psychologist/psychiatristCEOLawyerEducatorElectronics engineerMarriage and family therapistNutritionistFood scientistForestry technicianFarm worker12. Most Popular W orking Sphere in Chinacivil servicepublic institutionelectronic commercefinancial investmentreal estate developmentcomputer sofeware engineeringeducational trainingmechanical manufactureconstruction industryimport and export trade13. Five social insurance and one housing fund（五险一金）Endowment Insurance（养老保险）Medical insurance（医疗保险）Unemployment insurance（失业保险）Work-related injury insurance（工伤保险）maternity insurance（生育保险）Housing fund（住房公积金）14. The Christmas day is the most important festival in the Christian world. In the 4th century B.C., December 25th was named after the Christmas day by the Roman Christian, because this day is Jesus’ birthday. “Chrismas” mean that Christians go to church and hold ceremonies to celebrate the Jesus’ birth.The Easter Day is also a grand and solemn festival in the western world commemorating the resurrection(复活) of Jesus. It comes on the first Sunday after March 21st every year.Thanksgiving DayPeople in many countries celebrate the end of autumn–harvest season.In China, we celebrate Mid-Autumn Festival.In Canada and USA, they celebrate Thanksgiving Day.In 1863, Abraham Lincoln, President of USA set aside the last Thursday of November as a national Day of Thanksgiving, the intention was to show thanks to God for good harvest, thanks to indians for their great help.15. Chinese Food：are four major cooking stylesSichuan Characterized by its spicy and pungent flavor, Sichuan cuisine, prolific of tastes, emphasizes on the use of chili. Pepper and prickly ash also never fail to accompany, producing typical exciting tastes. Besides, garlic, ginger and fermented soybean are also used in the cooking process. Wild vegetables and animals are usually chosen as ingredients, while frying, frying without oil, pickling and braising are applied as basic cooking techniques.Canton Cantonese is perhaps the most widely available Chinese regional cuisine outside China. It’s taste in China is usually bland/light.Shandong requires for excellent cooking skills and the finished dishes are magnificent and antique. What must be talked is the seafood, which is the special dish of Shandong cuisine. saltyHuaiyang cuisine is well known for its delicacy, its careful selection of ingredients, its meticulous preparation methodology, and its not-too-spicy, not-too-bland taste. Since the seasons vary in climate considerably in Jiangsu, the cuisine also varies throughout the year. If the flavor is strong, it isn't too heavy; if light, not too bland.16.western foodItalian food: Spaghetti Pizza Seafood SnacksFrench food: expensive raw materials, not stay in filling stageAmerican food: salad complex because of immigrants17. Table MannersChinese people prefer round tables in the banquets.In the west, the long tables are used in the banquets.Chopsticks:When you hold chopsticks, you should make sure that the ends are even.Do not use to move bowls or plates. When not in use, they always be placed neatly on the table with the two sticks lying tidily next to each other at both ends.Do not use them to point at other people or to wave chopsticks around.Do not impale food with chopsticks.One should not 'dig' or 'search' through one's food for something in particular.Do not bang your chopsticks as though you were playing a drum.Don't use your chopsticks stab your rice.W estern:When arriving at a western restaurant, you are supposed to be seated with the guidance of the waiters instead of sitting everywhere you want.Men and waiters can pull the chairs for ladies. Generally speak ing, you’d better get seated from the left side.The seat which is the most farthest away from the door is the most distinguished. When you are ready to sit down, remember to use hand instead of your feet to pull the chair back. Y ou’d better seat from the left side of the chair.All things not having to do with food should remain off the table: keys, clutch bags, cigarette packs, sunglasses, mobile phone.When in a situation where you have to pass food or condiments（调味品）to others at the table, pass it to your right, or counter clockwise（逆时针）.Y ou may rest forearms or hands on the table, but not elbows.Do not talk when your food is in the mouth.Food residue（残渣）or bone cannot be left on the table, It should be put on the plate. Drinking too much when dining is very impolite and one of the most disliked behaviors.Say "Excuse me." or "Excuse me, I'll be right back." before leaving the table.Do not state that you are going to the restroom.Do not “play with” your food or utensils（餐具）.Do not bite your nails or using tooth picks at the tables.16. home safety may indicate a building's ability to protect against external harm events (such as weather, home invasion, etc.), or may indicate that its internal installations (such as appliances, stairs, etc.) are safe (not dangerous or harmful) for itsinhabitants.17. Social safety, which is also noticed as security, is the process or means, physical or human, of delaying, preventing, and otherwise protecting against external or internal, defects, dangers, loss, criminals, and other individuals or actions that threaten, hinder or destroy an organization’s “steady state,” and deprive it of its intended purpose for being.18.pollutionAir pollution, soil pollution, water pollution,Safety in China:Road safety, food safetySafety in the US:CrimeDomestic Violence (Includes spousal, elder, and child abuse)Sexual AssaultSelf-DefenseWomen OffendersGirls in the Juvenile Justice SystemPolicy19. W elfare is provided by governments or their agencies, by private organizations, ora combination of both. Funding for welfare usually comes from general government revenue（税收）, but when dealing with charities or NGO's, donations may be used. Some countries run conditional cash transfer welfare programs where payment is conditional on behavior of the recipients.20. Some Differences in Body LanguageChinese girls like to walk arm in arm and boys like to walk shoulder by shoulder, but in Western countries they might mean that they are homosexual (lesbian or gay);Nod means agree in most countries but in India, Greece, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, and Turkey it means disagree;winking one's eye to another means they are sharing secret in America and Europe but it is a flirtatious gesture in other countries.Patting on the head in China is usually happening between older people and children but in western countries and in Thailand it is very inappropriate, even an insultant behavior.The “O.K.” signal. (the thumb and forefinger form a circle) means “fine,” or “O.K.” in most cultu res, “zero” or “worthless” in some parts of Europe, “money” in Japan, an insult in Greece, Brazil, Italy, Turkey, Russia and some other countries.古今名言敏而好学，不耻下问——孔子业精于勤，荒于嬉；行成于思，毁于随——韩愈兴于《诗》，立于礼，成于乐——孔子己所不欲，勿施于人——孔子读书破万卷，下笔如有神——杜甫读书有三到，谓心到，眼到，口到——朱熹立身以立学为先，立学以读书为本——欧阳修读万卷书，行万里路——刘彝黑发不知勤学早，白首方悔读书迟——颜真卿书卷多情似故人，晨昏忧乐每相亲——于谦书犹药也，善读之可以医愚——刘向莫等闲，白了少年头，空悲切——岳飞发奋识遍天下字，立志读尽人间书——苏轼鸟欲高飞先振翅，人求上进先读书——李苦禅立志宜思真品格，读书须尽苦功夫——阮元非淡泊无以明志，非宁静无以致远——诸葛亮熟读唐诗三百首，不会作诗也会吟——孙洙《唐诗三百首序》书到用时方恨少，事非经过不知难——陆游问渠那得清如许，为有源头活水来——朱熹旧书不厌百回读，熟读精思子自知——苏轼书痴者文必工，艺痴者技必良——蒲松龄声明访问者可将本资料提供的内容用于个人学习、研究或欣赏，以及其他非商业性或非盈利性用途，但同时应遵守著作权法及其他相关法律的规定，不得侵犯本文档及相关权利人的合法权利。

Culture: Culture is the total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, behaviors, institutions and communication patterns that are shared, learned and passed down through the generations in an identifiable group of people.Objective Culture: history, religion, literature, language, food, etiquette, law, and customs.Subjective Culture: feelings and attitudes about how things are and how they should be –the concept of time, spaces, friendship, love, family, communication pattern, etc.Characteristics：Learned, transmitted from generation to generation, based on symbols, dynamic, ethnocentric.Doing Culture: It is meant to be a contrast to learning “about” culture underscores the idea that communicating across cultures is a process of making meaning, of people understanding one another so they can get to know one another, build relationships, and solve problems together. It should not be words on paper, but ideas in practice.Communication: Human communication is the process through which individuals –in relationships, groups, organizations and societies –respond to and create messages to adapt to the environment and one another.Characteristics: Dynamic and interactiveIntercultural Communication: Generally speaking, it refers to interaction between people from different cultural backgrounds, such as interactions between people from America and China, between whites and African Americans, between Hispanic and Japanese AmericansThe form of Intercultural Communicationa. Interracial communication –people from different racesb. Interethnic communications –the parties are of the same race but of different ethnic origins.c. Intercultural communication –communication between members of the sameculture, in which one or both of the participants hold dual or multiple memberships.（gay, disabled, Mexican American, African American, or female）Communication Competence (ICC competence)The cognitive component –how much one know about communication.The affective component –one’s motivation to approach or avoid communication The behavior component –the skills one has to interact competently. Perception: Perception is a cognitive process in which we attach meaning to objects, symbols, people and behavior in order to make sense of them.Pattern of Thought: The way people in a culture think influences the way they interpret strangers’ messages.World views: The grid (decentralized. This pattern does not have a fixed center) The radiating star (highly centralized. In this pattern important things are at the center and everything else radiates out from the center)The inside/ outside pattern (圈子)female maleprivate publichome market, mosque, coffee housethe outside is plain, not welcoming, even forbidding. The walls are thick to protect what is inside.highly centralized pattern: important people sit in the front middle;decentralized pattern: people sit equally.Stereotyping: People generalize to make sense of his experience. The result of the process of over generalizing based on limited or inaccurate information.The classification of stereotypes1. Negative stereotype of other cultures: Prejudice (severe prejudice)2. Positive stereotype of one’s own culture: Cultural superiority Characteristics: universal, unavoidable, stable, variable, ethnocentrismHigh context communication & Low context communicationHC culture (察言观色): Relies mainly on the physical context or the relationship for information, with little explicitly encoded.LC culture: provide most of the information in the explicit code itself.Perception: Perception is a cognitive process in which we attach meaning to objects, symbols, people and behavior in order to make sense of them.High contact and low contact culture:In high contact cultures people want to get close enough to one another and to objects to sense them in these ways.People in these countries stand closer, touch more, engage in more eye contact and speak more loudly than people do in lower-contact cultures.In a low contact cultures, people rely more on sight, and especially sight at a far distance. People are most likely to stand a certain distance away to get the whole picture, without actually feeling or sensing the other person’s body heat or subtle smell.So in low contact culture as America, one is taught not to breathe on people.However, this visual space seems unfriendly and indifferent to those from high contact cultures, which favor tactile space.When a person from a high contact culture goes to a low contact culture, he or she is likely to feel that people are cold, lack human warmth, and are indifferent and pay no attention to them.low-contact: Asia ; moderate-contact: Australia, Northern Europe, United States high-contact: South America, Mediterranean, the Arab worldLarge and smell Power Distancespower distance is an attempt to measure cultural attitudes about inequality insocial relationships.In high power distance cultures, position in a hierarchy is considered to benatural and important. People are expected to show only positive emotions toothers with high status and to display negative emotions to those with low status;tend to decrease gaze in the presence of powerful people.Low Power Distance Culture: Minimize and eliminate the differences in power and status; more emotional display, increase the amount of gaze. People believe that the differences in power between boss and workers should be reduced and not mphasized.Individualism VS CollectivismThe individualism index measures the extent to which the interests of the individual are considered to be more important than the interests of the group. People from individualist cultures are more likely to act on principles that apply to everyone, principles that are universal and apply to associates and strangers alike. Collectivists are not unprincipled, but when making decisions they tend to give a higher priority to relationships than individualists do. They expect people who are involved in a group relationship to have duties and obligations to one another. Masculinity (Toughness) VS Femininity (Tenderness)Masculinity means everyone in society embraces values that have traditionally been associated with men, that is assertiveness, competitiveness and toughness. On the feminine side of the scale we find societies in which people generally embrace values that have traditionally been labeled as feminine, that is modesty, cooperation and tenderness.Strong and weak Uncertainty AvoidanceThe Uncertainty Avoidance Index seeks to measure the extent to which people in a particular society are able to tolerate the unknowns of life. In high uncertainty avoidance countries people experience more stress and a sense of urgency as they go through their daily routines. Relationships are guided by strict rules. People from low uncertainly avoidance countries do not have a strong need to control things, people, and events by clearly defining and categorizing them. Relationships are guided by strict rules.Intercultural CommunicationIntercultural CommunicationGenerally speaking, it refers to interaction between people from different cultural backgrounds, such as interactions between people from America and China, between whites and African Americans, between Hispanic and Japanese Americans The form of Intercultural Communicationa. Interracial communication –people from different racesb. Interethnic communications –the parties are of the same race but of different ethnic origins.c. Intracultural communication –communication between members of the sameculture, in which one or both of the participants hold dual or multiple memberships.（gay, disabled, Mexican American, African American, or female）Language&CulturePeople pay attention to basic language in cross-culture communication because of the essential role these codes play in communication and they are part of object culture. The same word may stir up different associations in people under different cultural background, e.g. the word “dog”. In eastern culture, dogs are dirty, brutal and stupid. But in western culture, dogs are lovely, loyal and obedient. They are faithful friends and compassionate animals.Language reflects culture. Language expresses cultural reality, reflects the people’s attitudes, beliefs, world outlooks, etc. For example, American businessmen often encode their meanings in metaphors and images from these sports.Chinese traditional sport culture emphasizes the harmony between human beings and oneness between man and nature. It is morality, benevolence, entertainment and longevity. But western sports culture is competition and sportsmanship.Culture shock: Troublesome feelings such as depression, loneliness, confusion, inadequacy, hostility, frustration, and tension, caused by the loss of familiar cues from the home culture.U-Curuemodel:Excitement→Confusion→Frustration→Effectiveness→Appreciation。