Particularized implicature: context; against CP
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Neo-Gricean pragmatic theories of conversational implicature
Horn scales (何恩等级理论)
Horn’s Q-principle and R-principle（1984）
---R- principle(Speaker based): the minimization of linguistic form （上限原则，推导下限含义）
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John has three children. (a) +> John has at least three children. (b) +> John has at most three children.
meaning what is said what is implicated
conventionally conversationally
generalized particularized
Huang Yan. Pragmatics [M]. Beijing: Foreign
Language Teaching And Research. 2009.
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➢ P there for q --- He is Chinese; +>>therefore he know how to use
chopsticks
Conventional implicature: attached to particular lexical items or linguistic constructions
项成东 等级含义的研究综述 [J]. 当代语言学. 2006(4): 334-344
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等级含义特征：
--可取消性(cancelability) --不可分离性(non-detachability) --可推导性 (calculability） --非规约性(non-conventionality)
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‘‘I think that all conversational implicatures are cancelable’’ ‘‘[. . .] a putative conversational implicature that p is explicitly cancelable if, to the form of words the utterance of which putatively implicates that p, it is admissible to add but not p, or I do not mean to imply that p, and it is contextually cancelable if one can find situations in which the utterance of the form of words would simply not carry the implicature’’ (Grice, 1989:44).
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3）Classification （Grice 1961）：
Implicature
Conventional implicature Conversational implicature
（规约含义）
(会话含义)
Generalized implicature （一般会话含义）
Particularized implicature （特殊会话含义）
会话含义的可取消性： 语境取消与明确取消
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1) It is cold in here, but I don’t want you to close the door. 2) Bob ate some of the cake ( said when it was found that no cake was left on the table)
B： some. In fact, he passed all of them.
？ When is it possible to cancel a SI?
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1) Topic: when the cancellation of implicature is an acceptable discouse move 2) Method: two experiments
Horn scales
typical generalized conversational implicature
Q-scalar：<x,y> y +> Q-scalar ~(negation)X
Eg: <identical, similar> The two impressionist paintings are similar. +> The two impressionist paintings are not identical.
（转引 项成东 2006 ；Horn 1972）
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➢构成荷恩等级关系的常见等级词：
1）不定代词,如<al,l some>等; 2）数词,如<,three, two, one>等; 3）情态词,如<necessarily,possibly>, <mus,t should, may>等; 4）连接词,如<and, or>等;频度副词,如<always, often, sometimes>等; 5）程度形容词,如<ho,t warm >等; 6）动词,如<know, believe>, <love, like>或<start, finish>等
How to cancel (scalar) implicature?
陈慧珍 廖曦仪 白黎
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Contents
Introduction
Proposal Experiment & summary
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Implicature
1）Firstly put forward by H. P. Grice(1of conversational implicature
one word for more
Zipf---least effort(省力原则或经济原则)
meaning
---the force of unification(speaker’s economy)
（单一化力量）
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Levinson’s theory of conversational implicature
Q-principle : what isn’t said, isn’t.
(话语信息)
I-principle: what is expressed simply is stereotypically
exemplified. （常规关系）
M-principle: What is said in an abnormal way is not normal.
(有标记话语)
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(4)Not all of the students went to the party. +>Some of the students went to the party. (5)John smiled at the secretary. +>John smiled at the female secretary. (6)James caused the car to stop. +>James caused the car to stop in an abnormal way.
➢ ---The oil has run out. ---Oh, there is a garage around the corner.
Generalized implicature: CP ; stereotypes
➢---What on earth has happened to the roast beef? ---The dog is looking happy.
2）Definition ：
What is implicated Contextual meaning 指语言在使用时所产生与语境相关的附加意 义。（熊学亮 1997）
熊学亮. 含义分类标准评析.[J]. 外语教学与研 究.1997: 1-8
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3）Classification （Grice 1961,1975）：
3) A typology of meaning
At- issue content Projective meaning Conversational implicature
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At-issue content
“ At-issue content (Potts, 2005) is the descriptive meaning contributed by an assertion, the one that can be directly denied by our interlocutor because it is truth-conditional”
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可取消等级含义特征：S1+ connector + S2
1）连接词（connecter） 2）S1与S2皆具有等级词项，如不定代词，<all, some>等。 3）S2蕴含S1，S1为弱项表达，S2为强项表达
？
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John passed some of his exams. In fact, he passed all of them. John passed some of his exams. In fact, it’s amazing he passed all of them. A: How many exams did John pass？
