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介绍空调英语作文Title: The Advantages of Air Conditioning。
Air conditioning, also known as AC, is an essential component of modern life. It has revolutionized the way we live and work, providing us with comfort and convenience in various environments. In this essay, I will explore the benefits of air conditioning and its impact on society.First and foremost, air conditioning plays a crucial role in maintaining a comfortable indoor temperature, especially during hot summer months. By regulating the temperature and humidity levels, air conditioning systems create a pleasant environment for occupants, allowing them to stay cool and productive. This is particularly important in regions with extreme weather conditions, where high temperatures can pose health risks such as heatstroke and dehydration.Moreover, air conditioning enhances air quality byfiltering out dust, pollen, and other airborne particles. This is beneficial for individuals with allergies or respiratory conditions, as it helps reduce the risk of respiratory problems and improves overall well-being. Additionally, air conditioning helps to circulate fresh air indoors, preventing the buildup of stale odors and pollutants.Furthermore, air conditioning promotes better sleep quality by creating an optimal sleeping environment. By maintaining a consistent temperature and reducing noise levels, AC systems contribute to restful sleep, which is essential for physical and mental health. Adequate sleep has been linked to improved cognitive function, mood regulation, and overall quality of life.In addition to its impact on individual comfort and health, air conditioning also has significant economic benefits. In commercial settings, such as offices, retail stores, and restaurants, air conditioning contributes to increased productivity and customer satisfaction. Employees are more likely to perform efficiently in a comfortableworking environment, leading to higher job satisfaction and lower absenteeism rates. Similarly, customers are more likely to linger and make purchases in a comfortable shopping or dining atmosphere.Moreover, air conditioning plays a vital role in preserving perishable goods and maintaining optimal conditions in various industries. In sectors such as food storage, pharmaceuticals, and manufacturing, precise temperature control is essential to prevent spoilage, ensure product quality, and comply with regulatory standards. Without air conditioning, these industries would face significant losses due to product damage and waste.Despite its many benefits, air conditioning also has some drawbacks that need to be addressed. One concern isits environmental impact, particularly in terms of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Traditional AC systems rely on fossil fuels for power, contributing to carbon dioxide emissions and climate change. To mitigate these effects, there is a growing emphasis on developing energy-efficient technologies and promoting sustainablecooling solutions, such as solar-powered air conditioning and passive cooling techniques.In conclusion, air conditioning has transformed the way we live, work, and play, providing us with comfort, convenience, and improved quality of life. From maintaining indoor temperature and air quality to promoting better sleep and boosting economic productivity, AC systems have become an indispensable part of modern society. However, it is essential to balance the benefits of air conditioning with its environmental impact and explore sustainable alternatives to ensure a healthier and more sustainable future.。
solar energy分区1. 光伏发电（Photovoltaic Power Generation）：利用光伏效应将太阳能转化为电能的技术。
太阳能电池板将太阳光直接转化为电能，广泛应用于家庭屋顶、太阳能电站等领域。
2. 太阳热能（Solar Thermal Energy）：利用太阳能将热能转化为可供使用的能源。
太阳能热水器、太阳能集热器等是常见的太阳热能利用设备。
3. 太阳能照明（Solar Lighting）：利用太阳能发电为照明提供能源的技术。
太阳能路灯、太阳能灯具等是常见的太阳能照明产品。
4. 太阳能空调（Solar Air Conditioning）：利用太阳能发电或太阳能热能为空调系统提供能源的技术。
太阳能空调系统可以减少对传统电力的依赖，节约能源。
5. 太阳能车（Solar Vehicles）：利用太阳能发电为电动汽车或其他交通工具提供能源的技术。
太阳能车通过车顶上的太阳能电池板收集太阳能并转化为电能，实现无排放的运行。
6. 太阳能储能（Solar Energy Storage）：将太阳能转化为电能后，将多余的电能储存起来以备不时之需的技术。
太阳能储能系统可以解决太阳能发电的间歇性问题，提高能源利用率。
7. 太阳能热水器（Solar Water Heater）：利用太阳能将水加热的技术。
太阳能热水器通过太阳能集热器收集太阳能热量，将水加热供应给家庭、企业等使用。
8. 太阳能电站（Solar Power Plant）：大规模利用太阳能发电的设施。
太阳能电站通常由大量太阳能电池板组成，将太阳能转化为电能并供应给电网。
这些是太阳能分区的一些常见例子，每个分区都有不同的应用领域和技术特点。
英国暖通专业(采暖/通风/空调)申请条件及6所名校推荐留学英国之专业详解：暖通专业(采暖/通风/空调)介绍。
"暖通"是建筑设备中工种的一个分类的名称。
暖通包括：采暖、通风、空气调节这三个方面，缩写HVAC(Heating,Ventilating and Air Conditioning)，这三个方面简称暖通空调。
采暖(Heating)--又称供暖，按需要给建筑物供给负荷，保证室内温度按人们要求持续高于外界环境。
通常用散热器等。
通风(Ventilating)--向房间送入，或由房间排出空气的过程。
利用室外空气(称新鲜空气或新风)来置换建筑物内的空气(称室内空气)，通常分自然通风和机械通风。
空气调节(Air Conditioning)--简称空调用来对房间或空间内的温度、湿度、洁净度和空气流动速度进行调节，并提供足够量的新鲜空气的建筑环境控制系统。
附暖通专业的主要课程：传热学、流体力学、工程热力学、热质交换原理与设备、电工学、机械设计基础、供热工程、锅炉房工艺与设备、制冷技术、空气调节、工业通风、流体输配管网、燃气输配、建筑设备自动化等。
>>申请英国暖通专业在中国，有的大学会直接开设“暖通“这一专业，设置在<建筑与工程学院>下;也有的大学会称之为”能源与环境系统工程“，设置在<机械与工程学院>下。
虽然专业名称有所不同，但是我们仍然可以通过课程设置来进行它们与机械自动化和环境工程之间的区别。
在英国，该专业通常设置在建筑环境与工程学院或者土木工程学院下，也有部分开设在能源与环境学院下，是集机械+建筑+能源的综合学科，专业名称通常称之为“能源与建筑环境工程“，培养的也是当今社会所需求的跨学科人才。
下面我们聊聊英国开设暖通专业方向的六所大学(即：能源与建筑环境工程方向)：1拉夫堡大学Loughborough University (拉夫堡/1966年) TIMES2018：TOP7【所属学院】Architecture, Building and Civil Engineering建筑学，建筑和土木工程【专业名称】Low Energy Building Services Engineering MSc低能源建筑服务工程【专业简介】该专业的课程解释了人体热舒适和室内空气品质的必要性，低能耗建筑设计原理，建筑空调系统的设计，建筑能源供应系统,包括电子和地区能源系统，低能耗建筑的控制的理论和使用计算机建模和仿真预测建筑性能设计知识，使用3D建筑信息建模的研究方法和数据分析。
The Application of Solar Energy in Buildings ForewordWith swift economic growth, the construction has made great achievements, but also paid a huge price for the resources and the environment. The contradiction between economic development and environment has become increasingly acute, and people reacted strongly to the environmental pollution problems. At the same time, greenhouse gas emissions cause global warming, which attract widespread concern in the international community. Strengthening energy conservation and emission reduction is an urgent need to cope with global climate change, which is the responsibility we should take.Solar energy is a kind of sustainable and clean energy. In the process of seeking sustainable development of human society, the utilization of solar energy is paid more and more attention all over the world. Practice of half a century has proved that low-temperature solar thermal conversion technology has been successful for buildings to provide domestic hot water and heating. In recent years, energy saving photovoltaic industry in some developed countries began to use solar cells as the roof panel, which can fully explain the load and solar energy resources has good matching with the buildings. It is foreseeable that solar energy in buildings energy saving will have a broad application and occupies an important position in the near future. Improving the application of renewable and clean energy, solar energy, in buildings and reducing building energy consumption is a key to solve energy and environment problems.1.The introduction of solar energyFrom thesis [1], we can know that among the solutions to the global energy crisis, the exploitation of solar energy is certainly one of the most promising ecological avenues. According to a recent report [2], solar energy has the theoretical potential to meet the global energy demand by about 2850 times. A transition to renewables-based energy systems is looking increasingly likely as their costs decline while the price of oil and gas continue to fluctuate. In the past 30 years solar and wind power systems have experienced rapid sales growth, declining capital costs and costs of electricity generated, and have continued to improve their performance characteristics.As for the solar energy resources in our country, thesis [3] mention that the distribution of China solar energy resources have the following characteristics: the districts with the highest and lowest solar radiation are all in latitude22 degrees to 35 degrees——the Tibetan Plateau has the highest solar radiation, while the Sichuan basin has the lowest solar radiation. Western radiation amount is higher than the eastern part, and in addition to Tibet and Xinjiang Province, the north is higher than the South for the reason that the south areas have more cloudy and rainy days. In latitude 30 degrees to 40 degrees, solar radiation increases with increasing latitude. The annual solar radiation amounts from 3350 to 8370MJ/ (m2. A), and the average ofannual solar radiation is 5860MJ/ (m2. A).Although the distribution of solar energy resources has obvious regional characteristics for the solar energy resources are restricted by the climate and environmental conditions, but thesis [4] shows that most areas in China still have great solar energy availability.2.The applicationways of solar energy in buildingsSolar energy conversion into heat energy is the basic way of solar energy utilization. At present, solar energy water heater, solar house and solar radiant floor heating are the main solar energy applications.2.1Solar water heaterThe solar water heater is a device converting solar energy into thermal energy for heating water, which has the advantages of simple structure and low cost. Solar water heaters have also been widely used in China. Thesis [5] shows that from 2000 to 2010 solar water heaterssaves 112 million 950 thousand tons coal in China and reduce the emission of 3 million651 thousand and 900 tons SO2, 1 million 641 thousand and 500 tonsNO2, 2 million 823 thousand and 600 tons smoke and 242 million 466 thousand tons CO2. The ratio of house use solar water heaters in China is about 8.7%, which is lower than Japan's 20% and Israel's 90%.It is obvious that the market of solar water heater still needs to be vigorously developed.2.2Solar houseSolar house is a house that is heated and cooled by solar energy. The solar house can be either heated or cooled. The simplest solar house is called passive solar house which is easy to build without the need to install special power equipment. Another kind of solar house which is complex and comfortable is called active solar house.According to thesis [6] ~ [9], Solar house can save 75% ~ 90% energy consumption, and has great environmental and economic benefits. Europe is leading the world in solar cell technology and applications, especially in glass coatings, window technologies, and transparent insulation materials. In our country, solar energy heating, cooling and lighting systems are becoming more and more popular, but most of them are active solar houses. At present, solar energy application in refrigeration and air conditioning are still in the demonstration phase due to the high cost. But for the power shortage areas, there is still a great market potential the market still has potential considering the combination with buildings.2.3 Solar photovoltaic power generationIn addition to the direct conversion to thermal energy, we can also convert solar energy into electric energy which is more useful for most buildings. As we all known, solar photovoltaic power generation is the use of solar cells to convert solar energy directly into electricity. Since 2007, Chinese photovoltaic industry developrapidly. In 2008, solar cell production accounted for 31% of the world wide production, ranking first in the world.According thesis [10] and [11], Chinese scholars have compared several solar photovoltaic power generation schemes, and studied the fault characteristics of photovoltaic power generation system in islanding operation. The US national renewable energy laboratory research shows that solar cells using solar energy paint technology can convert 18% of solar energy into electricity. Researchers at the Southampton University in the UK have been able to convert light energy into electricity more efficiently by simulating the photosynthesis of plants. In addition, GreenSun Energy Technology Company has also invented a variety of solar panels which can collect solar energy without direct sunlight.3.Development and utilization of solar energy at home and abroad3.1The application of solar energy in ChinaChina attaches great importance to the development of renewable energy. There are 77 solar cell production lines have been introduced from the United States, Canada and other countries in 1983~1987.A series of policies has formulated to support the development of renewable energy industry. China's photovoltaic industry is developing rapidly under the strong pulling of national projects such as "bright project" and "sending electricity to the countryside" project and the world photovoltaic market. Solar cells are mainly used in remote areas with no electricity, and the annual power output is about 1. 1MW. Household photovoltaic power supply is widely used in Qinghai, Xinjiang, Tibet and other areas. The industrialization system of solar water heater in China has been complete. In 2009, "solar water heater going to the countryside" marks the national recognition of this technology. In 2010, the domestic solar water heater produced an annual output of 49 million m2, accounting for 80% of the world's annual output. These data and information above come from thesis [12] and the Internet.And we can see from thesis [13] and [14] that China also attaches importance to the development of solar buildings. The first passive solar house in China was built in 1977 in a county of Gansu Province, which is composed of two forms: direct benefit window and heat collecting wall. China's first all solar building has been built in Beijing, covering 8000m2, and all the energy from bath, heating and power supply in the main building come from solar energy. In March 2011, the Ministry of housing and the Ministry of Finance issued the "notice on further promoting the application of renewable energy buildings" clearly pointed out that by 2020, the proportion of renewable energy consumption in the construction sector accounted for more than 15% of the building energy consumption. The Chinese Academy of Sciences has launched the solar energy action plan with solar energy as an important energy target in 2050. Therefore, China's solar energy technology and application will be rapid development.3.2The application of solar energy in the United StatesDespite the recession of economy, solar energy technology is still developing rapidly in the United states. By the end of 2010, the installed capacity of PV power generation in the United States is 2 million 528 thousand kW, and EPIA predicts that it willreach 2200~3150 kW in 2015. The American building energy consumption accounts for about 40% of the total energy consumption of the country, which has a restrictive effect on the economic development. In order to reduce energy consumption, reduce pollution, adjusting energy structure and realize the sustainable development of environment, the United States has made positive explorations on the use and application of solar energy technology including the "million solar roofs plan" which is a long-term plan advocated and promoted by the government. Recently, scientists in the United States focused on the space. They envisaged launch a satellite with energy harvesting device into space, solar panels installed on the satellite can collect energy in space, then convert it to a microwave back to earth, and last use the microwave to generate electricityfor people to use. Thus providing new energy that is clean, cheap, safe, reliable sustainable. At the same time, the desalination of seawater by solar energy has also been studied in the United States. These new progress is from thesis [15] to [17].4.The development trend of solar energyGiven these facts and considerations above, it is surprising to find that solar energy systems are not more widely spread into the general building practice. Traditionally, the economical issue has been dominant in this debate. However, as renewables-based energy systems costs decline while the price of oil and gas continue to fluctuate, the economical issue is slowly losing its rationale. So why the application of solar energy in buildings has not been widely promoted?From thesis [18] we can see that some other factors seem to deserve consideration, for instance a general lack of awareness and knowledge of the different technologies among building professionals, a general reluctance to use ―new‖ technologies and finally, last but not least, limitations stemming from architectural and aesthetic considerations in relation to the integration of solar systems.On the other hand, thesis [19] shows that the main problem of using solar energy in Russia relies not in technology, but in the legislative field. The use of a vacuum manifold in Russia will be widely implemented in areas with a cold climate and in the modern houses after solving the issues of legislative support from the state and municipal authorities.Therefore, we should pay attention to the following aspects for the development direction of solar energy applications in buildings:(1) The research of solar collector extends from low temperature to middle or high field, and improves the efficiency of heat collector.(2) Research on solar district heating technology and seasonal heat storage technology, improve solar heating for buildings’ guarantee rate [20].(3) Promote and encourage the application of solar energy in buildings and the development of solar energy technology by a series of policies and laws.(4) Cultivate talents in related fields. And improve the management system of solar building to form a mature engineering management system like water supply, heat supply and electricity.References[1]Wall, M.& M.C.M. Probst. Achieving solar energy in architecture - IEA SHC Task 41 [J]. Energy Procedia,2012,(30): 1250 – 1260.[2] European Renewable Energy Council (EREC). Rethinking 2050: A 100% Renewable Energy Vision for the European Union. Brussels, Belgium; 2010.[3] Li Ke, He Fanneng. Analysis on mainland Chin a’s solar energy distribution and potential to utilize solar energy as an alternative energy source [J]. Progress in Geography,2009,29(9): 1049—1054.[4] Wang Bingzhong. Solar energy resource division in China [J]. Acta Energiae Solaris Sinica,1983,4(3) : 221-228.[5] Yan Yunfei, Zhang Zhien, Zhang Li, Dai Changlin. Solar energy utilization technology and its application [J]. Acta Energiae Solaris Sinica,2012,33 : 47-56.[6] Vidal H, Colle S. Simulation and economic optimization of a solar assisted combined ejector-vapor compression cycle for cooling applications[J].AppliedThermal Engineering,2010,30(5) :478—486.[7] Abdel D A M. Experimental and numerical performance of a multi-effect condensationvaporation solar water distillation system [J]．Energy,2006,31(14): 2710—2727.[8] Tyagi V V，Buddhi D. PCM. Thermal storage in buildings[J]. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,2007,11(6) :1146—1166.[9] Pollerberg C，Heinzel A，Weidner A. Model of a solar driven steam jet ejector chiller andinvestigation of its dynamic operational behavior[J]. Solar Energy,2009,83(5):732—742.[10] Chen Zeshao, Mo Songping, Hu Peng, et al. Thermal dynamic analysis and comparison of several solar photovoltaic power generation schemes[J]. Journal of Engineering Thermophysics,2009,30(5):25—30.[11] Li Shengwei, Li Yongli, Sun Jingjiao, et al. Fault characteristic analysis of photovoltaic power system islanding operation[J]. Journal of Tianjin University,2011,44(5):401—405.[12] Lu Weide, Luo Zhentao. Progress of solar thermal utilization in China[J]. Solar Energy,2002,(1):3—4.[13] Ouyang Li,Liu Wei. Optimal design of the solar heating system with porous heatstorage wall[J]. Journal of Engineering Thermophysics,2010,31(8):1367—1370.[14] Ji Jie, Luo Chenglong, Sun Wei, et al. Experimental study on a dualfunctional solar collector integrated with building[J]. Acta Energiae Solaris Sinica,2011,32(2):149—153.[15] Gude V G, Khandan N N. Sustainable desalination using solar energy[J]. Energy Convers Manage,2010,51(11):2245—2251.[16] Gude V G, Khandan N N, Deng S. Desalination using solar energy: Towards sustainability[J]. Energy,2011, 36(1):78—85.[17] Gude V G, Khandan N N, Deng S, et al. Low temperature desalination using solar collectors augmented by thermal energy storage[J]. Applied Energy,2012,91(1):466—474.[18] Wall, M, Windeleff, J, Lien, AG. Solar Energy and Architecture, Annex Plan. The IEA SHC Programme Task 41; 2008.[19]V Velkin, S Shcheklein and V Danilov. The use of solar energy for residential buildings in the capital city [J]. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science,2017,72(1): 12 – 28.[20] Lu Bin, Zheng Ruitao, Li Zhong, He Tao, Zhang Xinyu, Wang Min. Research Status and Prospect of Solar Energy Application Technology in Buildings [J].Building science,2013,29(10):20-25.。
1.A review on the closed brayton cycle solar dynamic space power system闭式Brayton循环的太阳能热动力空间发电技术收藏指正2.The Comparison and Analysis of Solar Dynamic Power Module with Brayton Cycle and Stirling Cycle太阳能热动力系统Brayton装置与Stirling装置分析与比较收藏指正3.Field Layout and CPC Researches in Tower Solar Power Plants and Roof CPV Design 塔式太阳能热发电站镜场和CPC及屋顶CPV设计研究收藏指正4.It can be seen that solar dynamic power system is an advanced project of power supply in space station, among which closed Brayton cycle is likely to be technically realized in the near future.太阳能热动力系统具有高效率 ,紧凑和可靠性好等优点 ,长期运行的费用低 ,是一种先进的太阳能电源方案 ,其中闭式Brayton循环是技术上最有可能近期实现的电源收藏指正5.solar energy太阳能收藏指正6.STUDY OF ICC SOLAR COLLECTORICC太阳能集热器的研究收藏指正7.ANALYSIS OF ENERGY PERFORMANCE ON HEAT TRANSFER UNIT INSIDE SOLAR COLLECTOR太阳能集热器内侧换热系统的能量特性分析收藏指正8.EMULATION RESEARCH IN DIVIDED SEASONS WITH EMULATION MOLD OF SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTOR SYSTEM FOR DARWIN DISTRICT利用太阳能集热器系统仿真模型进行季节划分研究收藏指正9.we will actively introduce, develop and promote the application of such technologies as pollution-free burning, geothermal-operated pumps, solar energy power generating, solar energy heating, fuel cells, and nanometer materials, etc. 积极引进、开发和推广清洁燃烧、热泵、太阳能光伏发电、太阳能集热、燃料电池、纳米材料等技术；收藏指正10.The practicability of selective black Ni-Sn alloy surface by means of electrop- lating is investigated according to the requirements that solar collector surface sho- uld have high absorptance(α_)in visible spectrum and low emittance(ε).按照太阳能集热器的吸收面应具有高的太阳光谱吸收率α_(?) 和低的热发射率ε的要求,研究了用电镀的方法制备太阳能选择性吸收层的实用性。
采暖通风与空气调节术语标准中英文对照AA-weighted sound pressure level A声级absolute humidity绝对湿度absolute roughness绝对粗糙度absorbate 吸收质absorbent 吸收剂absorbent吸声材料absorber吸收器absorptance for solar radiation太阳辐射热吸收系数absorption equipment吸收装置absorption of gas and vapor气体吸收absorptiong refrige rationg cycle吸收式制冷循环absorption-type refrigerating machine吸收式制冷机access door检查门acoustic absorptivity吸声系数actual density真密度actuating element执行机构actuator执行机构adaptive control system自适应控制系统additional factor for exterior door外门附加率additional factor for intermittent heating间歇附加率additional factor for wind force高度附加率additional heat loss风力附加率adiabatic humidification附加耗热量adiabatic humidiflcation绝热加湿adsorbate吸附质adsorbent吸附剂adsorber吸附装置adsorption equipment吸附装置adsorption of gas and vapor气体吸附aerodynamic noise空气动力噪声aerosol气溶胶air balance风量平衡air changes换气次数air channel风道air cleanliness空气洁净度air collector集气罐air conditioning空气调节air conditioning condition空调工况air conditioning equipment空气调节设备air conditioning machine room空气调节机房air conditioning system空气调节系统air conditioning system cooling load空气调节系统冷负荷air contaminant空气污染物air-cooled condenser风冷式冷凝器air cooler空气冷却器air curtain空气幕air cushion shock absorber空气弹簧隔振器air distribution气流组织air distributor空气分布器air-douche unit with water atomization喷雾风扇air duct风管、风道air filter空气过滤器air handling equipment空气调节设备air handling unit room空气调节机房air header集合管air humidity空气湿度air inlet风口air intake进风口air manifold集合管air opening风口air pollutant空气污染物air pollution大气污染air preheater空气预热器air return method回风方式air return mode回风方式air return through corridor走廊回风air space空气间层air supply method送风方式air supply mode送风方式air supply (suction) opening with slide plate插板式送（吸）风口air supply volume per unit area单位面积送风量air temperature空气温度air through tunnel地道风air-to-air total heat exchanger全热换热器air-to-cloth ratio气布比air velocity at work area作业地带空气流速air velocity at work place工作地点空气流速air vent放气阀air-water systen空气—水系统airborne particles大气尘air hater空气加热器airspace空气间层alarm signal报警信号ail-air system全空气系统all-water system全水系统allowed indoor fluctuation of temperature and relative humidity室内温湿度允许波动范围ambient noise环境噪声ammonia氨amplification factor of centrolled plant调节对象放大系数amplitude振幅anergy@angle of repose安息角ange of slide滑动角angle scale热湿比angle valve角阀annual [value]历年值annual coldest month历年最冷月annual hottest month历年最热月anticorrosive缓蚀剂antifreeze agent防冻剂antifreeze agent防冻剂apparatus dew point机器露点apparent density堆积密度aqua-ammonia absorptiontype-refrigerating machine氨—水吸收式制冷机aspiation psychrometer通风温湿度计Assmann aspiration psychrometer通风温湿度计atmospheric condenser淋激式冷凝器atmospheric diffusion大气扩散atmospheric dust大气尘atmospheric pollution大气污染atmospheric pressure大气压力（atmospheric stability大气稳定度atmospheric transparency大气透明度atmospheric turblence大气湍流automatic control自动控制automatic roll filter自动卷绕式过滤器automatic vent自动放气阀available pressure资用压力average daily sol-air temperature日平均综合温度axial fan轴流式通风机azeotropic mixture refrigerant共沸溶液制冷剂Bback-flow preventer防回流装置back pressure of steam trap凝结水背压力back pressure return余压回水background noise背景噪声back plate挡风板bag filler袋式除尘器baghouse袋式除尘器barometric pressure大气压力basic heat loss基本耗热量hend muffler消声弯头bimetallic thermometer双金属温度计black globe temperature黑球温度blow off pipe排污管blowdown排污管boiler锅炉boiller house锅炉房boiler plant锅炉房boiler room锅炉房booster加压泵branch支管branch duct(通风) 支管branch pipe支管building envelope围护结构building flow zones建筑气流区building heating entry热力入口bulk density堆积密度bushing补心butterfly damper蝶阀by-pass damper空气加热器〕旁通阀by-pass pipe旁通管Ccanopy hood 伞形罩capillary tube毛细管capture velocity控制风速capture velocity外部吸气罩capturing hood 卡诺循环Carnot cycle串级调节系统cascade control system铸铁散热器cast iron radiator催化燃烧catalytic oxidation 催化燃烧ceilling fan吊扇ceiling panelheating顶棚辐射采暖center frequency中心频率central air conditionint system 集中式空气调节系统central heating集中采暖central ventilation system新风系统centralized control集中控制centrifugal compressor离心式压缩机entrifugal fan离心式通风机check damper(通风〕止回阀check valve止回阀chilled water冷水chilled water system with primary-secondary pumps一、二次泵冷水系统chimney(排气〕烟囱circuit环路circulating fan风扇circulating pipe循环管circulating pump循环泵clean room洁净室cleaning hole清扫孔cleaning vacuum plant真空吸尘装置cleanout opening清扫孔clogging capacity容尘量close nipple长丝closed booth大容积密闭罩closed full flow return闭式满管回水closed loop control闭环控制closed return闭式回水closed shell and tube condenser卧式壳管式冷凝器closed shell and tube evaporator卧式壳管式蒸发器closed tank闭式水箱coefficient of accumulation of heat蓄热系数coefficient of atmospheric transpareney大气透明度coefficient of effective heat emission散热量有效系数coficient of effective heat emission传热系数coefficient of locall resistance局部阻力系数coefficient of thermal storage蓄热系数coefficient of vapor蒸汽渗透系数coefficient of vapor蒸汽渗透系数coil盘管collection efficiency除尘效率combustion of gas and vapor气体燃烧comfort air conditioning舒适性空气调节common section共同段compensator补偿器components(通风〕部件compression压缩compression-type refrigerating machine压缩式制冷机compression-type refrigerating system压缩式制冷系统compression-type refrigeration压缩式制冷compression-type refrigeration cycle压缩式制冷循环compression-type water chiller压缩式冷水机组concentratcd heating集中采暖concentration of narmful substance有害物质浓度condensate drain pan凝结水盘condensate pipe凝结水管condensate pump凝缩水泵condensate tank凝结水箱condensation冷凝condensation of vapor气体冷凝condenser冷凝器condensing pressure冷凝压力condensing temperature冷凝温度condensing unit压缩冷凝机组conditioned space空气调节房间conditioned zone空气调节区conical cowl锥形风帽constant humidity system恒湿系统constant temperature and humidity system恒温恒湿系统constant temperature system 恒温系统constant value control 定值调节constant volume air conditioning system定风量空气调节系统continuous dust dislodging连续除灰continuous dust dislodging连续除灰continuous heating连续采暖contour zone稳定气流区control device控制装置control panel控制屏control valve调节阀control velocity控制风速controlled natural ventilation有组织自然通风controlled plant调节对象controlled variable被控参数controller调节器convection heating对流采暖convector对流散热器cooling降温、冷却（、）cooling air curtain冷风幕cooling coil冷盘管cooling coil section冷却段cooling load from heat传热冷负荷cooling load from outdoor air新风冷负荷cooling load from ventilation新风冷负荷cooling load temperature冷负荷温度cooling system降温系统cooling tower冷却塔cooling unit冷风机组cooling water冷却水correcting element调节机构correcting unit执行器correction factor for orientaion朝向修正率corrosion inhibitor缓蚀剂coupling管接头cowl伞形风帽criteria for noise control cross噪声控频标准cross fan四通crross-flow fan贯流式通风机cross-ventilation穿堂风cut diameter分割粒径cyclone旋风除尘器cyclone dust separator旋风除尘器cylindrical ventilator筒形风帽Ddaily range日较差damping factot衰减倍数data scaning巡回检测days of heating period采暖期天数deafener消声器decibel(dB)分贝degree-days of heating period采暖期度日数degree of subcooling过冷度degree of superheat过热度dehumidification减湿dehumidifying cooling减湿冷却density of dust particle真密度derivative time微分时间design conditions计算参数desorption解吸detecting element检测元件detention period延迟时间deviation偏差dew-point temperature露点温度dimond-shaped damper菱形叶片调节阀differential pressure type flowmeter差压流量计diffuser air supply散流器diffuser air supply散流器送风direct air conditioning system 直流式空气调节系统direct combustion 直接燃烧direct-contact heat exchanger 汽direct digital control (DDC) system 直接数字控制系统direct evaporator 直接式蒸发器direct-fired lithiumbromide absorption-type refrigerating machine 直燃式溴化锂吸收式制冷机direct refrigerating system 直接制冷系统direct return system 异程式系统direct solar radiation 太阳直接辐射discharge pressure 排气压力discharge temperature 排气温度dispersion 大气扩散district heat supply 区域供热district heating 区域供热disturbance frequency 扰动频率dominant wind direction 最多风向double-effect lithium-bromide absorption-type refigerating machine 双效溴化锂吸收式制冷机double pipe condenser 套管式冷凝器down draft 倒灌downfeed system 上分式系统downstream spray pattern 顺喷drain pipe 泄水管drain pipe 排污管droplet 液滴drv air 干空气dry-and-wet-bulb thermometer 干湿球温度表dry-bulb temperature 干球温度dry cooling condition 干工况dry dust separator 干式除尘器dry expansion evaporator 干式蒸发器dry return pipe 干式凝结水管dry steam humidifler 干蒸汽加湿器dualductairconing ition 双风管空气调节系统dual duct system 双风管空气调节系统duct 风管、风道dust 粉尘dust capacity 容尘量dust collector 除尘器dust concentration 含尘浓度dust control 除尘dust-holding capacity 容尘量dust removal 除尘dust removing system 除尘系统dust sampler 粉尘采样仪dust sampling meter 粉尘采样仪dust separation 除尘dust separator 除尘器dust source 尘源dynamic deviation动态偏差Eeconomic resistance of heat transfer经济传热阻economic velocity经济流速efective coefficient of local resistance折算局部阻力系数effective legth折算长度effective stack height烟囱有效高度effective temperature difference送风温差ejector喷射器ejetor弯头elbow电加热器electric heater电加热段electric panel heating电热辐射采暖electric precipitator电除尘器electricradian theating 电热辐射采暖electricresistance hu-midkfier电阻式加湿器electro-pneumatic convertor电—气转换器electrode humidifler电极式加湿器electrostatic precipi-tator电除尘器eliminator挡水板emergency ventilation事故通风emergency ventilation system事故通风系统emission concentration排放浓度enclosed hood密闭罩enthalpy焓enthalpy control system新风〕焓值控制系统enthalpy entropy chart焓熵图entirely ventilation全面通风entropy熵environmental noise环境噪声equal percentage flow characteristic等百分比流量特性equivalent coefficient of local resistance当量局部阻力系数equivalent length当量长度equivalent[continuous A] sound level等效〔连续A〕声级evaporating pressure蒸发压力evaporating temperature蒸发温度evaporative condenser蒸发式冷凝器evaporator蒸发器excess heat余热excess pressure余压excessive heat 余热cxergy@exhaust air rate排风量exhaust fan排风机exhaust fan room排风机室exhaust hood局部排风罩exhaust inlet吸风口exhaust opening吸风口exhaust opening orinlet风口exhaust outlet排风口exaust vertical pipe排气〕烟囱exhausted enclosure密闭罩exit排风口expansion膨胀expansion pipe膨胀管explosion proofing防爆expansion steam trap恒温式疏水器expansion tank膨胀水箱extreme maximum temperature极端最高温度extreme minimum temperature极端最低温度Ffabric collector袋式除尘器face tube皮托管face velocity罩口风速fan通风机fan-coil air-conditioning system风机盘管空气调节系统fan-coil system风机盘管空气调节系统fan-coil unit风机盘管机组fan house通风机室fan room通风机室fan section风机段feed-forward control前馈控制feedback反馈feeding branch tlo radiator散热器供热支管fibrous dust纤维性粉尘fillter cylinder for sampling滤筒采样管fillter efficiency过滤效率fillter section过滤段filltration velocity过滤速度final resistance of filter过滤器终阻力fire damper防火阀fire prevention防火fire protection防火fire-resisting damper防火阀fittings(通风〕配件fixed set-point control定值调节fixed support固定支架fixed time temperature (humidity)定时温（湿）度flame combustion热力燃烧flash gas闪发气体flash steam二次蒸汽flexible duct软管flexible joint柔性接头float type steam trap浮球式疏水器float valve浮球阀floating control无定位调节flooded evaporator满液式蒸发器floor panel heating地板辐射采暖flow capacity of control valve调节阀流通能力flow characteristic of control valve调节阀流量特性foam dust separator泡沫除尘器follow-up control system随动系统forced ventilation机械通风forward flow zone射流区foul gas不凝性气体four-pipe water system四管制水系统fractional separation efficiency分级除尘效率free jet自由射流free sillica游离二氧化硅free silicon dioxide游离二氧化硅freon氟利昂frequency interval频程frequency of wind direction风向频率fresh air handling unit新风机组resh air requirement新风量friction factor摩擦系数friction loss摩擦阻力frictional resistance摩擦阻力fume烟〔雾〕fumehood排风柜fumes烟气Ggas-fired infrared heating 煤气红外线辐射采暖gas-fired unit heater 燃气热风器gas purger 不凝性气体分离器gate valve 闸阀general air change 全面通风general exhaust ventilation (GEV) 全面排风general ventilation 全面通风generator 发生器global radiation总辐射grade efficiency分级除尘效率granular bed filter颗粒层除尘器granulometric distribution粒径分布gravel bed filter颗粒层除尘器gravity separator沉降室ground-level concentration落地浓度guide vane导流板Hhair hygrometor毛发湿度计hand pump手摇泵harmful gas andvapo有害气体harmful substance有害物质header分水器、集水器（、）heat and moisture热湿交换transfer热平衡heat conduction coefficient导热系数heat conductivity导热系数heat distributing network热网heat emitter散热器heat endurance热稳定性heat exchanger换热器heat flowmeter热流计heat flow rate热流量heat gain from lighting设备散热量heat gain from lighting照明散热量heat gain from occupant人体散热量heat insulating window保温窗heat(thermal)insuation隔热heat(thermal)lag延迟时间heat loss耗热量heat loss by infiltration冷风渗透耗热量heat-operated refrigerating system热力制冷系统heat-operated refrigetation热力制冷heat pipe热管heat pump热泵heat pump air conditioner热泵式空气调节器heat release散热量heat resistance热阻heat screen隔热屏heat shield隔热屏heat source热源heat storage蓄热heat storage capacity蓄热特性heat supply供热heat supply network热网heat transfer传热heat transmission传热heat wheel转轮式换热器heated thermometer anemometer热风速仪heating采暖、供热、加热（、、）heating appliance采暖设备heating coil热盘管heating coil section加热段heating equipment采暖设备heating load热负荷heating medium热媒heating medium parameter热媒参数heating pipeline采暖管道heating system采暖系统heavy work重作业high-frequency noise高频噪声high-pressure ho twater heating高温热水采暖high-pressure steam heating高压蒸汽采暖high temperature water heating高温热水采暖hood局部排风罩horizontal water-film syclonet卧式旋风水膜除尘器hot air heating热风采暖hot air heating system热风采暖系统hot shop热车间hot water boiler热水锅炉hot water heating热水采暖hot water system热水采暖系统hot water pipe热水管hot workshop热车间hourly cooling load逐时冷负荷hourly sol-air temperature逐时综合温度humidification加湿humidifier加湿器humididier section加湿段humidistat恒湿器humidity ratio含湿量hydraulic calculation水力计算hydraulic disordeer水力失调hydraulic dust removal水力除尘hydraulic resistance balance阻力平衡hydraulicity水硬性hydrophilic dust亲水性粉尘hydrophobic dust疏水性粉尘Iimpact dust collector冲激式除尘器impact tube皮托管impedance muffler阻抗复合消声器inclined damper斜插板阀index circuit最不利环路indec of thermal inertia (valueD)热惰性指标（D值）indirect heat exchanger表面式换热器indirect refrigerating sys间接制冷系统indoor air design conditions室内在气计算参数indoor air velocity室内空气流速indoor and outdoor design conditions室内外计算参数indoor reference for air temperature and relative humidity室内温湿度基数indoor temperature (humidity)室内温（湿）度induction air-conditioning system诱导式空气调节系统induction unit诱导器inductive ventilation诱导通风industral air conditioning工艺性空气调节industrial ventilation工业通风inertial dust separator惯性除尘器infiltration heat loss冷风渗透耗热量infrared humidifier红外线加湿器infrared radiant heater红外线辐射器inherent regulation of controlled plant调节对象自平衡initial concentration of dust初始浓度initial resistance of filter过滤器初阻力imput variable输入量insulating layer保温层integral enclosure整体密闭罩integral time积分时间interlock protection联锁保护intermittent dust removal定期除灰intermittent heating间歇采暖inversion layer逆温层inverted bucket type steam trap倒吊桶式疏水器irradiance辐射照度isoenthalpy等焓线isobume等湿线isolator隔振器isotherm等温线isothermal humidification等温加湿isothermal jet等温射流Jjet射流jet axial velocity射流轴心速度jet divergence angle射流扩散角jet in a confined space受限射流Kkatathermometer卡他温度计Llaboratory hood排风柜lag of controlled plant调节对象滞后large space enclosure大容积密闭罩latent heat潜热lateral exhaust at the edge of a bath槽边排风罩lateral hoodlength of pipe section侧吸罩length of pipe section管段长度light work轻作业limit deflection极限压缩量limit switch限位开关limiting velocity极限流速linear flow characteristic线性流量特性liquid-level gage液位计liquid receiver贮液器lithium bromide溴化锂lithium-bromide absorption-type refrigerating machine溴化锂吸收式制冷机lithium chloride resistance hygrometer氯化锂电阻湿度计load pattern负荷特性local air conditioning局部区域空气调节local air suppiy system局部送风系统local exhaustventilation (LEV)局部排风local exhaust system局部排风系统local heating局部采暖local relief局部送风local relief system局部送风系统local resistance局部阻力local solartime地方太阳时local ventilation局部通风local izedairsupply for air-heating集中送风采暖local ized air control就地控制loop环路louver百叶窗low-frequencynoise低频噪声low-pressure steam heating低压蒸汽采暖lyophilic dust亲水性粉尘lyophobic dust疏水性粉尘Mmain 总管、干管main duct通风〕总管、〔通风〕干管main pipe总管、干管make-up water pump补给水泵manual control手动控制mass concentration质量浓度maximum allowable concentration (MAC)最高容许浓度maximum coefficient of heat transfer最大传热系数maximum depth of frozen ground最大冻土深度maximum sum of hourly colling load逐时冷负荷综合最大值mean annual temperature (humidity)年平均温（湿）度mean annual temperature (humidity)日平均温（湿）度mean daily temperature (humidity)旬平均温（湿）度mean dekad temperature (humidity)月平均最高温度mean monthly maximum temperature月平均最低温度mean monthly minimum temperature月平均湿（湿）度mean monthly temperature (humidity)平均相对湿度mean relative humidity平均风速emchanical air supply system机械送风系统mechanical and hydraulic联合除尘combined dust removal机械式风速仪mechanical anemometer机械除尘mechanical cleaning off dust机械除尘mechanical dust removal机械排风系统mechanical exhaust system机械通风系统mechanical ventilation机械通风media velocity过滤速度metal radiant panel金属辐射板metal radiant panel heating金属辐射板采暖micromanometer微压计micropunch plate muffler微穿孔板消声器mid-frequency noise中频噪声middle work中作业midfeed system中分式系统minimum fresh air requirmente最小新风量minimum resistance of heat transfer最小传热阻mist雾mixing box section混合段modular air handling unit组合式空气调节机组moist air湿空气moisture excess余湿moisure gain散湿量moisture gain from appliance and equipment设备散湿量moisturegain from occupant人体散湿量motorized valve电动调节阀motorized (pneumatic)电（气）动两通阀-way valvemotorized (pneumatic)-way valve电（气）动三通阀movable support活动支架muffler消声器muffler section消声段multi-operating mode automtic conversion工况自动转换multi-operating mode control system多工况控制系统multiclone多管〔旋风〕除尘器multicyclone多管〔旋风〕除尘器multishell condenser组合式冷凝器Nnatural and mechanical combined ventilation联合通风natural attenuation quantity of noise噪声自然衰减量natural exhaust system自然排风系统natural freguency固有频率natural ventilation自然通风NC-curve[s]噪声评价NC曲线negative freedback负反馈neutral level中和界neutral pressure level中和界neutral zone中和界noise噪声noise control噪声控制noise criter ioncurve(s)噪声评价NC曲线noisc rating number噪声评价NR曲线noise reduction消声non azeotropic mixture refragerant非共沸溶液制冷剂non-commonsection非共同段non condensable gas 不凝性气体non condensable gas purger不凝性气体分离器non-isothermal jet非等温射流nonreturn valve通风〕止回阀normal coldest month止回阀normal coldest month累年最冷月normal coldest -month period累年最冷三个月normal hottest month累年最热月（３）normal hottest month period累年最热三个月normal three summer months累年最热三个月normal three winter months累年最冷三个月normals累年值nozzle outlet air suppluy喷口送风number concentration计数浓度number of degree-day of heating period采暖期度日数Ooctave倍频程/ octave倍频程octave band倍频程oil cooler油冷却器oill-fired unit heater燃油热风器one-and-two pipe combined heating system单双管混合式采暖系统one (single)-pipe circuit (cross-over) heating system单管跨越式采暖系统one(single)-pipe heating system单管采暖系统pne(single)-pipe loop circuit heating system水平单管采暖系统one(single)-pipe seriesloop heating system单管顺序式采暖系统one-third octave band倍频程on-of control双位调节open loop control开环控制open return开式回水open shell and tube condenser立式壳管式冷凝器open tank开式水箱operating pressure工作压力operating range作用半径opposed multiblade damper对开式多叶阀organized air supply有组织进风organized exhaust有组织排风organized natural ventilation有组织自然通风outdoor air design conditions室外空气计算参数outdoor ctitcal air temperature for heating采暖室外临界温度outdoor design dry-bulb temperature for summer air conlitioning夏季空气调节室外计算干球温度outdoor design hourly temperature for summer air conditioning夏季空气调节室外计算逐时温度outdoor design mean daily temperature for summer air conditioning夏季空气调节室外计算日平均温度outdoor design relative humidityu for summer ventilation夏季通风室外计算相对湿度outdoor design relative humidity for winter air conditioning冬季空气调节室外计算相对湿度outdoor design temperature ture for calculated envelope in winter冬季围护结构室外计算温度outdoor design temperature ture for heating采暖室外计算温度outdoor design temperature for summer ventilation夏季通风室外计算温度outdoor design temperature for winter air conditioning冬季空气调节室外计算温度outdoor design temperature for winter vemtilation冬季通风室外计算温度outdoor designwet-bulb temperature for summer air conditioning夏季空气调节室外计算湿球温度outdoor mean air temperature during heating period采暖期室外平均温度outdoor temperature(humidity)室外温（湿）度outlet air velocity出口风速out put variable输出量overall efficiency of separation除尘效率overall heat transmission coefficient传热系数ouvrflow pipe溢流管overheat steam过热蒸汽overlapping averages滑动平均overshoot超调量Ppackaged air conditioner整体式空气调节器packaged heat pump热泵式空气调节器packed column填料塔packed tower填料塔panel heating辐射采暖parabolic flow character抛物线流量特性isticparallel multiblade damperin平行式多叶阀parameter detection参数检测part通风〕部件partial enclosure局部密闭罩partial pressure of water vapor水蒸汽分压力particle粒子particle counter粒子计数器particle number concentration计数浓度particle size粒径particle size distribution粒径分布particulate粒子particulate collector除尘器particulates大气尘passage ventilating duct通过式风管penetration rate穿透率percentage of men，women and children群集系数and childrenpercentage of possible sunshine日照率percentage of return air 回风百分比cerforated ceiling air suppyl孔板送风perforated plate tower筛板塔periodic dust dislodging定期除灰piece(通风〕部件pipe fittings管道配件pipe radiator光面管散热器pipe section管段pipe coil光面管放热器pitot tube皮托管plate heat exchanger板式换热器plenum chamber静压箱plenum space稳压层plug丝堵plume烟羽plume rise height烟羽抬升高度PNC-curve[s]噪声评价PNC曲线pneumatic conveying气力输送pueumatic transport气力输送pneumatic valve气动调节阀pneumo-electrical convertor气-电转换器positioner定位器positive feedback正反馈powerroof ventilator屋顶通风机preferred noise criteria curve[s]噪声评价PNC曲线pressure drop压力损失pressure enthalpy chart压焓图pressure gage压力表pressure of steam supply供汽压力pressure reducing valve减压阀pressure relief device泄压装置pressure relief valve安全阀pressure thermometer压力式温度计pressure volume chart压容图primary air fan-coil system风机盘管加新风系统primary air system新风系统primary retirn air一次回风。
解决全球变暖的措施英文作文英文：Global warming is a complex challenge that requires collective action from all nations. To address this issue, we must adopt a multifaceted approach that includes reducing greenhouse gas emissions, enhancing renewable energy sources, and promoting sustainable practices.Firstly, we must reduce our carbon footprint by adopting energy-efficient technologies and practices in all sectors of society. This includes promoting the use of electric vehicles, solar panels, and wind turbines to generate renewable energy sources instead of relying on fossil fuels. Additionally, we must encourage the adoption of energy-saving appliances and lighting systems, as well as improve building insulation and efficiency standards to reduce energy waste.Secondly, we must increase the use of renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydro power. These sources not only reduce greenhouse gas emissions but also provide clean and reliable sources of energy that are essential for sustainable development. Furthermore, we must promote the developmentand deployment of new technologies such as solar-powered air conditioning systems and wind turbines that can be used in remote areas where access to electricity is limited.Thirdly, we must promote sustainable practices that reduce waste and encourage recycling. We must adopt a circular economy approach that prioritizes reuse and recycling over disposal, and reduce our reliance on single-use plastics and other disposable products that contribute to environmental pollution and climate change.最后，我们还需要提高公众对全球变暖的认识，鼓励他们采取个人行动，如减少碳排放，支持可再生能源，选择公共交通工具等。
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews11(2007)923–936Development and applications of solar-basedthermoelectric technologiesHongxia Xi a,b,Ã,Lingai Luo b ,Gilles Fraisse baThe Guangdong Provincial Laboratory of Green Chemical Technology,College of Chemical and EnergyEngineering,South China University of Technology,Guangzhou 510640,Guangdong,Chinab LOCIE—ESIGEC-Universite´de Savoie,Campus Scientifique,Savoie Technolac,73376,Le Bourget-Du-Lac cedex,FranceReceived 31May 2005;accepted 17June 2005AbstractIn this paper a survey of solar-based driven thermoelectric technologies and their applications is presented.Initially,a brief analysis of the environmental problems related to the use of conventional technologies and energy sources is presented and the benefits offered by thermoelectric technologies and renewable energy systems are outlined.The development history of solar-based thermoelectric technologies is introduced together with the discussion of the existing drawbacks of current systems.Typical applications of the solar-driven thermoelectric refrigeration and the solar-driven thermo-electric power generation are presented in order to show to the reader the extent of their applicability.The application areas described in this paper show that solar-driven thermoelectric technologies could be used in a wide variety of fields.They are attractive technologies that not only can serve the needs for refrigeration,air-conditioning applications and power generation,but also can meet demand for energy conservation and environment protection.r 2006Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.Keywords:Solar-driven thermoelectric refrigeration;Solar-driven thermoelectric generator;Solar-based driven thermoelectric technologies;Pv/locate/rser1364-0321/$-see front matter r 2006Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.rser.2005.06.008ÃCorresponding author.College of Chemical and Energy Engineering,South China University of Technology,Guangzhou 510640,Guangdong,China.Tel.:+862087113501;fax:+862087113735.E-mail address:cehxxi@ (H.Xi).Contents1.Introduction .......................................................9242.Solar-driven thermoelectric refrigeration ...................................9253.Solar-driven thermoelectric power generators ................................9304.Conclusions........................................................935References (935)1.IntroductionPeltier effect and Seeback effect were first discovered to present in metals as early as 1820s–1830s,but the low thermoelectric performances of metal made these two effects fall on deaf ears all the time.Until 1950s,the advent of doped semiconductor materials with small band gap,which were found to have much bigger thermoelectric performances than the pure metals,revived the interest in this field.The exploitation of the thermoelectric applications soon became a new hot research subject in USA,Europe and Japan.Revolutionary developments first occurred in the US space program,the thermoelectric generators have been used by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)of USA to provide electrical power for spacecraft since 1961[1]because of no moving parts,no position-dependence,more than 100,000h steady-state operation,precise temperature control to within 70.11C,and adaptability for various sources and types of ter on,the thermoelectric device was developed to be as a thermoelectric cooler in the train carriage during summer while the same device can be used as a heat pump for train carriage heating during winter [2–4].Over the past four decades,the thermoelectric devices have been used practically in widespread fields with the development of new thermoelectric materials with higher Peltier coefficients and increased COP [5].S.B.Riffat and Xiaoli Ma introduced in detailed the present and potential applications of the thermoelectric devices[6].Comparative investigation between thermoelectric devices and other devices have also been made.S.B.Riffat and Guoquan Qiu compared the performance of three types of domestic air-conditioners,namely the Vapor Compression Air Conditioner(VCAC),the Absorption Air-Conditioner(AAC)and the Thermoelectric Air-Conditioner(TEAC)[7].P.K.Bansal and A.Martin made a detailed comparative study of vapor compression,thermoelectric and absorption refrigerators [8].They all concluded that thermoelectric systems have a large potential market for small enclosures where the power consumption would be low,or safety and reliability would be important [7,8].In recent years,the global increasing demand for refrigeration,e.g.air-conditioning,food preservation,vaccine storages,medical services,and cooling of electronic devices,led to production of more electricity and consequently more release of CO 2all over the world.The International Institute of Refrigeration in Paris has estimated that approximately 15%of all electricity in the world is used for various kinds of refrigeration and types of air-conditioning,and the energy consumption for air-conditioning systems has recently been estimated to 45%of the whole households and commercial buildings [9].The accelerated consumption of fossil fuels now has been recognized to cause serious environmental and energy problems such as global warming,ozone depletion,atmospheric pollution,and worldwide shortage of energy.By reason that the thermoelectric devices have promise as a power-generation system by utilizing solar thermal power and waste heat,and are friendlyH.Xi et al./Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 11(2007)923–936924H.Xi et al./Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews11(2007)923–936925 to the environment as no any refrigerant gas is used,the development of thermoelectric applications became the worldwide focal point for concern again.The thermoelectric devices can convert solar energy into a temperature difference to act as coolers or heater with the help of PV arrays,and also the thermoelectric devices can convert solar thermal energy from temperature difference into electric energy to act as power ing solar energy to power the thermoelectric devices is thought to be an attractive way to serve the needs for refrigeration,air-conditioning applications and power generation,and simultaneously meet demand for energy conservation and environment protection.In past decades,much work has been reported on solar-driven thermoelectric devices.In his paper,an overview of the development solar-based thermoelectric technology will be given.2.Solar-driven thermoelectric refrigerationThe theory of thermoelectric power generation and thermoelectric refrigeration wasfirst presented by Altenkirch[10]in1909.Thermoelectric industry developed rapidly along with the advent of new thermoelectric materials with high thermoelectric performances in1950s. However,close attention was paid to solar refrigeration until the energy crisis in1970s. Research in a Peltier’s cooling effect integrated with PV also developed at that time[11], primarily for the cold chain project of the World Health Organization(WHO)and the international Health Organizations[9].PV technology is usually used to provide the power for the solar-driven thermoelectric refrigeration systems.There are two types of solar-driven thermoelectric refrigeration systems with two different modes of thermal energy storage.One is solar PV/battery thermoelectric system,and another is solar PV/phase change materials(PCMs)thermo-electric system.A typical configuration of a solar-driven thermoelectric refrigeration system is shown in Fig.1.The solar PV/battery thermoelectric refrigeration isfirst developed.The main components of the system are the PV cell(including the PV array,the storage battery, the controller),the thermoelectric refrigeration system,and the cooled object(e.g.,a cooling box).The PV array,which produces DC electricity when exposed to sunlight,is the most expensive component in the system.It is installed outdoors away from shadows, usually in the house roof and tilted towards the equator by an angle equal to the latitude of the location.The storage battery stores the excess electricity produced during sunshineperiods.This stored energy is used for running the refrigerator during nights,cloudy and rainy days.There are specially designed lead-acid batteries suitable for deep discharge cycles occurring in PV systems.The controller is an electronic device,which controls the system operation according to the state of charge of the battery.Its main duty is to protect the battery against excessive charging or discharging [12].For the solar-driven thermoelectric systems,the performance of whole system (Z system )can be written as the product of the performance of the thermoelectric refrigeration system(COP)and the PV efficiency (Z PV ),that is,Z system ¼COP ÂZ PVThe COP of the thermoelectric refrigeration system reported is usually less than 0.6,and the Z PV average 10%,so the Z system of a solar-driven thermoelectric system is usually less than 0.06.Wimolsiri Pridasawas compared detailedly the performance and available applications of the solar PV/battery thermoelectric refrigeration and other eight solar-driven refrigeration systems [9].Compared to other solar-driven refrigeration systems,the solar PV/battery thermoelectric refrigeration systems have the following features:no working fluid and no moving parts,quiet,small size and light weight,but low COPs,difficult to achieve a low refrigeration temperature,and low reliability especially when the power supply is cut.The paper concluded that solar thermal-driven air-conditioning systems are attractive in many regions due to the increase of the cooling demand.The PV-driven thermoelectric cooling systems are mainly designed for mobile refrigeration purposes.Currently,there are many commercially available mobile units such as cooling boxes.The efficiency of a PV-driven thermoelectric cooling system depends on the insolation,the solar collector or the PV efficiency and the refrigeration performance.The economical advantage of this kind of system is still obscure due to the high installation cost.This system would be a long-term cost saving system since the energy source is free and the solar sub-system generally requires little maintenance.New refrigeration technology based on solar energy has not attracted much of the commercial refrigeration and air-conditioing industry so far.The development and production of such equipment is a future business possibility.In the past years,many work have been done in this field to improve the efficiency of the solar PV/battery thermoelectric refrigeration system.NASA and other space organizations started a dual-use technology project to develop solar-driven refrigeration technology.This project worked on the application of the solar-driven refrigeration technology both on earth and in space [1].H.SOFRATA proposed an effective heat rejection method for the hot side of thermoelectric modules to enhance the performance of a laboratory thermoelectric refrigerator and its solar power supply.The author first made a complete investigation on the natural convection of a solar-driven thermoelectric refrigeration system,and then compared the performance of three heat rejection alternatives,that is,single fan,double fan and natural chimney draft heat rejection.The experimental results showed that the natural chimney draft heat rejection can efficiently improved the performance of the system,and the expensive fan current can be used for cooling instead of wasting its power for heat rejection fans [13].Y.J.Dai developed a small solar PV/battery thermoelectric refrigerator to meet the needs for outdoor use (2–3persons).Two panels of solar cells available from Gofly GreenH.Xi et al./Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 11(2007)923–936926Energy Co.Shanghai,are used in the experiment.For each panel,the area is 0.4m 2,and the efficiency of energy conversion is 13%.The thermoelectric refrigerator consists of a thermoelectric cooling module,whose specific input power is 45W,and specific voltage is 12V.The lead acidtorage battery has a capacity of 100Ah,and can supply electric power for 24h without sunshine.It is reported that the unit could maintain the refrigeration temperature at 5–101C,and has a COP of about 0.3,furthermore,the performance of the system is strongly dependent on intensity of solar radiation and temperature difference between hot and cold sides for the thermoelectric module,etc [14,15].Prototype of this system is shown in Fig.2.For a solar PV/battery thermoelectric refrigeration system,the installation cost of the PV cells is too high for local to afford,and certain advanced technical knowledge may be required in order to run the systems.Furthermore,the refrigerator has to operate all the time,so the storage battery is necessary.Otherwise,the electric power must be needed.The storage battery generally costs about 30%of the whole solar-driven thermoelectric refrigeration.As a result,the solar PV/battery thermoelectric refrigeration system have existed for several decades,but have only been used in limited applications.Currently most of the PV/battery-thermoelectric-refrigerators are only used for vaccine storages and medical services,or for mobile refrigeration purposes,but along with the advent of new thermoelectric materials and the development of thermoelectric technology coupled with the decreasing cost of PV,the PV/battery thermoelectric refrigeration is expected to be in more great use.To make solar-driven thermoelectric refrigeration become a practical technology,a highly effective vacuum panel technology was originally developed to minimize heat leaksFig.2.Schematic of solar PV/battery thermoelectric refrigerator(prototype)[15].H.Xi et al./Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 11(2007)923–936927into the cold volume by Oceaneering Space Systems,Marlow Industries,and Owens-Corning.An advanced solar-driven thermoelectric refrigerator/freezer incorporated the ‘‘state-of-the-art’in thermoelectric refrigeration systems,vacuum panel insulation and phase change materials,was developed to use on NASA’s International Space Station in ter on,the above companies predicated that a thermally efficient ‘‘super-insulated’’cabinet using thermoelectric cooling and insulation systems,coupled with phase-change thermal storage materials,could be viable in the commercial market [16].Many recent efforts have focused on a ‘‘PV direct’’design,in which the PV/battery system was replaced by a PV/PCMs system in order to reduce the expense,efficiency loss,and mass associated with intermediate power conditioning and storage devices.PCMs has several attractive features,mainly the use of a heat that is stored in a material at a fixed temperature (i.e.melting temperature)and its high energy density.In this PV/PCMs thermoelectric refrigeration system,the PV panel was connected directly to the hot side of the thermoelectric cooler,and the PCMs was mounted in the cold side of the system to substitute as the storage battery in a PV/battery thermoelectric system for thermal energy storage.This kind of system is appropriate for thermoelectric cooling and refrigeration units which require precise temperature control.The schematic of a thermoelectric refrigeration system employing PCMs integrated directly with the thermoelectric cooler is shown in Fig.3[17].Johnson Space Center [16]reported that the PV/PCMs thermoelectric refrigerator had the advantage of simplicity and low cost,but the COP of the total system was only 0.04.University of Massachusetts Lowell (2002)carried out a Solar Engineering Program entitled Design of a Standalone Portable Solar-Powered Thermoelectric Vaccine Refrigerator using Phase Change Material as Thermal Backup to design a portable vaccine refrigerator for remote villages with no grid electricity [18].Recently more close attention was paid to the development of new PCMs [17]and numerical simulation of latent heat thermal energy storage systems [19–21].All these works will be great favor of the development of the PV/PCMs thermoelectric refrigeration system.Fig.3.schematic of a thermoelectric refrigeration system employing PCMs [17].H.Xi et al./Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 11(2007)923–936928H.Xi et al./Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews11(2007)923–936929 Compared to thermoelectric refrigerators and solar-driven thermoelectric refrigerators, fewer thermoelectric air-conditionings and solar-driven thermoelectric air-conditionings are reported.The service temperature is generally15–201C for a air-conditioner system,so the cooling capacity required is higher than a refrigerator system and energy removed from the cooling side has a low potential to convert to a useful energy.The reported solar-driven thermoelectric air-conditioners were all applied in the cases in which the cooling capacity required is low,or the expense is not the main consideration(such as military or aerospace applications).S.B.Riffat and Guoquan Qiu detailedly compared the performance of three types of domestic air conditioners,i.e.,the vapor compression air conditioner,the absorption air conditioner and the thermoelectric air conditioner.It was concluded that thermoelectric air conditioners have many advantages,such as being completely CFC free,lightweight,high reliability,silent operation,fast start-up,easy control and wide operating temperature (À40–701C).Furthermore,the operating mode of a thermoelectric air conditioner can easily be changed,from a cooling mode to a heating one,by reversing the direction of the electric current.The main drawbacks of thermoelectric air conditioners are low COPs and high capital cost[7].Excepting for having all above advantages and disadvantages,the solar-driven thermoelectric air conditioners can use renewable energy but higher capital cost because of the use of PV.Although the ultimate configuration of the solar-driven thermoelectric air conditioners is still developing,the open questions are being addressed and good progress has been made,but the cost is still the largest obstructive factor in the commercial success of the solar-driven thermoelectric air conditioners.Mei et al.first developed a solar-assisted thermoelectric technology for automobile air conditioning[22].Jorge Va zquez,et al.proposed a new concept for an active thermal wall based on thermoelectricity to improve the current practice of design and installation of air conditioning for enclosed spaces.The wall consists of two main components:the thermoelectric chains driven by conventional electric grid or photovoltaic cells,and the material where the thermoelectric chains are imbibed,as shown in Fig.4.The active thermal wall works like an active thermal insulator keeping the temperature of the enclosed space to the value required taking into account the temperature of the outer environment.This new wall is subsidiary to the classical air conditioning systems,can make better use of the energy needed.The performance of the wall was analyzed and the possibility of applications in a greenhouse and a student residence building in Spain was numerically evaluated[23].It was reported that the active thermal wall is possible to beused for the air-conditioning of a greenhouse in a sunny region of Spain used for growing tomatoes.Supposed the optimal conditions for growing tomatoes are fixed between 131C to 161C at night and from 221C to 261C during the day,and the maximum and minimum biological temperatures are 301C and 21C respectively and the optimum relative humidity is between 55%and 60%,the total surface of the required active thermal wall composed of eight thermoelectric pairs (Each thermoelectric chain has seven thermoelectric pairs)will be of 105.1m 2with a height of 1.5m approximately for a 540m 3greenhouse.The solar-driven thermoelectric air conditioners are usually used to provide indoor thermal comfort for people,recently a personal solar-driven thermoelectric cooling application for outdoor use was also reported.T.Hara et al.developed a solar-driven thermoelectric cooling headgear to cool the forehead and provide thermal comfort for people in cases of sitting,walking and bicycling.The schematic of this kind of headgear is shown in Fig.5.In this system,a thermoelectric element was set under the root of brim to cool the forehead by the cold side,and solar cells were mounted on the top and the brim of the headgear to drive the thermoelectric element.A large aluminum fin and an axial cooling fan were attached at the hot side of thermoelectric elements to be as heat sink.Three models with different purpose were developed.It was reported that the maximum temperature difference of 4–51C for thermal comfort can be provided when sixteen pieces of silicon crystal solar cell(0.6V max Â0.4A max ),which were 20Â60mm and weighed 2g each,and a 30Â30mm thermoelectric module(3A max Â14V max )were used.The minimum weight headgear of 135g can be made when three pieces of amorphous flexible paper-type solar cells(0.35V max Â1.5A max ),which were 90Â230mm and weighed 5g,a 40Â40mm thermoelectric module(4.0A max Â17.5V max )and a lighter electric fan were used [24].3.Solar-driven thermoelectric power generatorsThe thermoelectric devices can utilize solar thermal power and waste heat to generate electricity,and are friendly to the environment as no any refrigerant gas is used,so they have attracted increasing attention as a green and flexible source of electricity able to meet a wide range of power requirements.Furthermore,they have an obvious advantage when used in a cogeneration system which simultaneously provides electric power and useful heat (extracted from the cold side of the system),The development of thermoelectric powerFig.5.Schematic of solar-driven thermoelectric cooling headgear(prototype)[24].H.Xi et al./Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 11(2007)923–936930H.Xi et al./Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews11(2007)923–936931 generation is always the worldwide focal point for concern since1950s,in particular,after the energy crisis in1970s.Thermoelectric power generation,including low power generation and high power generation,has been described in numerous publications [6,25],a complete review on thermoelectric power generation is out of the space of this paper.A solar-driven thermoelectric power generator,in its simplest form,consists of a thermoelectric generator and a thermal collector.The solar heat is adsorbed by the thermal collector,and then concentrated and conducted over the thermoelectric generator by a fluid pipe.The thermal resistance of the thermoelectric generator causes a temperature difference that is proportional to the heatflux from the absorber of the thermal collector to thefluid.The electric power generated by the thermoelectric generator is proportional to the temperature difference.Chen(1996)made a thermodynamic analysis of solar-driven thermoelectric power generator based on a well-insulatedflat plate collector.A thermodynamic model including four irreversibilities is used to investigate the optimal performance of a solar-driven thermoelectric generator.The efficiency of the system is derived and taken as an objective function for optimization.Some important curves,such as the efficiency of the system versus the operating temperature of the solar collector,the reduced current,and the load resistance,are obtained[26].However,the well-insulatedflat plate collector,in practice, may be difficult to achieve.Gunter Rockendorf,et al.(2000)compared detailedly the performance of a solar-driven thermoelectric power generator combining a solar thermal collector with a thermoelectric generator,and a solar-driven PV-hybrid power generator combining the photovoltaic cells with a thermal collector,and simulated their behavior in typical domestic hot water systems.The solar-driven PV-hybrid power generator produces the heat and the electricity were produced in parallel,while the solar-driven thermoelectric power generator produced first,and then to transfer this heat to the thermal resistance of the thermoelectric generator where the heat was partly be transformed into electricity.So the thermal efficiency of the solar-driven thermoelectric power generator is low,and also the energy conversion factor is low.It was reported that the improved extrapolated solar-driven thermoelectric collector (5m2evacuated tubular collector)would lead to an electricity gain of50kWh/a and meet the improvement thermal demand with a solar fraction of53%,while the solar-driven PV-hybrid thermoelectric collector with the same collector area of5m2delivers around 450kWh/a and covers the thermal demand by24%which is nine-times higher than the electricity production of the advanced extrapolated thermoelectric collector.The energy conversion efficiency of a solar-driven thermoelectric power generator is only2.3–3.2%, but the energy conversion efficiency of PV-hybrid system can reach10%.Therefore,the authors concluded that the current solar-driven thermoelectric collectors will only be of interest for special applications and special purposes[27].The solar-driven PV-hybrid collector and radioisotope thermoelectric generators,where the thermal energy from the natural decay of radioisotope238Pu is used as stable heat source,are always used as power sources in aerospace program since1961,but the damage of solar cells caused by high incident solar heatflux and the environment problem in case of explosion of satellites and spacecrafts during the ascent limited the use of both technologies in near sun missions.Recently,CoSb3based-skutterudites was found to have much better thermoelectric performances than those of the established Si–Ge based alloys, making them very attractive in a variety of applications in thefield of space and waste heatrecovery [28].A skutterudites-based solar thermoelectric generator was proposed to replace the solar cell or the radioisotope thermoelectric generator currently used to power satellites and spacecrafts flying near to the sun [29,30].H.Scherrer,et al.presented a series of mathematical models based on the optimal control theory to assess electric performance of a skutterudites-based solar thermoelectric generator as a function of sun–spacecraft distance,and optimize its design parameters (such as dimensions,weight and so on.)when operating at a distance of 0.45a.u.from the sun,for 400W electrical output power and for a required load voltage of 30VDC.The simulation results indicated that the skutterudites-based solar thermoelectric generator offered attractive performance features as primary or auxiliary power source for spacecraft in near-Sun missions.The skutterudite materials are however still under development and need to be fully characterized in terms of performance and long life operation [29,30].During the last decade,a new roof design concept termed ‘‘The Thermoelectric Roof Solar Collector (TE-RSC)’’was proposed by Building Scientific Research Center (BSRC)to reduce roof heat gain and improve indoor thermal comfort.TE-RSC combines the advantages of roof solar collector and thermoelectrics to act as a power generator [31].The schematic of TE-RSC is shown in Fig.6.The main components of the TE-RSC are a transparent glass,air gap,a copper plate,thermoelectric modules and a rectangular fin heat sink.The incident solar radiation heats the copper plate to create a temperature difference between the TE modules,which subsequently can generate a direct current.This resulted current was used to run a fan for cooling the TE and improving the indoor thermal conditions.The lab-scale investigation results indicated that that this new roof design with 0.525m 2surface area and 10thermoelectric modules,can generate about 1.2W under solar radiation intensity of about 800W/m 2at 30–351Cambient temperature.The corresponding air velocity generated by the ventilation fan was about 1.7m/s [31].The subsequent simulation results using real house configuration showed that a TE-RSC unit of 0.0525m 2surface area could generate about 9W under 972W/m 2solar radiation and 351C ambient temperature.The induced air change rate varied between 20and 45ACH and the corresponding ceiling heat transfer rate reduction is about 3–5W/m 2.The annual electrical energy saving was about 362kWh.Fig.6.Schematic of the thermoelectric roof solar collector (TE-RSC)[31].H.Xi et al./Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 11(2007)923–936932。
