fallacies

Stereotypes about people (“pilot students are handsome," "grad students are nerdy," etc.) are common examples of hasty generalization.
Example
"My roommate said her philosophy class was hard, and the one I'm in is hard, too. All philosophy classes must be hard!"
Examples
President Jones raised taxes, and then the rate of violent crime went up. Jones is responsible for the rise in crime.
The increase in taxes might or might not be one factor in the rising crime rates, but the argument hasn't shown us that one caused the other.
for example, if I register for a class, and my name later appears on the roll, it's true that the first event caused the one that came later.
But sometimes two events that seem related in time aren't really related as cause and effect. That is, correlation isn't the same thing as causation.

formal fallacy
（形式谬误）
informal fallacy
（非形式谬误）
deductive fallacy
（演绎谬论） inductive fallacy
（归纳谬论）
Faulty generalizations
Formal fallacies
• A formal fallacy is a pattern of reasoning (推理形式) that is always wrong. This is due to a flaw in the logical structure of the argument which renders the argument invalid. • 形式谬误是由于违反了思维形式的有效性， 即由于推理形式不正确而产生的谬误。
Hasty generalization
• Hasty generalization is an informal fallacy of faulty generalization by reaching an inductive generalization based on insufficient evidence—essentially making a hasty conclusion without considering all of the variables. • For example, a person travels through a town for the first time and sees 10 people, all of them are children, then he conclude that there are no adult residents in the town.

常见逻辑谬误中英对照F a l l a c y集团档案编码：[YTTR-YTPT28-YTNTL98-UYTYNN08]分散注意力的谬误（F a l l a c i e s o f D i s t r a c t i o n）两难推理（False Dilemma）错谬：为多于一个答案的问题提供不足（通常两个）的选择，即是隐藏了一些选择，最典型的表现是非黑即白观点。

例子：萨达姆是邪恶的，所以美军是正义之师。

解释：除正邪之争外，还有邪邪之争及许多难分正邪的纷争，所以不能单以萨达姆邪恶便认定美军正义。

诉诸无知（From Ignorance）错谬：因为不能否定，所以必然肯定，反之亦然。

例子：没有人能证明鬼不存在，那么鬼肯定存在。

解释：总有些事是既不能否定，亦不能肯定的。

除了肯定和否定，我们还可以存疑吧！滑坡谬误（Slippery Slope）错谬：不合理使用连串因果关系。

例子：迟到的学生要判死刑。

因为迟到是不用功的表现；将来工作也不勤力；不勤力导致公司损失；公司损失就会倒闭；公司倒闭会使人失业；失业造成家庭问题；家庭问题导致自杀率上升，为了防止自杀率上升，我们应判迟到的学生死刑。

解释：滑坡谬误中假定了连串“可能性”为“必然性”。

比方说，迟到是否“必然”是不用功的表现？将来工作又是否“必然”不勤力？答案可想而知。

例子虽然夸张，但其实许多时候大家亦会犯相同错误而不自知。

复合问题（Complex Question）错谬：一条问题内包含两个无关的重点。

例子：你还有没有干那非法勾当？（你有干非法勾当吗？是否还有继续？）解释：简单的一句提问，其实隐藏了两个问题。

你给予其中一条问题的答案，并不一定和另外一条的一样。

例如你有干非法勾当，但未必等于你还有继续。

诉诸其他支持（Appeals to Motives in Place of Support）诉诸势力（Appeal to Force）错谬：以势力服人。

例子：若你不想被解雇，你必须认同公司的制度。

Ken broke the vase, but he would not admit it. Anyway, its just like him. The little coward.
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False Cause/ Post Hoc
A fallacy that arises from treating as the cause of something that which is not really its cause.
© TAN Yoo Guan and Mark NOWACKI 10
Red Herring aka Smoke Screen
A fallacy that occurs when the arguer diverts the attention of the listener by arguing for or addressing a different issue.
Example:
Harvard President Derek Bok, justifying a tuition hike: “If you think education is expensive, try ignorance.”
© TAN Yoo Guan and Mark NOWACKI 11
© TAN Yoo Guan and Mark NOWACKI 9
Example
The Japanese, who eat a lot of fish, have longer average life expectancy than any other nation. Developed nations should therefore encourage their citizens to increase their consumption of fish so that on average their citizens live longer.