第二章语言学

语言学概论名词解释第二章语音鼻化元音：发音时软腭小舌下垂，打开鼻腔通道，呼出的气流不仅从口腔，而且也从鼻腔通过，形成两个共鸣腔，发出的元音就会带上鼻音色彩，这种利用口腔和鼻腔两个共鸣腔，发出的元音叫“鼻化元音”。

发音部位：是发辅音时发音器官形成阻碍的部位。

发音方法：是指在发辅音时形成阻碍和克服阻碍的方式以及其他方面的变化。

半元音：又叫无擦通音，发音的持阻阶段口腔通道只形成很小的阻碍，气流通过时，只有极轻微的摩擦，就产生半元音。

清辅音：是指发音时声带不振动的辅音。

浊辅音：是指发音时声带振动的辅音。

送气音：是指在除阻时立即送出一股气流来，同时喉部或其他部位发生很轻微的摩擦，这种现象叫“送气”，有送气的辅音叫做送气音。

音位的条件变体：是指出现的语音环境各不相同而又同属一个音位的两个或几个音素。

音位的自由变体：是指可以在同一环境里出现而又不能区别意义的两个或几个音素。

区别特征：具有区别音位作用的语音特征。

音节：是听觉上最自然、也就是最容易分辨的最小语音单位，也是音位和音位组合构成的最小的语音结构单位。

开音节：是指以元音收尾的音节。

闭音节：是指以辅音收尾的音节。

声调：是指音节中具有区别意义作用的音高变化。

四呼：是汉语的韵母的按韵头的不同分出的四种类别。

凡没有韵头而韵腹又不是【i】【u】【y】的韵母叫“开口呼：，凡韵头或韵腹是【i】的叫”齐齿呼“，凡韵头或韵腹是【u】的叫”合口呼”，凡韵头或韵腹是【y】的叫“撮口呼”。

二合元音：是指由两个元音组合而成的复元音。

三合元音：是指由三个元音组合而成的复元音。

前响二合元音：是指前一个元音听起来比较响的二合元音。

后响二合元音：是指后一个元音听起来比较响的二合元音。

顺同化:是指由前面的音影响后面的音而产生的同化。

逆同化：是指由后面的音影响前面的音而产生的同化。

时位：是指语音中利用长短音起区别意义作用的非音质音位。

声调：音节所具有的能区别词义或语素义的音高变化叫做声调，有声调的语言叫做声调语言。

第二章语言是符号系统三．问答题1．举例说明什么是符号，符号由哪些因素构成？符号是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号、标记。

如灯光和火光叫做视觉符号；鼓声和锣声叫做听觉符号。

符号包括形式和意义两个方面的要素。

2．为什么说语言是一种符号系统？语言是一种符号，因为它能代表或指称现实现象。

语言的符号不是互不相干的一盘散沙，而是有组织、有条理的系统。

语言系统是由音位、语素、词、词组、句子等结构单位组成的一种层级体系。

3．人类选择语音作为语言的形式，同其它形式相比，语音形式有什么优点？方便；容量大；效果好。

4．为什么说语言符号的形式和意义之间没有本质联系？语言的音和义的结合是任意的，它们之间没有必然的、本质的、因果联系。

5．同样表示"父亲"、"母亲"，汉语用"bàba"、"māmɑ"表示，英语用"father"、"mother"表示。

为什么会有这样的差别呢？语言符号的最大特点是它的音与义的结合是任意的，由社会约定俗成。

6．为什么说语言符号在所有符号中是最重要、最复杂的一种？语言是一种分层装置，这种装置靠组合和替换来运转。

这个装置的最重要的特点就是分层。

语言中的各种单位相互间紧密联系，彼此依存，组成一个系统。

语言系统是由音位、语素、词、词组、句子等结构单位组成的一种层级体系。

整个装置的奥妙就在于以少数有规则地组成多数，一级级翻番增量，这样连跳三级以后，就从几十扩大到无穷，足以表现任何概念。

7．语言符号的任意性是不是说我们可以任意用不同的语音表示某一具体事物，比如把"xiézi" （鞋子）说成"wàzi"（袜子），把"happy"（幸福）说成"sad"（悲伤）？语言符号的音义关系是由社会约定的，用什么样的“音”去表达什么样的“义”，人们说不出道理，完全由社会约定，因而这种音义的任意性关系又叫约定性。

第二章音系学1．语言的声音媒介语言的形式有声音和文字。

在这两种媒介中，声音是语言最基本的媒介，是第一性的。

这是因为在语言的发展过程中，声音媒介早于文字。

文字是对声音的记录。

在日常交际中，大量信息是通过口头交际来完成的，只有在无法进行口头交际的情况下人们才使用文字形式。

除此之外，人们是通过声音媒介来习得自己的母语的。

2. 语音学2．1什么是语音学语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

语音学有三个分支：发声语音学、听觉语音学和声学语音学。

它们各有自己的侧重点但又互有联系。

发声语音学主要研究语言使用者是如何使用发音器官发出语音，并对所发出的音进行分类。

听觉语音学主要是从受话人的角度来研究语音，即语音是如何被受话人感知和理解的。

声学语音学主要研究语音的物理特性。

通过对语音声波的研究，声学语音学家得出了一些重要的结论。

最为重要的结论，所说出的这些通常被认为是同一个话语，如果从声音的物理特性上去分析，其实它们的声波并不相同，只是由于它们之间存在的差异太小，是人耳所不能辨别的。

如果它们的声波相同，这只是一种巧合。

因此，语音的等同只是一种理论上的理想。

2．2发音器官人类的发音器官存在于咽腔、口腔和鼻腔腔内。

咽腔内最重要的发音器官是位于喉头的声带，发音时声带在气流的冲击下发生颤动决定了声音的浊音化（voicing）。

浊音化是所有元音以及部分辅音，如[b],[g],[m]等所具有的特性。

声带不发生颤动所发出的音是清音，如[t],[k],[f]等。

声带颤动的频率决定了声音的高低。

口腔中发音器官最多，有舌头、小舌、软腭、硬腭、齿龈隆骨、牙齿和嘴唇。

其中舌头是最灵活、最重要的发音器官。

发音时，来自肺部的气流在口腔中受到不同的阻碍，从而发出不同的音。

鼻腔和口腔相通。

发音时软腭后移关闭鼻腔，气流只能从口腔通过，所发出的音没有鼻音化。

但当鼻腔通道打开，允许气流从鼻腔通过，所发出来的音便是鼻音。

2．3音标——宽式和严式标音法音标是在国际上被广为接受的一套对语音进行标音的标准符号体系。

《语言学概论》第二章：语言是符号系统本章要注意语言是符号、语言符号的任意性特点、语言的层级体系三大要点。

第一节：语言符号的性质和特点一、什么是符号1．符号的含义：符号就是由一定的形式构成的表示一定意义的记号或标记，包括形式和意义两个方面，其作用是指称现实现象。

符号是人们用来指代某种事物的标记。

2．符号的构成：符号是由形式和意义两个部分构成的结合体。

形式就是符号外在的形状、结构，它是以某种物质的方式存在的，或者是声音，或者是线条，或者是色彩，等等。

意义就是符号所代表的具体内容，任何一个符号，都有一定的意义。

形式和意义在一定的符号系统中是密不可分的统一体，不能割裂二者之间的关系。

二、语言符号及其特点1．语言符号：从本质上看，语言也是一种符号，也有形式和意义两个方面，具有符号的一切特点。

语言符号是由声音形式和意义内容构成，语言符号是音与义相结合的统一体，是说的和听的。

语言符号的音义结合是社会约定俗成的。

同一般符号一样，用什么样的声音形式代表什么样的一样，是使用语言的社会集团的成员共同约定的，大家共同遵守。

2．语言符号又不同于一般符号。

可从以下几个方面认识理解，首先，语言符号是声音和意义的结合体，是说的和听的；其次，一般符号的构成比较简单，而语言符号却是非常复杂的，可分不同的层级；再次，一般符号由于构造简单，因而只能表达有限的内容，而且这种内容是简单而固定的，语言符号则可以表达丰富多彩的意义；最后，语言符号具有以少驭多的生成机制，具有生成新的结构的能力，一般符号表达的意义是固定的，因而不能生成新的意义。

3．语言符号的特点：语言符号具有任意性和线条性的特点，其中重点理解任意性特点。

（1）所谓任意性，是指语言的声音形式和意义内容之间的联系是任意的，由社会约定俗成的，没有必然的、本质的联系。

什么样的声音表达什么样的意义，什么样的意义由什么样的声音表达，是由社会全体成员共同约定并共同遵守的。

为什么人类会有这样多形形色色的语言？这也只能从语言符号的声音和意义联系的任意性角度来解释。

第二章语言是符号系统第一节语言的符号性质语言和说话说话的行为和说出的话都属于语言现象。

语言学研究的“语言”指由有限的材料和有限的规则组成的系统，而不是指具体的话语。

语言又是社会的规约，对每个语言使用者都具有强制性。

语言与符号符号包含形式和意义两个方面。

符号的形式和意义是不可分离的，二者的结合才构成符号，没有无意义的符号形式。

符号的形式和意义之间没有本质上的，自然属性上的必然联系。

在这一点上符号和隐含某种信息的自然征候不同。

一种可感知的物质形式，它的符号功能的取得以及具有什么样的符号意义，全在于符号使用者的约定，不在于符号形式载体的自然属性。

符号是社会的产物，它要经过人们的约定，赋予一定的价值，才能起到符号的作用。

语言符号的第一性的形式是人类发出的声音。

语言符号的意义是对它所指代的一类心理现实的概括。

这首先设计心理现实和客观现实的关系，其次涉及语言符号意义的概括性。

客观现实是指四维空间中外在于人的所有存在：当下。

历史上所有的人和物、事物、现象、以及他们的相互关系及变化。

心理现实是指客观现实经过人的认知储存在人的大脑中的各种知识信息。

（这些信息主要来自于：①人对客观现实的直接感知，被大脑接受储存起来。

②人对语言文字的接收处理。

（间接获得。

）心理现实要受到生理心理机制、生存环境和认知水平的制约。

人的直接感知和大脑的接收处理而获得的直觉性心理现实为语言符号的最初编码提供了初步的材料。

这些心理现实再经过大脑进一步的“概括”、并经过社会的约定与特定的语音形式相联系，归类切分为一个个离散的意义。

语言符号的意义是对人们通过感知而接收到的具体多样的心理现实现象的概括。

符号的意义是认识活动的成果，代表一个一般的概念。

语言符号的意义是一般的，概括的东西；既能指代任何具体的个体（“我家的房子”：村头那所新盖的房子”），也能指概括程度不同的类（“所有的房子”“北京的房子”“北京的旧房子”）语言符号由音和义结合而成。

语言符号的音和义是社会约定的关系，叫做语言符号的任意性。

Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1. The phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）. 2．What is phonetics?什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced inspeech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the InternationalPhonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters aretaken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplaces to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of theair can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which theair passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstructionof the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air streamfrom the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English,[☐ ♌ ♦ ♎  ♑] are stops and [❍ ⏹ ☠]are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream fromthe lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the twoarticulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but notcloses enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English,[♐   ❆ ♦  ☞ ✞ ♒] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close toanother, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that aturbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes[♦ ❑ ].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partiallyblocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting itescape at one or both sides of the blockage. [●] is the only lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upperfront teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and theupper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and thealveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the backof the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curledback so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with theback of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and thehard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the softpalate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and theuvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end ofthe velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and thewalls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal foldspushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearingon the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally,three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-highand mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of lip rounding orspreading.4. The position of the soft palate –raised for oral vowels, and lowered forvowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actualvowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[♓], CV2[♏], CV3[☪], CV4[♋], CV5[ ], CV6[ ], CV7[☐],CV8[◆].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for agive position: CV9 – CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want toknow, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.V owel glides: V owels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[♓] high front tense unrounded vowel[◆] high back lax rounded vowel[☜] central lax unrounded vowel[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referredto as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these soundscapable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latterwas meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutestshades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. 2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie anddie are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/.By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which soundsubstitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference inmeaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. inEnglish, when the phoneme /☐/ occurs at the beginning of the word like peak/☐♓/, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when /☐/ occurs in theword like speak /♦☐♓/, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Boththe aspirated [☐♒] in peak and the unaspirated [☐=] in speak have the same phonemicfunction, i.e. they are both heard and identified as /☐/ and not as /♌/; they are bothallophones of the phoneme /☐/.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structuralchange in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned ortriggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a precedingsound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspectsto it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; aset of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies theenvironment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicatesthe position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformedinto the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/. It shouldn’t be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ or / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [ ] is used just before the syllable it relates to.。

语言学概论（00541）知识点汇总第二章语言的物质载体——语音（一）语音的物理属性★★★★1.语音：人的发音器官发出的，用于人与人之间交际并表达一定意义的声音2.语音物理性质四要素：音高、音强、音长、音色3.音高：声音的高低，决定于发音体振动的频率。

决定汉语声调的是（音高）4.音强：声音的强弱，它与发音体振动幅度的大小有关5.音长：声音的长短，它决定于发音体振动时间的长短6.音色/音质：声音的特色，是区别意义的最重要的要素，是一个声音区别于其他声音的基本特征7.对音质成分进行描写和分类的基本概念是（元音、辅音）8.影响音色的因素：发音体不同、发音方法不同、共鸣器不同（二）语音的生理属性★9.发音器官：肺——动力源；声带——发音体；声腔——共鸣器（口鼻咽喉）10.主动发音器官是（嘴唇、舌头、软腭、小舌、下腭），被动发音器官是（牙齿、齿龈、硬腭）等（三）语音的社会属性★★★11.决定语音与其他声音之不同、风声、雨声、喷嚏声、咳嗽声均不具有的、本质属性是（社会属性）12.语音所代表的意义是由这种语言的全体社会成员约定俗成的，这反映了语音的（社会性质）（四）语音的表现形式★★1.音节：语音结构的基本单位，也是人能够自然感到的最小语音片段。

一般来说，一个汉字就代表一个音节，但普通话中的儿化音节是用两个汉字来代表一个音节。

2.音位：一个语音系统中能够区别意义的最小的语音单位，也就是按语音的辨义作用归纳出的音类。

3.音素：从音色/音质角度划分出来的最小的语音单位。

可分为两大类：元音和辅音。

4.元音音素∶发音时，气流振动声带，在口腔、咽头不受阻碍而形成的音。

5.辅音音素：气流竞购口腔或咽头受阻碍而形成的音素。

6.元音和辅音最主要的区别：受阻与否。

7.音节“窗chuāng”的音素有（4）个8.声母不等于辅音，韵母不等于元音。

（五）语音的记录方式★1.标写语音的书面符号叫做（音标）2.亚，鸦去声；之，音枝；采用的注音方法是（直音法）3.国际音标：用来记录各民族语言的语音，目前是国际上最通用的记音工具。