建筑项目招投标外文翻译外文文献英文文献

建筑造价中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)The Cost of Building Structure1. IntroductionThe art of architectural design was characterized as one of dealing comprehensively with a complex set of physical and nonphysical design determinants. Structural considerations were cast as important physical determinants that should be dealt with in a hierarchical fashion if they are to have a significant impact on spatial organization and environmental control design thinking.The economical aspect of building represents a nonphysical structural consideration that, in final analysis, must also be considered important. Cost considerations are in certain ways a constraint to creative design. But this need not beso. If something is known of the relationship between structural and constructive design options and their cost of implementation, it is reasonable to believe that creativity can be enhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors’ observation that most enhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors’observation that most creative design innovations succeed under competitive bidding and not because of unusual owner affluence as the few publicized cases of extravagance might lead one to believe. One could even say that a designer who is truly creative will produce architectural excellence within the constraints of economy. Especially today, we find that there is a need to recognize that elegance and economy can become synonymous concepts.Therefore, in this chapter we will set forth a brief explanation of the parameters of cost analysis and the means by which designers may evaluate the overall economic implications of their structural and architectural design thinking.The cost of structure alone can be measured relative to the total cost of building construction. Or, since the total construction cost is but a part of a total project cost, one could include additional consideration for land(10～20percent),finance and interest(100～200 percent),taxes and maintenance costs (on the order of20 percent).But a discussion of these so-called architectural costs is beyond the scope of this book, and we will focus on the cost of construction only.On the average, purely structural costs account for about 25 percent of total construction costs, This is so because it has been traditional to discriminate between purely structural and other so-called architectural costs of construction. Thus, in tradition we find that architectural costs have been taken to be those that are not necessary for the structural strength and physical integrity of a building design.“Essential services”forms a third construction cost category and refers to the provision of mechanical and electrical equipment and other service systems. On the average, these service costs account for some 15 to 30 percent of the total construction cost, depending on the type of building. Mechanical and electrical refers to the cost of providing for air-conditioning equipment and he means on air distribution as well as other services, such as plumbing, communications, and electrical light and power.The salient point is that this breakdown of costs suggests that, up to now, an average of about 45 to 60 percent of the total cost of constructing a typical design solution could be considered as architectural. But this picture is rapidly changing.With high interest costs and a scarcity of capital, client groups are demanding leaner designs. Therefore, one may conclude that there are two approaches the designer may take towards influencing the construction cost of building.The first approach to cost efficiency is to consider that wherever architectural and structural solutions can be achieved simultaneously, a potential for economy is evident. Since current trends indicate a reluctance to allocate large portions of a construction budget to purely architectural costs, this approach seems a logical necessity. But, even where money is available, any use of structure to play a basic architectural role will allow the nonstructural budget to be applied to fulfill other architectural needs that might normally have to be applied to fulfill other architectural needs that might normally have to be cut back. The second approach achieves economy through an integration of service and structural subsystems to round out one’s effort to produce a total architectural solution to a building design problem.The final pricing of a project by the constructor or contractor usually takes a different form. The costs are broken down into (1) cost of materials brought to the site, (2)cost of labor involved in every phase of the construction process, (3)cost of equipment purchased or rented for the project, (4)cost of management and overhead, and(5) profit. The architect or engineer seldom follows such an accurate path but should perhaps keep in mind how the actual cost of a structure is finally priced and made up.Thus, the percent averages stated above are obviously crude, but they can suffice to introduce the nature of the cost picture. The following sections will discuss the range of these averages and then proceed to a discussion of square footage costs and volume-based estimates for use in rough approximation of the cost of building a structural system.2. Percentage EstimatesThe type of building project may indicate the range of percentages that can be allocated to structural and other costs. As might be expected, highly decorative or symbolic buildings would normally demand the lowest percentage of structural costs as compared to total construction cost. In this case the structural costs might drop to 10～15percent of the total building cost because more money is allocated to the so-called architectural costs. Once again this implies that the symbolic components are conceived independent of basic structural requirements. However, where structure and symbolism are more-or-less synthesized, as with a church or Cathedral, thestructural system cost can be expected to be somewhat higher, say, 15and20 percent (or more).At the other end of the cost scale are the very simple and nonsymbolic industrial buildings, such as warehouses and garages. In these cases, the nonstructural systems, such as interior partition walls and ceilings, as will as mechanical systems, are normally minimal, as is decoration, and therefore the structural costs can account for60 to 70 percent, even 80 percent of the total cost of construction.Buildings such as medium-rise office and apartment buildings(5～10 stories)occupy the median position on a cost scale at about 25 percent for structure. Low and short-span buildings for commerce and housing, say, of three or four stories and with spans of some 20 or 30 ft and simple erection requirements, will yield structural costs of 15～20 percent of total building cost.Special-performance buildings, such as laboratories and hospitals, represent another category. They can require long spans and a more than average portion of the total costs will be allocated to services (i.e., 30～50 percent), with about 20 percent going for the purely structural costs. Tall office building (15 stories or more) and/or long-span buildings (say, 50 to 60 ft) can require a higher percentage for structural costs (about 30to 35percent of the total construction costs),with about 30 to 40 percent allocated to services.In my case, these percentages are typical and can be considered as a measure of average efficiency in design of buildings. For example, if a low, short-span and nonmonumental building were to be bid at 30 percent for the structure alone, one could assume that the structural design may be comparatively uneconomical. On the other hand, the architect should be aware of the confusing fact that economical bids depend on the practical ability of both the designer and the contractor to interpret the design and construction requirements so that a low bid will ensue. Progress in structural design is often limited more by the designer’s or contractor’slack of experience, imagination, and absence of communication than by the idea of the design. If a contractor is uncertain, he will add costs to hedge the risk he will be taking. It is for this reason that both the architect and the engineer should be well-versed in the area of construction potentials if innovative designs ate to be competitively bid. At the least the architect must be capable of working closely with imaginative structural engineers, contractors and even fabricators wherever possible even if the architecture is very ordinary. Efficiency always requires knowledge and above all imagination, andthese are essential when designs are unfamiliar.The foregoing percentages can be helpful in approximating total construction costs if the assumption is made that structural design is at least of average (of typical) efficiency. For example, if a total office building construction cost budget is ﹩5,000,000,and 25 percent is the “standard”to be used for structure, a projected structural system should cost no more than ﹩1,250,000.If a very efficient design were realized, say, at 80 percent of what would be given by the “average” efficient design estimate stated above the savings,(20 percent),would then be﹩250,000 or 5 percent of total construction costs ﹩5,000,000.If the ﹩5,000,000 figure is committed, then the savings of ﹩250,000 could be applied to expand the budget for “other” costs.All this suggests that creative integration of structural (and mechanical and electrical) design with the total architectural design concept can result in either a reduction in purely construction design concept can result in either a reduction in purely construction costs or more architecture for the same cost. Thus, the degree of success possible depends on knowledge, cleverness, and insightful collaboration of the designers and contractors.The above discussion is only meant to give the reader an overall perspective on total construction costs. The following sections will now furnish the means for estimating the cost of structure alone. Two alternative means will be provided for making an approximate structural cost estimate: one on a square foot of building basis, and another on volumes of structural materials used. Such costs can then be used to get a rough idea of total cost by referring to the “standards” for efficient design given above. At best, this will be a crude measure, but it is hoped that the reader will find that it makes him somewhat familiar with the type of real economic problems that responsible designers must deal with. At the least, this capability will be useful in comparing alternative systems for the purpose of determining their relative cost efficiency.3. Square-foot EstimatingAs before, it is possible to empirically determine a “standard” per-square-foot cost factor based on the average of costs for similar construction at a given place and time. more-or-less efficient designs are possible, depending on the ability of the designer and contractor to use materials and labor efficiently, and vary from the average.The range of square-foot costs for “normal” structural systems is ﹩10 to ﹩16psf. For example, typical office buildings average between ﹩12 and ﹩16 psf, and apartment-type structures range from ﹩10 to ﹩14.In each case, the lower part of the range refers to short spans and low buildings, whereas the upper portion refers to longer spans and moderately tall buildings.Ordinary industrial structures are simple and normally produce square-foot costs ranging from ﹩10 to ﹩14,as with the more typical apartment building. Although the spans for industrial structures are generally longer than those for apartment buildings, and the loads heavier, they commonly have fewer complexities as well as fewer interior walls, partitions, ceiling requirements, and they are not tall. In other words, simplicity of design and erection can offset the additional cost for longer span lengths and heavier loads in industrial buildings.Of course there are exceptions to these averages. The limits of variation depend on a system’s complexity, span length over “normal” and special loading or foundation conditions. For example, the Crown Zellerbach high-rise bank and office building in San Francisco is an exception, since its structural costs were unusually high. However, in this case, the use of 60 ft steel spans and free-standing columns at the bottom, which carry the considerable earthquake loading, as well as the special foundation associated with the poor San Francisco soil conditions, contributed to the exceptionally high costs. The design was also unusual for its time and a decision had been made to allow higher than normal costs for all aspects of the building to achieve open spaces and for both function and symbolic reasons. Hence the proportion of structural to total cost probably remained similar to ordinary buildings.The effect of spans longer than normal can be further illustrated. The “usual” floor span range is as follows: for apartment buildings,16 to 25 ft; for office buildings,20 to 30 ft; for industrial buildings,25 to 30 ft loaded heavily at 200 to 300 psf; and garage-type structures span,50 to 60 ft, carrying relatively light(50～75 psf) loads(i.e., similar to those for apartment and office structures).where these spans are doubled, the structural costs can be expected to rise about 20 to 30 percent.To increased loading in the case of industrial buildings offers another insight into the dependency of cost estimates on “usual” standards. If the loading in an industrial building were to be increased to 500psf(i.e., two or three times), the additional structural cost would be on the order of another 20 to 30 percent.The reference in the above cases is for floor systems. For roofs using efficient orthotropic (flat) systems, contemporary limits for economical design appear to be onthe order of 150 ft, whether of steel or prestressed concrete. Although space- frames are often used for steel or prestressed concrete. Although space-frames are often used for steel spans over 150 ft the fabrication costs begin to raise considerably.At any rate, it should be recognized that very long-span subsystems are special cases and can in themselves have a great or small effect on is added, structural costs for special buildings can vary greatly from design to design. The more special the form, themore that design knowledge and creativity, as well as construction skill, will determine the potential for achieving cost efficiency.4. Volume-Based EstimatesWhen more accuracy is desired, estimates of costs can be based on the volume of materials used to do a job. At first glance it might seem that the architect would be ill equipped to estimate the volume of material required in construction with any accuracy, and much less speed. But it is possible, with a moderate learning effort, to achieve some capability for making such estimates.V olume-based estimates are given by assigning in-place value to the pounds or tons of steel, or the cubic yards of reinforced or prestressed concrete required to build a structural system. For such a preliminary estimate, one does not need to itemize detailed costs. For example, in-place concrete costs include the cost of forming, falsework, reinforcing steel, labor, and overhead. Steel includes fabrication and erection of components.Costs of structural steel as measured by weight range from ﹩0.50 to ﹩0.70 per pound in place for building construction. For low-rise buildings, one can use stock wide-flange structural members that require minimum fabrication, and the cost could be as bow as ﹩0.50 per pound. More complicated systems requiring much cutting and welding(such as a complicated steel truss or space-frame design) can go to ﹩0.70 per pound and beyond. For standard tall building designs (say, exceeding 20 stories),there would typically be about 20 to 30 pounds of steel/psf, which one should wish not to exceed. A design calling for under 20 psf would require a great deal of ingenuity and the careful integration of structural and architectural components and would be a real accomplishment.Concrete costs are volumetric and should range from an in-place low of ﹩150 per cu yd for very simple reinforced concrete work to ﹩300 per cu yd for expensive small quantity precast and prestressed work. This large range is due to the fact that the contributing variables are more complicated, depending upon the shape of the precisecomponents, the erection problems, and the total quantity produced.Form work is generally the controlling factor for any cast-in-place concrete work. Therefore, to achieve a cost of ﹩150 per cu yd, only the simplest of systems can be used, such as flat slabs that require little cutting and much reuse of forms. Where any beams are introduced that require special forms and difficulty in placement of concrete and steel bars, the range begins at ﹩180 per cu yd and goes up to ﹩300.Since, in a developed country, high labor costs account for high forming costs, this results in pressure to use the simplest and most repetitive of systems to keep costs down. It become rewarding to consider the possibility of mass-produced precast and prestressed components, which may bring a saving in costs and\or construction completion time. The latter results in savings due to lower construction financing costs for the contractor plus quicker earnings for the owner.To summarize, the range of cost per cubic yard of standard types of poured-in-place concrete work will average from $150 to $250, the minimum being for simple reinforced work and the maximum for moderately complicated post tensioned work. This range is large and any estimate that ignores the effect of variables above will be commensurately inaccurate.5.SummaryThe estimate and economical design of structure building are important and essential work, which should be valued by all architects and engineers and others. Better you do it, more profit you will receive from it!建筑结构的成本1.前言众所周知，建筑物的结构设计是一个相当复杂的过程，其中既包含处理很多物质因素，又考虑诸多非物质方面的因素。

Building engineering biddingAbstract: Nowadays in the engineering construction industry, the market which is characteristic for project bidding, has formed. The construction companies,which want to create good benefits, have to control their cost and improve management to enhance the capacity of adapting and competing in this market. This article focuses on how to decrease cost and increase income so as to control the construction cost effectively. bidding documents should be well formulated ,which is important to a successful bidding and direct influence the success or failure of the bidding the success or failure of the bidding for the survival and development of enterprise has a direct impact, so we have a high quality, improve the bid documents of the unit, prevent invalid and successful pass mark appear, become a research topic.key : bidding drawbacks of unfair competition countermeasuresBidding is a form of project transactions, project bidding process is to determine the successful bidder and the cost of the process and the price of the project, project bidding work of a very important link, do a good job bidding to determine the price, we can effectively control construction costs, and create a fair and equitable market environment, create orderly competition mechanism. Bidding in construction activities, construction enterprises in order to tender invincible works to be successful, And from the contracted projects profitable, it needs to integrate various subjective and objective conditions, the tender research strategy determine tender. Tender bidding strategy, including pricing strategies and skills. All of the strategies and skills from the numerous contractors bidding on the accumulated experience and objective understanding of the law and of the actual situation understanding, but also with the contractor's decision-making ability and courage are closely related.Bidding documents is the general programme and play book of the bidding activity through the process of bidding. The bidding documents willspecify that How to conduct each bidding work, how to dispatch bidding documents, the requirements for tenderer,how to rate and decide bidding and the procedures of bidding. Therefore, the personnel who is responsible for prepare bidding documents should first have a general view of the bidding work, include all the requirements and arrangements into the bidding documents. If meet problems that have not been considered previously, then resolve them one by one during the preparation. The course of bidding documents preparation is also the course of making bidding scheme .In another respect, bidding documents is also the legal instruments. Besides relevant law and rules, the bidding documents are the common game rules that bidder,bidding agent and tenderer should subject to through the bidding. Bidding documents are the legal instruments that all the three bidding related parties should subject to, have legal force, therefore, the bidding documents -making personnel required to have the awareness and quality of legal in order to reflect the fair, just and legal requirement in the bidding documents.In building engineering bidding law enforcement and the practice of project construction supervision system on standardizing China's construction market, improve the construction quality and played an active role. But in the process of implementing exist some disadvantages, needs to perfect, enrich and improve. This project bidding documents in accordance with the bidding law of the People's Republic of China for bidders, bidding regulation, enterprise strictly, put forward to bidders professional requirements of project profile was illustrated. Nowadays in the engineering construction industry, the market which is characteristic for project bidding, has formed. The construction companies,which want to create good benefits, have to control their cost and improve management to enhance the capacity of adapting and competing in this market. This article focuses on how to decrease cost and increase income so as to control the construction cost effectively.In building engineering bidding law enforcement and the practice of project construction supervision system on standardizing China'sconstruction market, improve the construction quality and played an active role. But in the process of implementing exist some disadvantages, needs to perfect, enrich and improve. This project bidding documents in accordance with the bidding law of the People's Republic of China for bidders, bidding regulation, enterprise strictly, put forward to bidders professional requirements of project profile was illustrated. The practice of project bidding purpose is to market competition of openness, fairness and justice. However, due to the construction market development is not standard, management system and the experience of inadequate, architectural engineering bidding in concrete operation exist in ACTS of unfair competition, and some drawbacks. This obviously violate the bidding, the bidding process, and will lose its significance for other bidder fails to bid is unjust, disturbed the bidding (project contracting market economic order, for activities), this kind of behavior must be prohibited, only in this way can we make construction engineering competitive trading activity lawfully healthy. This subject will I learned and social practice, present situation and construction project bidding system is expounded, and the disadvantages of bidding for construction project with ACTS of unfair competition phenomenon and analysis of causes, and finally make corresponding preventive countermeasures.Construction cost management system, both theoretical discussion, but also need to practice innovation. Under the conditions of market economy, project cost management, competitive and orderly market for construction management services platform structures. In such a premise, the original scale and method of valuation is inappropriate, and this needs to be reformed and improved. The spirit of "the government's macro regulation and control, enterprise autonomy offer, the market will price" principle, to implement the implementation specification bill of quantity. Inventory Valuation bidding activities are based on market economy mechanism, based on legal, scientific, fair, open and reasonable way to determine the winning bidder of an economic activity. Bidding is bidding activities constitute two basic aspects. The bidding activity is merely that by bidding to choose the one with the workConstruction process capability, moderate cost, quality is excellent, short duration of construction enterprises, and this is the ultimate goal tender. I have participated in internships over the course of the project bidding, and completed over part of the calculation of quantities, combined with graduate experience in the design process, a brief analysis of the mode Quantities Call for TenderThe meaning of risk and risk characteristics of the general construction, the lowest price sealed bidding construction method produces several risks and incentives, according to their characteristics discussed the feasibility of risk control and prevention. Comparison of engineering and engineering security risk management, insurance, similarities and differences between the two projects and benefits; construction project bidding and tendering process characteristics of human behavior is analyzed to reveal the bidder's risk appetite and behavioral characteristics with changes in the external environment change, when the default punishment is light, the bidder preference appetite for risk and default penalties, with the increase exceeds a certain value, the risk of bidders to show preference for behavior change to avoid the risk of penalties, the greater the bidder biased in favor of a more risk-averse behavior, the results of the control and prevention of risk behavior of bidders has an important and practical significanceConstruction Cost Management from the "quantity-one price" plan model to "price of separation volume" model of the market, and gradually establish a market price-based price formation mechanism, the price of the decision in the hands of the parties involved in the market, and ultimately the allocation of resources through the market in order to realize through the market mechanism to decide on project cost. This will standardize the construction market-competitive behavior and the promotion of project bidding mechanisms play an important role in innovation. It can be said that the implementation of the project bill of quantities is a project cost management system in our country a big step forward, but also in China's accession to the WTO, the global construction industry a powerful tool for peer competition.With the construction of in-depth development of the market, the traditional fixed pricing model no longer suited to market-oriented economic development needs. In order to adapt to the current project bidding by the market needs of a project cost, we must work on the existing valuation methods and pricing model for reform, the implementation of projects bill pricing. Engineering is a list of pricing model and adapt to the market economy, allowing independent contractor pricing through market competition determine prices, with the international practice of pricing model. With the bill pricing model projects to promote, in accordance with international bidding practices is imperative. Therefore, "the lowest reasonable price of the successful bidder" My future is the most important evaluation methods. At this stage due to the implementation of projects bill pricing model and the problems mainly against China at this stage " in the minimum reasonable price of the principles of the successful bidder, most contractors have not yet set up their own enterprises of scale, companies unable to determine the reasonable Cost. This article is a scientific and fast set "reasonable cost" to study the key. First, from the project cost of the basic concept, of the engineering bill pricing model under the cost structure, to accurately predict costs of the project provided the basis, considering the average cost of the social cost to individual enterprises and the tender stage of the cost estimates. Followed through on fuzzy math and technology for smooth in-depth analysis, through "close-degree," the concept of reasonable fuzzy math and exponential smoothing technologies, construction of the project cost vague prediction model, and in accordance with the relevant information and statistics Information and experience to establish a "framework structure," the comparison works Construction Cost Management from the "quantity-one price" plan model to "price of separation volume" model of the market, and gradually establish a market price-based price formation mechanism, the price of the decision in the hands of the parties involved in the market, and ultimately the allocation of resources through the market in order to realize through the market mechanism to decide on project cost. This will standardize the construction market-competitive behavior and the promotion of projectbidding mechanisms play an important role in innovation. It can be said that the implementation of the project bill of quantities is a project cost management system in our country a big step forward, but also in China's accession to the WTO, the global construction industry a powerful tool for peer competition.A healthy bidding system should be in accordance with the "open, fair and justice" and the principle of good faith, and establish a unified, open, competitive and orderly construction market. In view of the current problems existing in the bidding process, adopt regulations, and formulate and perfect the institution, strengthening process supervision measures, they can better regulate construction market order, prevent corruption from its source, purify construction market, promote the construction market order progressively toward standardization, institutionalized, and constantly improve the quality and level of the bidding work.。

外文文献：The Significance of the Tendering Contract on The Opportunities for Clients to Encourage Contractor-led Innovation ABSTRACTDuring the tendering process for most major construction contracts there is the opportunity for bidders to suggest alternative innovative solutions. Clearly clients are keen to take advantage of these opportunities, and equally contractors want to use their expertise to establish competitive advantage. Both parties may very well benefit from the encouragement of such innovation and the availability of cheaper methods of construction than have been contemplated by the tendering authority.However recent developments in common law have raised doubts about the ability of owners to seek alternative tenders without placing themselves at risk of litigation. This common law has recognised the existence of the so-called ‘tendering contract’ or ‘process contract’. Since the tendering process is inherently price competitive, the application of the tendering contract concept is likely to severely inhibit the opportunity for alternative tenders.This paper is primarily based on the literature review. The aim of this paper is to highlight the problems with the competitive tendering process in relation to contractor-led innovation and explore ways in which owners can develop procurement procedures that will allow and encourage innovation from contractors.PROBLEMS WITH COMPETITIVE TENDERINGThe traditional tendering process was designed to produce direct price competition for a specified product. Evaluation of tenders could only be confined to price alone by creating a system in which price is the only criterion that could vary while design and technical content are the same for each competing tender. Albeit the contract period is stipulated as constant, owners often encourage tenderers to submit a second tender which offers an alternative price for an alternative time performance. Tenderers would achieve this by reworking their tender programme, finding the optimum contract period, and adjusting the tender price accordingly. Each tenderer would compete to find novel ways of organising the work method that would allow not only the minimum construction cost but also maximum profit margin within the priceproposed. However, this process is always confined by the boundary of the owner’s design. In this way, the successful tenderer’s scope to be innovative is very limited .When evaluating alternative tenders, the owner is confronted with the duty of equal treatment and fairness to all tenderers. If one is to be preferred on an alternative tender, which is not a conforming tender in terms of the original invitation, how can all tenderers be treated equally and fairly Any individualism exhibited on the part of a tenderer outside the permitted scope of price and time must disqualify that tender from the owner’s consideration because it does not conform to the invitation. Therefore, the traditional tendering process prevents, restricts or even discourages contractor-led innovation .Songer and Ibbs believed that the use of design-and-build procurement method would encourage innovation in the building process. This procurement method imposes single point responsibility on contractor for the complete building and its tendering processdiffer from that of the traditional procurement method in that it must be capable of evaluating design as well as production capability, time and price, all on a competitive basis. This is not easy. Competitive design is not easy to evaluate in the context of tendering. The objectivity appears to be replaced by subjectivity in picking the winner, and the apparent integrity of the bidding process is lost, unless very clear criteria are established at the outset for evaluation of competing designs. This also means to say that the tender process rules must be designed as such that itencourages contractor-led innovation, yet at the same time places some limit on the scope for such innovation. The limits must be such that the project delivered is still the project for which tenders were invited. Songer and Ibbs, with respect to this aspect, asserted that one concern of public agencies is how to allow for innovation while maintaining appropriate control of certain design aspects of the project. Determining an appropriate balance of innovation and control in design and adequately communicating the desired balance to potential design-and-build tenderers provides a significant challenge to public sector agencies.THE ‘TENDERING CONTRACT’Developments i n the law relating to tenders traditionally treated an ‘invitation to tender’ or a ‘request for tenders’ as no more than an invitation to treat, an indication that the owner was ready to do business –something prior to and short of an offer . In other words, an invitation to treat was not an offer to make a contract with any person who might act on theinvitation, but merely a first step in negotiation which may, or may not, lead to a contract. When each tenderer submitted its tender in the prescribed form, it amounted to an offer which could be regarded as an offer to makea contract. If the offer met with unequivocal acceptance, contractual obligation arose between the owner and the successful tenderer .Recently, the modern view turns this theory upside down. There exists what is known as the ‘two contract’ analysis involving the emergence of the ‘tendering contract’. The invitation to tender is now in some circumstances to be treated as an offer to make a contract which a tenderer accepts when it submits a conforming tender. The owner makes an offer to each tenderer which might be worded as follows:“If you submit a tender in response to my invitation and which complies with the stipulations made, I will consider that tender …” .There is no obligation at all at this point on the side of the tenderers, but if a conforming tender is submitted, a contract is formed between owner and tenderer which has been described here as the ‘tendering contract’ or described elsewhere as a ‘pre-award contract’ or ‘process contract’. This contract is quite distinct from the contract eventually entered into with the successful tenderer, called the main contract. Obligations of a contractual nature therefore arise between the owner and each tenderer who has submitted a proposal. Justas the tender contract places obligations on the owner, each tender also imposes obligations on the tenderer. Once the tender has been submitted to the owner, meaning the tender or first contract has been formed, the owner becomes obliged to each tenderer to perform its side of bargain, which at this stage is an obligation to consider all conforming tenders. By the same token, tenderers become obliged to not simply withdraw their tender, the tender will remain open for a stipulated period of time. Under the ‘two contract’ principle,a tenderer who makes a mistake may find that thetender is accepted with no opportunity to escape even if there is an error in tender compilation .For the sake of clarity, it may be stated that the submission of a conforming tender in response to an invitation can create contractual obligations for both parties. In the case: Ontario v. Ron Engineering & Construction Eastern Ltd, the Court of Canada held that a contract was brought into being automatically upon the submission of a responsive tender by each tenderer. Having established that a ‘tendering contract’ exists, it is then important to constitute what theterms are of that contract. The terms are derived from the tender conditions, the ‘tendercode’, and other relevant material such as legislation and correspondence . All or some of the provisions of the ‘tender code’ may be incorporated in the ‘tendering contract’ by reference and/or by implication. A terms may be implied to the effect that the owner must consider all conforming tenders, must treat all tenderers equally and fairly, and must award only a contract for the project tendered for.GUIDANCE ON CONTRACTOR SELECTIONThe Significance of Probity in TenderingProbity is defined in various dicti onaries as “moral excellence, integrity, uprightness, conscientiousness, honesty, sincerity”. In the tendering context, it generally depends upon confidentiality of documentation and decision making, objective and consistent assessment at each phase of decision making and resolution of any possible, perceived or actual conflicts of interest. Thus, one of the primary objectives of probity in tendering is to maintain the integrity of the bidding process. The Canadian court in the Ron Engineering case referred to this as the obligation of owners to treat all tenderers equally and fairly.Johnstone asserts that transparency in the entire contracting out process is essential so that potential contractors and members of the public can have confidence in the outcomes. If integrity and impartiality are not evident, tenderers may be reluctant to make a bid, the formulation of which requires significant amount of time and resources. In that case, competition is likely to be lessened and the best value for money may not be achieved.In principle, recent development in common law attempts to maintain some integrity in the tendering process by recognising the existence of the parties’ obligations to one another so that the owner cannot simply reject or accept tenders as it pleases, or cannot negotiate with one or more tenderers to produce satisfactory deal. As mentioned previously, the contractual obligation between the parties is referred to as the ‘tendering contract’. Breach of the ‘tendering contract’ entitles the injured party to the normal remedy of damages. Probity in the tendering process ensures that fair and equal treatment to all tenderers is put in place and maintained so that no term of the ‘tendering contract’ is likely to be breached. Accordi ng to Johnstone, common probity objectives are:·to ensure all respondents are assessed objectively and consistently· to ensure integrity in all evaluation and selection process· to ensure all confidential information is secured· to address any potential, or actual conflicts of interest· to promote defensibility of process.Guidelines to Avoid Breach of the ‘Tendering Contract’ in the Competitive Bidding Process On conclusion, Craig suggests some guidelines on how alternative tenders and tenders involving design proposals might be taken legitimately by the owner so as to avoid or minimise the likelihood of the clients placing themselves at risk of litigation due to a breach of the contractual obligations arising out of the ‘tendering contract’. They are specified as follows.· Under the ‘tendering contract’ the owner is obliged to treat all tenders equally and fairly. All conforming tenders must therefore be considered.·An effective ‘privilege clause’ which says something like “any tender will notnecessarily be accepted” will normally prevent an owner becoming obliged to accept any tender. All tenders may therefore be properly rejected. On the other hand, a term to the effect that a contract will be awarded to the lowest, or highest, bidder is enforceable. This implies that an owner cannot use the ‘privilege clause’ as an excuse for deviating from the contract evaluation and award criteria set down in the tender invitation or documents. Or, put it another way, the‘privi lege clause’ does not allow the owner to: (i) choose comparatively among the tenderers based on criteria that has not been disclosed to the tenderers; or (ii) to award to another tenderer or another person something other than the main contract.· It would be a breach of the tendering obligation of equal and fair treatment for the owner to negotiate with one tenderer on terms which do not apply to other tenderers.·All tenderers are entitled to know the basis on which tenders will be evaluated and on which acontract-award decision will be made.·If innovation from tenderers is required, an owner must expressly create the right for a tenderer to submit an alternative tender. If the right then exists, the owner is obliged to consider such proposals. Tenderers must be informed of criteria for evaluation of such alternative proposals.·Tender conditions must define the scope of alternative tenders. That scope must be not too tight so as to restrict innovation, but not too wide so as to result in a proposal for a schemequite different to the one originally tendered for.·Tender conditions for projects involving design must include criteria for evaluating that design. The criteria must be made known to all tenderers.·It is a breach of the ‘tendering contract’ for the owner to award a contract to a tenderer who offers something different to what was asked for in the invitation to tender.Furthermore, Johnstone adds·Invitation document should be accessible to all potential bidders. They should be expressed in readily understood terms.· It is easier to formulate appropriate selection criteria when the project specifications are developed first. Clear specifications and selection criteria assist possible contractors to formulate bids appropriately.· A policy in relation to non-conforming bids should be formulated and documented in the invitation documentation.·Often assessment of bids will involve a number of assessment panels. In this situation, there should be a separation of assessment panels. For example, a panel of experts may review financial viability whilst another will look at those same bids from a design perspective. Assessment panels would commonly be quarantined through the evaluation period. SUMMARYThis paper highlights the problems with competitive tendering in relation to contractor-led innovation. In the traditional method, contractor-led innovation may be encouraged at the tendering stage. However, to enable acceptance by the owner, criteria for evaluation of and the scope of alternative tenders must be clearly defined in the tender document. By the same token, tender conditions for projects involving design must include criteria for evaluating that design t.Guidance has been outlined of how to reduce the risk of owner falling into a breach of the ‘tendering contract’ in the competitive tendering process when it involves alternative tenders or design proposals. One of the alternative contractor selection methods identified has been briefly described.。

外文原文Study on Human Resource Allocation in Multi-Project Based on the Priority and the Cost of ProjectsLin Jingjing , Zhou GuohuaSchoolofEconomics and management, Southwest Jiao tong University ,610031 ,China Abstract----This paper put forward the a ffecting factors of project’s priority. which is introduced into a multi-objective optimization model for human resource allocation in multi-project environment . The objectives of the model were the minimum cost loss due to the delay of the time limit of the projects and the minimum delay of the project with the highest priority .Then a Genetic Algorithm to solve the model was introduced. Finally, a numerical example was used to testify the feasibility of the model and the algorithm.Index Terms—Genetic Algorithm, Human Resource Allocation, Multi-project’s project’s priority .1.INTRODUCTIONMore and more enterprises are facing the challenge of multi-project management, which has been the focus among researches on project management. In multi-project environment ,the share are competition of resources such as capital , time and human resources often occur .Therefore , it’s critical to schedule projects in order to satisfy the different resource demands and to shorten the projects’ duration time with resources constrained ,as in [1].For many enterprises ,the human resources are the most precious asset .So enterprises should reasonably and effectively allocate each resource , especially the human resource ,in order to shorten the time and cost of projects and to increase the benefits .Some literatures have discussed the resource allocation problem in multi-project environment with resources constrained. Reference [1] designed an iterative algorithm and proposeda mathematical model of the resource-constrained multi-project scheduling .Basedon work breakdown structure (WBS) and Dantzig-Wolfe decomposition method ,a feasible multi-project planning method was illustrated , as in [2] . References [3,4]discussed the resource-constrained project scheduling based on Branch Delimitation method .Reference [5] put forward the framework of human resource allocation in multi-project in Long-term ,medium-term and short-term as well as research and development(R&D) environment .Basedon GPSS language, simulation model of resources allocation was built to get the project’s duration time and resources distribution, as in [6]. Reference [7] solved the engineering project’s resources optimization problem using Genetic Algorithms. These literatures reasonably optimized resources allocation in multi-project, but all had the same prerequisite that the project’s importance is the same to each other .This paper will analyze the effects of project’s priority on human resource allocation ,which is to be introduced into a mathematical model ;finally ,a Genetic Algorithm is used to solve the model.2.EFFECTS OF PROJECTS PRIORITY ON HUMAN RESOUCE ALLOCATIONAND THE AFFECTING FACTORS OF PROJECT’S PRIORITYResource sharing is one of the main characteristics of multi-project management .The allocation of shared resources relates to the efficiency and rationality of the use of resources .When resource conflict occurs ,the resource demand of the project with highest priority should be satisfied first. Only after that, can the projects with lower priority be considered.Based on the idea of project classification management ,this paper classifies the affecting factors of project’s priority into three categories ,as the project’s benefits ,the complexity of project management and technology , and the strategic influence on the enterprise’s future development . The priority weight of the project is the function of the above three categories, as shown in (1).W=f(I,c,s…) (1)Where w refers to project’s priority weight; I refers to the benefits of th e project; c refers to the complexity of the project, including the technology and management; s refers to the influence of the project on enterprise .The bigger the values of the three categories, the higher the priority is.3.HUMAN RESOURCE ALLOCATION MODEL IN MULTI-PROJECTENVIRONMENT3.1Problem DescriptionAccording to the constraint theory, the enterprise should strictly differentiate the bottleneck resources and the non-bottleneck resources to solve the constraint problem of bottleneck resources .This paper will stress on the limited critical human resources being allocated to multi-project with definite duration times and priority.To simplify the problem, we suppose that that three exist several parallel projects and a shared resources storehouse, and the enterprise’s operation only involves one kind of critical human resources. The supply of the critical human resource is limited, which cannot be obtained by hiring or any other ways during a certain period .when resource conflict among parallel projects occurs, we may allocate the human resource to multi-project according to project’s priorities .The allocation of non-critical independent human resources is not considered in this paper, which supposes that the independent resources that each project needs can be satisfied.Engineering projects usually need massive critical skilled human resources in some critical chain ,which cannot be substituted by the other kind of human resources .When the critical chains of projects at the same time during some period, there occur resource conflict and competition .The paper also supposes that the corresponding network planning of various projects have already been established ,and the peaks of each project’s resources demand have been optimized .The delay of the critical chain will affect the whole project’s duration time .3.2 Model HypothesesThe following hypotheses help us to establish a mathematical model:(1)The number of mutually independent projects involved in resourceallocation problem in multi-project is N. Each project is indicated withQ i,while i=1,2, … N.(2)The priority weights of multi-project have been determined ,which arerespectively w1,w 2…w n .(3) The total number of the critical human resources is R ,with r k standingfor each person ,while k=1,2, …,R(4) Δk i = ⎩⎨⎧others toprojectQ rcer humanresou i k 01(5) Resources capturing by several projects begins on time. t E i is theexpected duration time of project I that needs the critical resources tofinish some task after time t ,on the premise that the human resourcesdemand can be satisfied .tAi is the real duration time of project I thatneeds the critical resource to finish some task after time t .(6) According to the contract ,if the delay of the project happens the dailycost loss due to the delay is △c i for pro ject I .According to the project’simportance ,the delay of a project will not only cause the cost loss ,butwill also damage the prestige and status of the enterprise .(while thelatent cost is difficult to quantify ,it isn’t considered in this articletemporarily.)(7) From the hypothesis (5) ,we can know that after time t ,the time-gapbetween the real and expected duration time of project I that needs thecritical resources to finish some task is △t i ,( △t i =t A i -t E i ). For thereexists resources competition, the time –gap is necessarily a positivenumber.(8) According to hypotheses (6) and (7), the total cost loss of project I is C i(C i = △t i * △C i ).(9) The duration time of activities can be expressed by the workload ofactivities divided by the quantity of resources ,which can be indicatedwith following expression of t A i =ηi / R i * ,.In the expression , ηi refersto the workload of projects I during some period ,which is supposed tobe fixed and pre-determined by the project managers on project planningphase ; R i * refers to the number of the critical human resources beingallocated to projects I actually, with the equation Ri * =∑=Rk ki 1δ existing. Due to the resource competition the resourcedemands of projects with higherPriorities may be guarantee, while those projects with lower prioritiesmay not be fully guaranteed. In this situation, the decrease of theresource supply will lead to the increase of the duration time of activitiesand the project, while the workload is fixed.3.3 Optimization ModelBased on the above hypotheses, the resource allocation model inmulti-project environment can be established .Here, the optimizationmodel is :F i =min Z i = min∑∑==Ni i N i Ci 11ω =min i i Ni i N i c t ∆∆∑∑==11ω (2) =min ∑∑==N i i N i 11ω )E i R i ki i t - ⎝⎛∑=1δη i c ∆ 2F =min Z 2=min ()i t ∆=min )E i R i ki i t -⎝⎛∑=1δη (3) Where wj=max(wi) ,(N j i 3,2,1,=∀) (4)Subject to : 0∑∑==≤R k ki N i 11δ=R (5)The model is a multi-objective one .The two objective functions arerespectively to minimize the total cost loss ,which is to conform to theeconomic target ,and to shorten the time delay of the project with highestpriority .The first objective function can only optimize the apparenteconomic cost ;therefore the second objective function will help to makeup this limitation .For the project with highest priority ,time delay will damage not only the economic benefits ,but also the strategy and the prestige of the enterprise .Therefore we should guarantee that the most important project be finished on time or ahead of schedule .4.SOLUTION TO THE MULTI-OBJECTIVE MODEL USING GENETICALGORITHM4.1The multi-objective optimization problem is quite common .Generally ,eachobjective should be optimized in order to get the comprehensive objective optimized .Therefore the weight of each sub-objective should be considered .Reference [8] proposed an improved ant colony algorithm to solve this problem .Supposed that the weights of the two optimizing objectives are αand β ,where α+β=1 .Then the comprehensive goal is F* ,where F*=αF1+βF2.4.2The Principle of Genetic AlgorithmGenetic Algorithm roots from the concepts of natural selection and genetics .It’s a random search technique for global optimization in a complex search space .Because of the parallel nature and less restrictions ,it has the key features of great currency ,fast convergence and easy calculation .Meanwhile ,its search scope is not limited ,so it’s an effective method to solve the resource balancing problem ,as in [9].The main steps of GA in this paper are as follow:(1)EncodingAn integer string is short, direct and efficient .According to thecharacteristics of the model, the human resource can be assigned to be acode object .The string length equals to the total number of humanresources allocated.(2)Choosing the fitness functionThis paper choose the objective function as the foundation of fitnessfunction .To rate the values of the objective function ,the fitness of then-th individual is 1/n。

中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Research on the Bidding System of Construction Project in China Compared with Foreign Countries(The comparison of domestic and foreign construction project bidding system)AbstractFollowing through the comparative analysis of the bidding system in USA, Hongkong and France, and points out some characters in bidding for developed countries and regions, and puts forward some enlightenment China bidding system. Use them as a reference, this is a very important guiding role, to promote the development of Chinese current bidding system in theory. The results of this study will show the pressure and significance, to standardize the bidding market in China, but also to promote the domestic bidding market highlights the problem and solve a clear direction, but also conducive to the construction industry to improve the management leveland international competitiveness in Chinese. As a member of WTO, the leading international construction market is Chinese.1.INTRODUCTIONBidding originated from Britain firstly. In 1782, Britain was apioneer in setting up Stationery Public Bureau, and then developed as Material Supply Department, which was a section in government purchasing office supplies, which was setting up afoundation for developing of advertised bidding (Liangetal. 2006).In China, in 1980, the State Council proposed in “Interim Provisions of Development and Protection Socialism Competition”:“we may try bidding and submitting a bidding in some constructing programs and management which are suitable to using contract”,and then our country tried to adopting bidding model (Bai 1999).In Nov. 1984, State Planning Commission and City and Countryside Construction Environmental Protection Department formulated “Interim Provisions of Construction Project Tender and Bid”, which marked starting officially bidding for construction.Nowadays, bidding has been the main way in trading in construction, and been paid close attention by the society. However,generally speaking, the system in bidding for construction in our country isn’t enough mature. Whatever in theory or in practice,there are many problems need to be researched. This paper comparatively analyzes the bidding system among USA, HongKong and French regions, and gets some characters in bidding in developed countries and regions, then puts forward some revelations of the bidding system to China2.BIDDING SYSTEM IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIESAND REGIONS2.1 Bidding System in USABidding system in USA is one of the most influentially all over the world. There are some characters below in construction bidding in USA(1)Carrying out construction bidding system and management from many channels. USA belongs to common genealogy of law,but USA carrying out construction bidding system and management from many channels, and among which some below clauses are carried out widely: different kinds of clauses made by AIA; subletting contract’s standard format by AGCA; arbitration rules in construction made by AAA; standard clauses made by ETCDC; standard contract format by federal government. Every state in USA has law in construction bidding, and the enforcement of the law is very strictly.(2)Tenders team is different. Large, medium and small sized projects all need bidding. For example, project’s amount of investment is 10,000~20,000 can use bidding, but the government can manage the bidding of private company through the daily departments. The government sets up a whole institution which is made up by designers，architects or depositaries, which carrying out bidding publicly .Once the above departments being set up,they can charge the feasibility study of the project, choosing the contractors for the bidding of the projects and admin in the carrying out the projects, the whole project can be finished by technicians who have professional certifications.(3)Bidding can be carrying out by owners, and the bidding companies have no quota restrictions, but the certifications,prestige and bidding price of the companies may interact each other. If the quantity of the bidding project exceeds 50,000 dollars,the company should pass prequalification of prospective bidders.The contractors’level should beexamined by the department which make credit verifying, the contractors should take the relevant projects , in particular cases, it just exceed 10% of the quantity.(4)The principle of bid evaluation and bid picket age. Usually the bidder whose bidding price is least can get the bid. Generally,principle of the bidding can be ensured by adopting the total prices or the unit price. In the definite principle, neither the too low price nor the too high price is chosen. But more attention should be paid to the trap of the bidding.2.2 The Bidding System in Hong KongHong Kong is the place which is full of the construction contractors. Mostly, if the owner invests on a construction project,he will entrust the consultant firms, thus, the compiling of bidding documents is finished by consultant films. The bidding system in Hong Kong follows Britain, which has no normalized price, only has “Hong Kong Standard Method of Measurement of Building Works”. The price adjustment in Hong Kong is decided by the quotation which is published by Hong Kong Counts Bureau, the contractors compute the price adjustment according the quotation.Thus, the price is absolutely according to the behavior of company or human.The announcement of tender of construction project in Hong Kong is published in evening paper every Friday, so according to the project in the paper, the contractors who have the license with the ratification by Engineering Bureau can participate the bidding(Liang 2003). The bidders in Hong Kong should study the projects,read the every clause in bidding documents and drawings. If they have something not understood or lack of the drawings, they should see them in company, and they also make physical verification. Generally, the bidders should understand everything before bidding, otherwise the owners may not charge for the loss of bidding.It is the characters of the price of the bidding in Hong Kong that the owners should give the bidding documents which include drawings and list of items. The bidders should fill the entire unit price and every kind of cost, according to the list of item. Because there aren’t coherent price standard, with the competition among the contractors, the bidders can bid according to the above documents. The character is no restrictions. In fact, the bidders give their price through contacting with the contractors and supplier and making analysis.2.3 The Bidding System in French RegionsThe main character of bidding in French regions is the project sad opting Append Offers and Adjudication (Liu 1999). Append Offers is the main method of bidding in French regions, which is similar to competitive bidding carried out by the World Bank.The characters of Append offers are: (1) to permit the bidders give some cases according to the clauses of bidding, so the bidders have much space to choose; (2) The bid opening is secret. Before the bidding in French regions, the tender committee should be founded. In the bidding, the committee usually becomes jury. For example, in the adjudication, firstly, the bidder or the committee exist; secondly, the owners publish the bidding bulletin, and request the contractors submitting the bidding application and some relative documents; thirdly, the committee exams the qualifications of the bidders; fourthly, the recognized contractors give the bidding price; fifthly, the committee exam the bidding price again.The characters of Adjudication are: (1) the bidders can give either the total price or the unit price; (2) the price of every bidder must be announced separately; (3) if there is at least one bidders price which is below the pre-tender price, the award result should be announced. If all the bid prices exceed the 20% of the pre-tender price, it would fail. The bidders can modify the conditions of the bid and bid again. All the above characters avoid the informal acts.The bidding system in the French regions restricts the informal acts in the bidding. Especially the bidders make the price in the special bidding, in the case of thebidding price being below the standard price, the lowest price should be successful.The French regions adopt the Append Offers and Adjudication, so the evaluation and the picket age of the bid are concise. After the committee makes the bid opening publicly, it gives the bid temporarily. If there is no price below the acceptable price, the committee can ask the bidders to make bid again; if there is no acceptable price, the committee would announce the bid failed. And the committee exam the price again in 10 days, so there is adequate time to study the bid documents and bid price again and again 3.THE REVELATION OF THE BIDDING SYSTEM INDEVELOPED COUNTRIES AND REGIONS TO CHINA3.1 The Law System of Developed Countries and Regions Is Relatively PerfectForeign countries pay more attention to setting up and perfecting the law system of bidding. For many years, European Union has got good grade in promoting the all-in-one in law system of bidding among the states, and it sets up a series of laws, so the states’bid laws are the reification of European Union’s laws, and there is no principle difference. Though there are some differences in adjective provision, it must be in keeping with the total laws.From 1st Jan. 1999, Euro bore as the unique cash, which consolidates and develops the unifying the bid laws, and make spositive militate.In China, the bid laws have 3 levels (Wen 2005): first of all,the laws set up by National People's Congress and standing committee, for example, “The Law of the People’s Republic of China on Bid Invitation and Bidding”; the second level is bid laws set by State Council and other bid laws set by some Place National People's Congress; the third level is the bid laws set by some departments in State Council and the government, for example,“Engineering construction tender policing method”set up by Construction. The laws have carried out in 20 years, and the systems have been a whole system, which like in USA and EU, but in the bidding, there are some faults in carrying out the laws.The bidding is one of many economic actions. The principles of the bidding are just, fair and open. The better the law system setup, the more detailed the regulation made, and the more standard the bidding carried out. The problems, such as tendentious bidding,string bidding, nonstandard evaluating, can also be found in USA and EU. But there are relative perfect laws in USA and EU, so it can contact with criminal laws. However, the bid law is not enough perfect in China. There main are “The Law of the People’s Republic of China on Bid Invitation and Bidding”, “Building Ordinance”and so on, and the biddings of construction project are mainly based on laws set up by Constructive Department. See from the carrying out the biddings of construction project, the laws and legislations are too general to easily carrying out the laws. For example, in dealing with the complaints about the bidding, every department basically deal with the problem in their own way and in their own understanding, and the similar case may has the different results in different regions. If correlative enterprises can’t accept the result for the dealing with complaints, they will appeal to the senior department. In USA and EU, the plaintiffs and defendants are always bidders but not government. In the dealing with the dispute in economic actions, the governments are primary inter ceder. But in China, finallyaccording to the “Administrative Approval Law”, the defendants become the administrators. Thus,all of these need to go step further studying and discussion, and then we should enrich and perfect the laws and legislations which are accord with China. Learning from the methods of USA and EU,China will make the dealing with the complaints standardized.3.2 The Developed Countries and Regions Quite Pay much Attention to the Research on Bidders' Preliminary BehaviorDeveloped countries' bidders are quite earnest to the earlier period research, from the environment analysis, the public relations strategy and so on, studying item by item. But in our countries,bidders neglect this aspect, and muddled investment, the blind decision-making, brings the massive loss for the enterprise and the country. Table 1 has listed the related main points of the earlier period research, for making analysis and research.It can be seen from the table that the bidders’idea in study the tendering project is essentially different compared with developed countries. So it is a favorable way of strengthening the earlier period research of bidding, to improve the rate of successful bids,and standardize bidding markets and increase enterprises’social image, enhance economic benefit.Table 1: Comparative Table of Earlier Period of Bidding between China and Developed3.3 The Bidding Procedure and Operation in Developed Countries and Regions Is more ReasonableBidding procedure and operation is one of the core content in an ational bidding system. Normative bidding procedures and operation is a perfect embodiment in a national bidding system Bidding operation mode includes bid opening, bid evaluation, bid award, and so on. It has two main principles: competition in public and protection the behalf of tenders and bidders. These two principles must be observed in bid opening, bid evaluation, and bid award. In practice, there is a greater difference between China and USA in bidopening, bid evaluation, and bid award, see table 2Table 2: Comparative Table of Bidding Procedures and Operation between China and3.4 The Bid Evaluation and Bid Picketage in Developed Countries and Regions Are StricterThe bid evaluation of international projects in developed countries is conducted in secret, which normally takes 10-15 days. The bide valuation of international projects is charged by the owners generally, and the method is: (l) an evaluation committee is established, charged by chief economist, composed with experts from engineering, technology, construction, planning, finance,accounting, cost, economy, contracts, legal and other aspects,which works in the joint office, discusses and consults collectively,evaluates the bid comparatively; (2) to hand out the bid document to the engineering, construction management, planning and scheduling, financial accounting, legal adviser, Chief Economist,and other functional departments for analysis and evaluation, to form theevaluation report by the final uniform evaluation results;(3) to ensure 2-3 bid award candidates and then review the qualifications, only the passed qualified bidder, be the award bidder can.The bid evaluation in China is also carried out in relative secrecy, but the time of evaluation is quite shorter, usually in about two hours, so the evaluation process only stays on the surface,which can not evaluate the inherent meaning of the bid, resulting in lots of problems and disputes after awarding the bid. Though the bid evaluation is organized by the owners in most areas of China,the evaluation committee also contains many administrative persons. So, the evaluation lacks of fair and just sometimes, with government intervention, the black-box operations and so on. The method of bid picketage is essentially different between China and developed countries. In China, comprehensive evaluation score are usually used. If the first high score bid is lowest in bid price, then no doubt that the award bidder. If the second high score bidder is in five score discrepancy with the first, the owners can choose one as the award bidder from the two candidates.This shows that the time of bid evaluation in China is only one fortieth of developed countries, and comprehensive evaluation is not accurate, so the owners always can’t choose the right contractor. So further study should be made to standardize the bid evaluation and bid picke tage.3.5The Bidding Management in Developed Countries and Regions is more StandardizedIn the bidding management in China, the government' sad ministrative interference is relatively strong. This is mainly because bidding system in China is not perfect. Currently, bidding supervision of projects invested by government is charged by the administrative departments in China.These administrative departments also charge the complaints of the bidders and other stakeholders, and cognizance the qualification of the tender agencies. Such management method is essentially self-monitoring, self-supervising, and it’s difficult to fundamentally form by supervisors and overseers of mutual relations between the checks and balances. In particular, with the existing management system for projects invested by government,some departments directly intervene in the management of projects,especially direct intervene the bidding activities, and some responsible person of the departments also serves as project leader .Considering from the interests of the departments, the industry and individual, it’s difficult to form a mechanism to supervise the activities of bidding strictly.The bidding management of US government is quite perfect.Its five plate systems, that are tender system in public, operating system standardization and accreditation system providers, audit system, delivery tracking system, make government officials have no chance to intervene the bidding process by administrative interferences, but focus on the establishment and management of the contract process. In a word, the bidding and operating system in developed countries is fairly perfect, comparatively, there is a large disparity in China.CONCLUSIONSThrough the above comparative analysis of the domestic system of bidding and bidding system in developed countries and regions, found in the China bidding system for the implementation of the defects and shortcomings, it also highlights the need to recruit China specification and the significance of the bidding market. Our country can learn from the bidding system of developed countries and regions, promote the improvement of Chinese current bidding system, and find an important direction in the theory. In order to better and more problems existing in bidding and implementation of vulnerability solutionto the domestic construction projects, to perfect the legal construction bidding and bidding market, even to the social economy have made an important and positive role. So whether it is in the current bidding position of the elite or is engaged in the bidding work of college students, should understand the bidding content, always pay attention to improvement and perfecting the system of bidding bidding, and in the case of conditions for domestic bidding and perfecting system of bidding to make a little of his own contribution. References:[1]Bai, H. Y. (1999). “Development and Application of Bid and Tender in Our Country.” Information System Engineering, (10), 20 pp.[2]Liang, W. (2003). “Bid of Project Constrution of Works Bureau in Hong Kong.” Construction Economy, (3), 31-33.[3]Liang, Y. P., Yu, X. F., and Zhang, A. Q. (2006). “Perfect the System of the Government Procument Using International Experience for Reference.” Theoretical Exploration, (2), 130-132.[4]Liu, Z. (1999). Practice of the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Bid Invitation and Bidding, Xiyuan Press, Beijing, China, 1489-1561. Wen, J. (2005). “Where is Our Disparity? Compare of Bi dding between China and USA.” Honesty Outlook, (2), 6-7.[5]Casinelli, Massimoluigi (Casinelli Associates) Source: Cost Engineering (Morgantown, West Virginia), v 47, n 2, p 21-27, February 2005对比国内外建设项目招投标制度摘要下面通过对比分析了招投标制中美国，香港及法国地区，并指出了一些字符在竞标发达的国家和地区，并提出了招投标系统的一些启示中国。

建筑英文文献及翻译第一篇：建筑英文文献及翻译外文原文出处: NATO Science for Peace and Security Series C: Environmental Security, 2009, Increasing Seismic Safety by Combining Engineering Technologies and Seismological Data, Pages 147-149动力性能对建筑物的破坏引言：建筑物在地震的作用下，和一些薄弱的建筑结构中，动力学性能扮演了一个很重要的角色。

特别是要满足最基本的震动周期，无论是在设计的新建筑，或者是评估已经有的建筑，使他们可以了解地震的影响。

许多标准(例如：欧标，2003；欧标，2006)，建议用简单的表达式来表达一个建筑物的高度和他的基本周期。

这样的表达式被牢记在心，得出标定设计(高尔和乔谱拉人，1997)，从而人为的低估了标准周期。

因为这个原因，他们通常提供比较低的设计标准当与那些把设计基础标准牢记在心的人(例：乔普拉本和高尔，2000)。

当后者从已进行仔细建立的数字模型中得到数值(例：克劳利普和皮诺，2004；普里斯特利权威，2007)。

当数字估计与周围震动测量的实验结果相比较，有大的差异，提供非常低的周期标准(例：纳瓦洛苏达权威，2004)。

一个概述不同的方式比较确切的结果刊登在马西和马里奥(2008)；另外，一个高级的表达式来指定更有说服力的坚固建筑类型，提出了更加准确的结构参数表(建筑高度，开裂，空隙填实，等等)。

联系基础和上层建筑的震动周期可能发生共振的效果。

这个原因对于他们的振动，可能建筑物和土地在非线性运动下受到到破坏，这个必须被重视。

通常，结构工程师和岩土工程师有不同的观点在共振作用和一些变化的地震活动。

结构工程师们认为尽管建筑物和土壤的自振周期和地震周期都非常的接近。

但对于建筑物周期而言，到底是因为结构还是非结构造成的破坏提出了疑问。

外文文献：The Significance of the Tendering Contract on The Opportunities for Clients to Encourage Contractor-led Innovation ABSTRACTDuring the tendering process for most major construction contracts there is the opportunity for bidders to suggest alternative innovative solutions. Clearly clients are keen to take advantage of these opportunities, and equally contractors want to use their expertise to establish competitive advantage. Both parties may very well benefit from the encouragement of such innovation and the availability of cheaper methods of construction than have been contemplated by the tendering authority.However recent developments in common law have raised doubts about the ability of owners to seek alternative tenders without placing themselves at risk of litigation. This common law has recognised the existence of the so-called ‘tendering contract’ or ‘process contract’. Since the tendering process is inherently price competitive, the application of the tendering contract concept is likely to severely inhibit the opportunity for alternative tenders.This paper is primarily based on the literature review. The aim of this paper is to highlight the problems with the competitive tendering process in relation to contractor-led innovation and explore ways in which owners can develop procurement procedures that will allow and encourage innovation from contractors.PROBLEMS WITH COMPETITIVE TENDERINGThe traditional tendering process was designed to produce direct price competition for a specified product. Evaluation of tenders could only be confined to price alone by creating a system in which price is the only criterion that could vary while design and technical content are the same for each competing tender. Albeit the contract period is stipulated as constant, owners often encourage tenderers to submit a second tender which offers an alternative price for an alternative time performance. Tenderers would achieve this by reworking their tender programme, finding the optimum contract period, and adjusting the tender price accordingly. Each tenderer would compete to find novel ways of organising the work method that would allow not only the minimum construction cost but also maximum profit margin within the price proposed. However,this process is always confined by the boundary of the owner’s design. In this way, the successful tenderer’s scope to be innovative is very limited .When evaluating alternative tenders, the owner is confronted with the duty of equal treatment and fairness to all tenderers. If one is to be preferred on an alternative tender, which is not a conforming tender in terms of the original invitation, how can all tenderers be treated equally and fairly? Any individualism exhibited on the part of a tenderer outside the permitted scope of price and time must disqualify that tender from the owner’s consideration because it does not conform to the invitation. Therefore, the traditional tendering process prevents, restricts or even discourages contractor-led innovation .Songer and Ibbs believed that the use of design-and-build procurement method would encourage innovation in the building process. This procurement method imposes single point responsibility on contractor for the complete building and its tendering processdiffer from that of the traditional procurement method in that it must be capable of evaluating design as well as production capability, time and price, all on a competitive basis. This is not easy. Competitive design is not easy to evaluate in the context of tendering. The objectivity appears to be replaced by subjectivity in picking the winner, and the apparent integrity of the bidding process is lost, unless very clear criteria are established at the outset for evaluation of competing designs. This also means to say that the tender process rules must be designed as such that itencourages contractor-led innovation, yet at the same time places some limit on the scope for such innovation. The limits must be such that the project delivered is still the project for which tenders were invited. Songer and Ibbs, with respect to this aspect, asserted that one concern of public agencies is how to allow for innovation while maintaining appropriate control of certain design aspects of the project. Determining an appropriate balance of innovation and control in design and adequately communicating the desired balance to potential design-and-build tenderers provides a significant challenge to public sector agencies.THE ‘TENDERING CONTRACT’Developments in the law relating to tenders traditionally treated an ‘invitation to tender’ or a ‘request for tenders’ as no more than an invitation to treat, an indication that the owner was ready to do business – something prior to and short of an offer . In other words, an invitation to treat was not an offer to make a contract with any person who might act on the invitation, butmerely a first step in negotiation which may, or may not, lead to a contract. When each tenderer submitted its tender in the prescribed form, it amounted to an offer which could be regarded as an offer to makea contract. If the offer met with unequivocal acceptance, contractual obligation arose between the owner and the successful tenderer .Recently, the modern view turns this theory upside down. There exists what is known as the ‘two contract’ analysis involving the emergence of the ‘tendering contract’. The invitation to tender is now in some circumstances to be treated as an offer to make a contract which a tenderer accepts when it submits a conforming tender. The owner makes an offer to each tenderer which might be worded as follows:“If you submit a tender in response to my invitation and which complies with the stipulations made, I will consider that tender …” .There is no obligation at all at this point on the side of the tenderers, but if a conforming tender is submitted, a contract is formed between owner and tenderer which has been described here as the ‘tendering contract’ or described elsewhere as a ‘pre-award contract’or ‘process contract’. This contract is quite distinct from the contract eventually entered into with the successful tenderer, called the main contract. Obligations of a contractual nature therefore arise between the owner and each tenderer who has submitted a proposal. Justas the tender contract places obligations on the owner, each tender also imposes obligations on the tenderer. Once the tender has been submitted to the owner, meaning the tender or first contract has been formed, the owner becomes obliged to each tenderer to perform its side of bargain, which at this stage is an obligation to consider all conforming tenders. By the same token, tenderers become obliged to not simply withdraw their tender, the tender will remain open for a stipulated period of time. Under the ‘two contract’ principle,a tenderer who makes a mistake may find that thetender is accepted with no opportunity to escape even if there is an error in tender compilation .For the sake of clarity, it may be stated that the submission of a conforming tender in response to an invitation can create contractual obligations for both parties. In the case: Ontario v. Ron Engineering & Construction Eastern Ltd, the Court of Canada held that a contract was brought into being automatically upon the submission of a responsive tender by each tenderer. Having established that a ‘tendering contract’ exists, it is then important to constitute what the terms are of that contract. The terms are derived from the tender conditions, the ‘tendercode’, andother relevant material such as legislation and correspondence . All or some of the provisions of the ‘tender code’ may be incorporated in the ‘tendering contract’ by reference and/or by implication. A terms may be implied to the effect that the owner must consider all conforming tenders, must treat all tenderers equally and fairly, and must award only a contract for the project tendered for.GUIDANCE ON CONTRACTOR SELECTIONThe Significance of Probity in TenderingProbity is defined in various dict ionaries as “moral excellence, integrity, uprightness, conscientiousness, honesty, sincerity”. In the tendering context, it generally depends upon confidentiality of documentation and decision making, objective and consistent assessment at each phase of decision making and resolution of any possible, perceived or actual conflicts of interest. Thus, one of the primary objectives of probity in tendering is to maintain the integrity of the bidding process. The Canadian court in the Ron Engineering case referred to this as the obligation of owners to treat all tenderers equally and fairly.Johnstone asserts that transparency in the entire contracting out process is essential so that potential contractors and members of the public can have confidence in the outcomes. If integrity and impartiality are not evident, tenderers may be reluctant to make a bid, the formulation of which requires significant amount of time and resources. In that case, competition is likely to be lessened and the best value for money may not be achieved.In principle, recent development in common law attempts to maintain some integrity in the tendering process by recognising the existence of the parties’ obligations to one another so that the owner cannot simply reject or accept tenders as it pleases, or cannot negotiate with one or more tenderers to produce satisfactory deal. As mentioned previously, the contractual obligation between the parties is referred to as the ‘tendering contract’. Breach of the ‘tendering contract’entitles the injured party to the normal remedy of damages. Probity in the tendering process ensures that fair and equal treatment to all tenderers is put in place and maintained so that no term of the ‘tendering contract’ is likely to be breached. Accord ing to Johnstone, common probity objectives are:·to ensure all respondents are assessed objectively and consistently· to ensure integrity in all evaluation and selection process· to ensure all confidential information is secured· to address any potential, or actual conflicts of interest· to promote defensibility of process.Guidelines to Avoid Breach of the ‘Tendering Contract’ in the Competitive Bidding Process On conclusion, Craig suggests some guidelines on how alternative tenders and tenders involving design proposals might be taken legitimately by the owner so as to avoid or minimise the likelihood of the clients placing themselves at risk of litigation due to a breach of the contractual obligations arising out of the ‘tendering contract’. They are specified as follows.· Under the ‘tendering contract’ the owner is obliged to treat all tenders equally and fairly. All conforming tenders must therefore be considered.·An effective ‘privilege clause’ which says something like “any tender will notnecessarily be accepted” will normally prevent an owner becoming obliged to accept any tender. All tenders may therefore be properly rejected. On the other hand, a term to the effect that a contract will be awarded to the lowest, or highest, bidder is enforceable. This implies that an owner cannot use the ‘privilege clause’ as an excuse for deviating from the contract evaluation and award criteria set down in the tender invitation or documents. Or, put it another way, the‘privilege clause’ does not allow the owner to: (i) choose comparatively among the tenderers based on criteria that has not been disclosed to the tenderers; or (ii) to award to another tenderer or another person something other than the main contract.· It would be a breach of the tendering obligation of equal and fair treatment for the owner to negotiate with one tenderer on terms which do not apply to other tenderers.·All tenderers are entitled to know the basis on which tenders will be evaluated and on which acontract-award decision will be made.·If innovation from tenderers is required, an owner must expressly create the right for a tenderer to submit an alternative tender. If the right then exists, the owner is obliged to consider such proposals. Tenderers must be informed of criteria for evaluation of such alternative proposals.·Tender conditions must define the scope of alternative tenders. That scope must be not too tight so as to restrict innovation, but not too wide so as to result in a proposal for a scheme quite different to the one originally tendered for.·Tender conditions for projects involving design must include criteria for evaluating that design. The criteria must be made known to all tenderers.·It is a breach of the ‘tendering contract’ for the owner to award a contract to a tenderer who offers something different to what was asked for in the invitation to tender.Furthermore, Johnstone adds· Invitation document should be accessible to all potential bidders. They should be expressed in readily understood terms.·It is easier to formulate appropriate selection criteria when the project specifications are developed first. Clear specifications and selection criteria assist possible contractors to formulate bids appropriately.· A policy in relation to non-conforming bids should be formulated and documented in the invitation documentation.·Often assessment of bids will involve a number of assessment panels. In this situation, there should be a separation of assessment panels. For example, a panel of experts may review financial viability whilst another will look at those same bids from a design perspective. Assessment panels would commonly be quarantined through the evaluation period. SUMMARYThis paper highlights the problems with competitive tendering in relation to contractor-led innovation. In the traditional method, contractor-led innovation may be encouraged at the tendering stage. However, to enable acceptance by the owner, criteria for evaluation of and the scope of alternative tenders must be clearly defined in the tender document. By the same token, tender conditions for projects involving design must include criteria for evaluating that design t.Guidance has been outlined of how to reduce the risk of owner falling into a breach of the ‘tendering contract’ in the competitive tendering process when it involves alternative tenders or design proposals. One of the alternative contractor selection methods identified has been briefly described.。

外文文献：Construction of the competition and competition strategy Engineering and construction firms from the United States dominated the global market for many decades but recent world events have altered their position.To investigate the driving forces and trends that will affect engineering and construction competition in the next decade, a research project, called the "Anatomy of Construction Competition in the Year 2000", was sponsored by the Construction Industry Institute's Construc—tion 2000 Task Force— The project examined the factors that affect competitiveness, including the following, The shaping of corporate capabilities; vertical integration and horizontal expansion to increase corporate capabilities and market share, including acquisition and mergers by offshore conglomerates and the acquisition of foreign firms by U. S. companies.Financing options； the role of privatization， build-own-transfer projects， and the nature of project financing in future markets，Management, organization， and structure; future management and organizational approaches, structures, and techniques to attract personnel to perform in a global competitive environment.Work force characteristics; future availability of engineering and construction workers at the professional and craft levels.Technological issues：how technology will affect competition and be used to offset work force shortages.Research Objectives and ScopeThis research project's goal is to collect information， to adapt to the 2000 and the engineering construction after adjustment，formulate strategies needed to provide insight and formulate 2000 engineering construction of possible development plan. This study reviewed the project construction process of history, current development trend， to determine the impact of the industry, and the impetus to the future industrial enterprises are related to reshape the ability, privatisation and financing methods of potential function and management, organization structure, methods for future development direction。

中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Procurement: Tendering ProceduresOVERVIEW1. PurposeThese Procedures are a supplement to the University’s Procurement Policy and apply to tendering for the acquisition of goods and services from suppliers external to the University, valued at $200,000 and above. The acquisition of goods includes purchasing and leasing of goods. The acquisition of services includes contractor and consultant services, but excludes services provided by staff employed through the University payroll, and any services provided to Investment and Capital Management in connection with the University’s investment portfolio.2. CoverageThese Procedures apply to all University activities including activities undertaken by Foundations, Centers, Controlled Entities and any other entity which has entered into an agreement with the University, and such agreement includes a term which requires it to comply with the University’s purchasing policy and associated procedures.KEY ASPECTS OF THE TENDERING PROCESS3. Open tenderingUniversity tenders should be open to the public so that the market is assessed for the goods or services required. There are two ways this may be done, either by fully Open Tender or a multi-stage tender which initially involves the calling of an Expression of Interest, followed by a Selective Tender. The Procurement Services Department must approve all Open Tender proposals and the Chief Procurement Officer must approve all EOI proposals.4. Invited tenderingInvited Tendering may be used instead of Open Tendering in certain circumstances. Invited Tendering occurs when specific suppliers are invited to tender for goods or services rather than the tender being open to any suppliers. The Chief Procurement Officer must approve all Invited Tender proposals, with the exception of using approved pre-qualified supplier panels.5. DocumentationAccountability requires comprehensive documentation for all tenders. Detailed justification of all key decisions made, especially the selection of the tenderer, must be recorded on an official Records Management file from the time that a decision is made to tender until the finalisation of the contract. Documentation must be available to show that the tendering process is not only fair but also that it is seen to be fair. All communications with tenderers must be documented.6. ConfidentialityAll tenderer information and tender documents received are to be treated as confidential. The confidentiality and anonymity of tenderers must be maintained throughout the tender process. PROCEDURES7. Strategic planningIt is important that a proper strategy be planned. Staff involved must ensure that the objectives of the project being tendered are clarified and that clear specifications are developed and funding identified.8. Types of TendersThere are three types of tendering for the acquisition of goods or services:•Open Tender•Multi-Stage Tender•Invited Tendering8.1 Open TenderOpen Tendering tests the market in a transparent manner. Tenders are advertised publicly and no restriction is placed on the number of tenderers. All prospective bidders are given the same tender documentation. The Procurement Services Department must be consulted on all Open Tender proposals.8.2 Multi-Stage TenderMulti-stage tendering may be used to cull a large number of respondents and identify the best service providers in a particular well-supplied market that are interested in providing the relevant goods or services. It also limits the number of tenderers to those able to demonstrate the requisite capability in the first stage. Multi-stage tenders may be used:•to establish a panel of suitable suppliers for a specific category of goods or services;•to identify suppliers with suitable proposals for complex procurements.The first stage in multi-stage tendering is an Expression of Interest or Request for Proposal to invite interested suppliers to register their interest against the requirements listed in the EOI document. The second stage in multi-stage tendering is a Selective Request for Tender to invite suppliers shortlisted in the first stage to a submit proposals in response to specific criteria outlined in the Request for Tender document.8.2.1 Expression of InterestThe EOI document must state what further processes are expected beyond the first stage of the tender process.The University would then short-list interested suppliers with the ability to undertake the particular product supply or services required. These prequalified tenderers would be asked to indicate their availability to tender in the second stage, a Selective Request for Tender.The Chief Procurement Officer must be consulted on all EOI proposals.8.2.2 Selective Tende rIn this case tenders are called for a specific contract in a second stage from short listed service providers identified in the EOI stage.Tenderers are required to submit tenders to respond to specifications identified in the Request for Tender document, such as price, capacity, expertise and experience.The Chief Procurement Officer must approve all selective tender proposals, with the exception of using approved pre-qualified supplier panels.8.3 Invited TenderingInvited Tendering may be used: in emergency situations; for specialist work; in special circumstanceswhere only one or a limited number of suppliers are known to be able to carry out the work;for low value, low risk activities.Invited Tendering involves issuing RFT documents to known available suppliers assessed as the most capable of delivering the goods or services required. The Chief Procurement Officer must approve all proposals for invited tendering.9. Tender WaiversThe need to run a tender may be waived in exceptional circumstances. Refer to section 8 in the Procurement Policy.10. Tenders requiring a Non-Disclosure AgreementIn certain circumstances, the Procurement Services Department may require an interested tenderer to accept and sign a Non-Disclosure Agreement before receiving the tender documentation.11. Tender Evaluation TeamAll tenders must have a Tender Evaluation Team to ensure the probity of the tender process. The Tender Evaluation Team must consist of at least three members, including a representative from the Procurement Services Department as well as other people who have the relevant technical knowledge of the goods or services required. For Campus Infrastructure and Services managed tenders, the Procurement Services Department representative may be replaced with a CIS representative who has been trained and approved by Procurement Services Department.•One member of the evaluation team is to be external to the area requesting the tender and may come from outside the University.•The representative from the Procurement Services Department (or CIS for CIS managed tenders) will be the Team Leader who will be the tender contact and the only member of the Team permitted to communicate with tenderers.•Tenders relating to information and communications technology must also have a representative from Information Communication Technology.•Evaluation Teams for approved Capital Works programs or approved Repairs and Maintenance Programs must have a representative from Campus Infrastructure and Services.Tender Evaluation Team members must not have a vested or perceived interest in the outcome. A Conflict of Interest declaration will be distributed to the Evaluation Team members prior to the commencement of evaluations by the Team Leader and anyone with a conflict of interest must declare this conflict and disqualify themselves from the tender. Refer to the University’s Code of Conduct and Corruption Prevention Strategy for details.Tender Evaluation Team members can seek external assistance and advice on specific aspects of he tender. This assistance must be co-ordinated through the Tender Evaluation Team Leader.12. Advertising TendersThe call for Open Tenders and Expressions of Interest will be advertised in the Sydney Morning Herald every fortnight. Other, additional methods of advertisement may also be utilized from time to time. The Procurement Services Department must approve all tender advertisements, with the exception of CIS managed tenders.Public advertisements must include:•an adequate description of the tender to allow prospective tenderers to decide whether they wish to prepare a tender, or a link to the location where this information is available;•the location where the tender documents may be obtained, including the name, telephone number and email of the contact officer;• a tender reference number;•where tenders are to be lodged and the closing date and time;•any other important dates and deadlines.The University will endeavor to ensure that the time given between the release and the closing date of the tender is sufficient to allow a tenderer to study the tender specification and prepare a bid; however the final duration will be determined by the Procurement Services Department.13.Receipt and Registration of TendersAll tenders are to be lodged in the University’s eTenderBox at the tender web lodgment address. The eTenderbox will be opened after the tender closing date and time. Details of the tenders received are registered by the eTinderbox on a schedule/register which includes: tender details; tender reference number and tender name; tender closing date and time; date and time the tender box was opened; supplier name, time submitted and a unique identifier for each file.All tenders received must be kept in a secure location.Tenders will only be accepted in the University’s eTenderBox. Tenders submitted by facsimile, email, hand delivery, post or any method other than via the eTenderBox will not be accepted, except in exceptional circumstances with express approval from the Procurement Services Department. Tenders that are not uploaded to the eTenderbox prior to closing time will be deemed to be a late tender.14. Late TendersLate tenders must not be considered, except when the University is satisfied and can demonstrate that the integrity and competitiveness of the tendering process would not be compromised.Late tenders may be considered when verifiable circumstances are confirmed by the University, such as:•exceptional circumstances, such as the tender being the only tender or a natural disaster affectingall tenders equally, that ensure the integrity and competitiveness of the tendering process would not be compromised by considering the late tender;•the tender left the control of the tenderer prior to close of tenders and confidentiality of the tender was maintained before it was opened;•control of the confidentiality of tenders before the scheduling of tenders guarantees no enhancement to the late tender occurred using knowledge of the other tenders.•the RFT documents stipulate that lateness is not a bar to consideration. Acceptance of a late tender will be at the discretion of the Tender Evaluation Team Leader.15. Evaluating and Assessing TendersThe Tender Evaluation Team Leader obtains the schedule/register of tenders received and the tender documents for evaluation. The methodology, format and detailed criteria for the evaluation are to be documented and agreed to by the Tender Evaluation Team prior to the commencement of the evaluation. Assessments must be undertaken in a timely manner. Each member of the Tender Evaluation Team is to evaluate the tenders independently and then the Team together will consider and agree on the results. Supporting documentation must be comprehensive and include the decisions arrived at in making the assessment and reasons for the recommended tender, especially where the lowest tender is not accepted. The Tender Evaluation Team Leader is to prepare a report for the Tender Board on the evaluation and assessment process taken. The report will include a recommendation on the successful tenderer(s) and action required. Justification for the selection of the recommended tender is to be included. Each member of the Tender Evaluation Team will sign the evaluation document t o confirm that member’s concurrence to the outcome and then this report is to be submitted to the Tender Board.16. Clarification of TendersIf important information received in a tender is not clear then clarification can be requested from the tenderer. The clarification sought from the tenderer must not give the tenderer an unfair advantage over the other tenderers or allow the tenderer to revise or enhance its original tender. The Tender Evaluation Team cannot trade-off one tenderers prices against o ther tenderers’ prices in order to obtain lower prices.17. Modifications and Re-tenderingDuring the tender evaluation process, if the Tender Evaluation Team decides to make substantial modifications to the original tender, then it will be necessary to recommence the tendering process. An opportunity must be given to each original tenderer to submit a new tender. Comprehensive documentation must be retained that shows why the substantial modifications are necessary and demonstrates that the modifications are consistent with the original requirements of the userdepartment. The Chief Procurement Officer is to approve the re-tendering proposal.18. Post Tender NegotiationsWhere there are no acceptable tenders, negotiations may be conducted with the tenderer submitting the least unacceptable tender, or the tender which conforms most closely to the requirements and provides best value for money .Where tenders are ranked by a systematic method, for example, by scoring tender prices and other evaluation criteria, the tender with the best ranking would normally be regarded as the best tender.There are also instances when the University may negotiate with an acceptable preferred tenderer to improve outcomes. Any negotiation process should be transparent, recorded and conducted in a manner that does not disadvantage other tenderers. If none of the tenders are acceptable following negotiation it will be necessary to close the tender and re-tender. The Chief Procurement Officer is to approve the re-tendering proposal.19. Acceptance of TenderThe Tender Board is to approve all tenders valued at $200,000 and above. Following formal Tender Board approval, a “letter of acceptance” is to be issued to the successful tenderer. The letter of acceptance must state that the acceptance of the tender is conditional upon execution of a contract satisfactory to the University.All other tenderers are to be notified in writing that they were not successful. Unsuccessful tenderers can request a debriefing with the Tender Evaluation Team Leader. Debriefings should explain how their tender performed against the evaluation criteria, rather than against the successful tender. The letter of acceptance and letters to unsuccessful tenderers are to be prepared by the Tender Evaluation Team Leader and signed by the Chief Procurement Officer or the Director of Campus Infrastructure and Services for CIS managed tenders. If none of the tenders are acceptable it will be necessary to close the tender and re-tender. The Chief Procurement Officer is to approve the re-tendering proposal.20. Dealing with Queries from Unsuccessful TenderersTender information is commercially sensitive and therefore must be handled and protected appropriately. The disclosure of information could prejudice the commercial interests of the companies submitting the bid and the bargaining power of the University in the future. Unsuccessful tenderers can be advised of the name of the successful tenderer, the contract price and, in the case of a higher price having been accepted, the reasons why their offer was not successful. The University may wish to inform the unsuccessful tenderer about the weaknesses in their bid in comparison made against the tender selection criteria, but not the other bids.Some tips to remember are:•Ensure all tenderers are aware of the sole contact person.•Ensure relevant people in your department/unit are aware of the sole contact person,•Ensure all communications are documented so that there can be no argument about what was said.21. Agreements ArisingAll tenders will require a written agreement between the University and the successful tenderer. The draft Agreement provided with the tender documentation will form the basis. In most cases, Agreement negotiations between the University and preferred tenderer will be finalized prior to the Tender Board approval for the acceptance of a tender. Agreements are to be signed by the Chief Procurement Officer or the Director of Campus Infrastructure and Services for CIS managed tenders.采购：招标过程一概述（一）目的以下流程主要是对高校采购政策的进一步补充。

外文原文Study on Human Resource Allocation in Multi-Project Based on the Priority and the Cost of ProjectsLin Jingjing , Zhou GuohuaSchoolofEconomics and management, Southwest Jiao tong University ,610031 ,China Abstract----This paper put forward the a ffecting factors of project’s priority. which is introduced into a multi-objective optimization model for human resource allocation in multi-project environment . The objectives of the model were the minimum cost loss due to the delay of the time limit of the projects and the minimum delay of the project with the highest priority .Then a Genetic Algorithm to solve the model was introduced. Finally, a numerical example was used to testify the feasibility of the model and the algorithm.Index Terms—Genetic Algorithm, Human Resource Allocation, Multi-project’s project’s priority .1.INTRODUCTIONMore and more enterprises are facing the challenge of multi-project management, which has been the focus among researches on project management. In multi-project environment ,the share are competition of resources such as capital , time and human resources often occur .Therefore , it’s critical to schedule projects in order to satisfy the different resource demands and to shorten the projects’ duration time with resources constrained ,as in [1].For many enterprises ,the human resources are the most precious asset .So enterprises should reasonably and effectively allocate each resource , especially the human resource ,in order to shorten the time and cost of projects and to increase the benefits .Some literatures have discussed the resource allocation problem in multi-project environment with resources constrained. Reference [1] designed an iterative algorithm and proposeda mathematical model of the resource-constrained multi-project scheduling .Basedon work breakdown structure (WBS) and Dantzig-Wolfe decomposition method ,a feasible multi-project planning method was illustrated , as in [2] . References [3,4]discussed the resource-constrained project scheduling based on Branch Delimitation method .Reference [5] put forward the framework of human resource allocation in multi-project in Long-term ,medium-term and short-term as well as research and development(R&D) environment .Basedon GPSS language, simulation model of resources allocation was built to get the project’s duration time and resources distribution, as in [6]. Reference [7] solved the engineering project’s resources optimization problem using Genetic Algorithms. These literatures reasonably optimized resources allocation in multi-project, but all had the same prerequisite that the project’s importance is the same to each other .This paper will analyze the effects of project’s priority on human resource allocation ,which is to be introduced into a mathematical model ;finally ,a Genetic Algorithm is used to solve the model.2.EFFECTS OF PROJECTS PRIORITY ON HUMAN RESOUCE ALLOCATIONAND THE AFFECTING FACTORS OF PROJECT’S PRIORITYResource sharing is one of the main characteristics of multi-project management .The allocation of shared resources relates to the efficiency and rationality of the use of resources .When resource conflict occurs ,the resource demand of the project with highest priority should be satisfied first. Only after that, can the projects with lower priority be considered.Based on the idea of project classification management ,this paper classifies the affecting factors of project’s priority into three categories ,as the project’s benefits ,the complexity of project management and technology , and the strategic influence on the enterprise’s future development . The priority weight of the project is the function of the above three categories, as shown in (1).W=f(I,c,s…) (1)Where w refers to project’s priority weight; I refers to the benefits of th e project; c refers to the complexity of the project, including the technology and management; s refers to the influence of the project on enterprise .The bigger the values of the three categories, the higher the priority is.3.HUMAN RESOURCE ALLOCATION MODEL IN MULTI-PROJECTENVIRONMENT3.1Problem DescriptionAccording to the constraint theory, the enterprise should strictly differentiate the bottleneck resources and the non-bottleneck resources to solve the constraint problem of bottleneck resources .This paper will stress on the limited critical human resources being allocated to multi-project with definite duration times and priority.To simplify the problem, we suppose that that three exist several parallel projects and a shared resources storehouse, and the enterprise’s operation only involves one kind of critical human resources. The supply of the critical human resource is limited, which cannot be obtained by hiring or any other ways during a certain period .when resource conflict among parallel projects occurs, we may allocate the human resource to multi-project according to project’s priorities .The allocation of non-critical independent human resources is not considered in this paper, which supposes that the independent resources that each project needs can be satisfied.Engineering projects usually need massive critical skilled human resources in some critical chain ,which cannot be substituted by the other kind of human resources .When the critical chains of projects at the same time during some period, there occur resource conflict and competition .The paper also supposes that the corresponding network planning of various projects have already been established ,and the peaks of each project’s resources demand have been optimized .The delay of the critical chain will affect the whole project’s duration time .3.2 Model HypothesesThe following hypotheses help us to establish a mathematical model:(1)The number of mutually independent projects involved in resourceallocation problem in multi-project is N. Each project is indicated withQ i,while i=1,2, … N.(2)The priority weights of multi-project have been determined ,which arerespectively w1,w 2…w n .(3) The total number of the critical human resources is R ,with r k standingfor each person ,while k=1,2, …,R(4) Δk i = ⎩⎨⎧others toprojectQ rcer humanresou i k 01(5) Resources capturing by several projects begins on time. t E i is theexpected duration time of project I that needs the critical resources tofinish some task after time t ,on the premise that the human resourcesdemand can be satisfied .tAi is the real duration time of project I thatneeds the critical resource to finish some task after time t .(6) According to the contract ,if the delay of the project happens the dailycost loss due to the delay is △c i for pro ject I .According to the project’simportance ,the delay of a project will not only cause the cost loss ,butwill also damage the prestige and status of the enterprise .(while thelatent cost is difficult to quantify ,it isn’t considered in this articletemporarily.)(7) From the hypothesis (5) ,we can know that after time t ,the time-gapbetween the real and expected duration time of project I that needs thecritical resources to finish some task is △t i ,( △t i =t A i -t E i ). For thereexists resources competition, the time –gap is necessarily a positivenumber.(8) According to hypotheses (6) and (7), the total cost loss of project I is C i(C i = △t i * △C i ).(9) The duration time of activities can be expressed by the workload ofactivities divided by the quantity of resources ,which can be indicatedwith following expression of t A i =ηi / R i * ,.In the expression , ηi refersto the workload of projects I during some period ,which is supposed tobe fixed and pre-determined by the project managers on project planningphase ; R i * refers to the number of the critical human resources beingallocated to projects I actually, with the equation Ri * =∑=Rk ki 1δ existing. Due to the resource competition the resourcedemands of projects with higherPriorities may be guarantee, while those projects with lower prioritiesmay not be fully guaranteed. In this situation, the decrease of theresource supply will lead to the increase of the duration time of activitiesand the project, while the workload is fixed.3.3 Optimization ModelBased on the above hypotheses, the resource allocation model inmulti-project environment can be established .Here, the optimizationmodel is :F i =min Z i = min∑∑==Ni i N i Ci 11ω =min i i Ni i N i c t ∆∆∑∑==11ω (2) =min ∑∑==N i i N i 11ω )E i R i ki i t - ⎝⎛∑=1δη i c ∆ 2F =min Z 2=min ()i t ∆=min )E i R i ki i t -⎝⎛∑=1δη (3) Where wj=max(wi) ,(N j i 3,2,1,=∀) (4)Subject to : 0∑∑==≤R k ki N i 11δ=R (5)The model is a multi-objective one .The two objective functions arerespectively to minimize the total cost loss ,which is to conform to theeconomic target ,and to shorten the time delay of the project with highestpriority .The first objective function can only optimize the apparenteconomic cost ;therefore the second objective function will help to makeup this limitation .For the project with highest priority ,time delay will damage not only the economic benefits ,but also the strategy and the prestige of the enterprise .Therefore we should guarantee that the most important project be finished on time or ahead of schedule .4.SOLUTION TO THE MULTI-OBJECTIVE MODEL USING GENETICALGORITHM4.1The multi-objective optimization problem is quite common .Generally ,eachobjective should be optimized in order to get the comprehensive objective optimized .Therefore the weight of each sub-objective should be considered .Reference [8] proposed an improved ant colony algorithm to solve this problem .Supposed that the weights of the two optimizing objectives are αand β ,where α+β=1 .Then the comprehensive goal is F* ,where F*=αF1+βF2.4.2The Principle of Genetic AlgorithmGenetic Algorithm roots from the concepts of natural selection and genetics .It’s a random search technique for global optimization in a complex search space .Because of the parallel nature and less restrictions ,it has the key features of great currency ,fast convergence and easy calculation .Meanwhile ,its search scope is not limited ,so it’s an effective method to solve the resource balancing problem ,as in [9].The main steps of GA in this paper are as follow:(1)EncodingAn integer string is short, direct and efficient .According to thecharacteristics of the model, the human resource can be assigned to be acode object .The string length equals to the total number of humanresources allocated.(2)Choosing the fitness functionThis paper choose the objective function as the foundation of fitnessfunction .To rate the values of the objective function ,the fitness of then-th individual is 1/n。