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Speech on Hitler's Invasion of the U.S.S.R.Winston S .ChurchillWhen I awoke on the morning of Sunday, the 22nd, the news was brought to me of Hitler's invasion of Russia. This changed conviction into certainty. I had not the slightest doubt where our duty and our policy lay. Nor indeed what to say. There only remained the task of composing it. I asked that notice should immediately be given that I would broad-cast at 9 o' clock that night. Presently General Dill, who had hastened down from London, came into my bedroom with detailed news. The Germans had invaded Russia on an enormous front, had surprised a large portion of the Soviet Air Force grounded on the airfields, and seemed to be driving forward with great rapidity and violence. The Chief of the Imperial General Staff added, "I suppose they will be rounded up in hordes ."I spent the day composing my statement. There was not time to consult the War Cabinet, nor was it necessary. I knew that we all felt the same on this issue. Mr. Eden, Lord Beaverbrook, and Sir Stafford Cripps –he had left Moscow on the 10th –were also with me during the day.The following account of this Sunday at Chequers by my Private Secretary, Mr. Colville, who was on duty this weekend, may be of interest:"On Saturday, June 21, I went down to Chequers just before dinner. Mr. and Mrs. Winant, Mr. and Mrs. Eden, and Edward Bridges were staying. During dinner Mr. Churchill said that a German attack on Russia was now certain, and he thought that Hitler was counting on enlisting capitalist and Right Wing sympathies in this country and the U. S. A. Hitler was, however, wrong and we should go all out to help Russia. Winant said the same would be true of the U. S. A.After dinner, when I was walking on the croquet lawn with Mr. Churchill, he reverted to this theme, and I asked whether for him, the arch anti-Communist, this was not bowing down in the House of Rimmon. Mr. Churchill replied, "Not at all. I have only one purpose, the destruction of Hitler, and my life is much simplified thereby. It Hitler invaded Hell I would make at least a favourable reference to the Devil in the House of Commons. 'I was awoken at 4 a. m. the following morning by a telephone message from the F. O. to the effect that Germany had attacked Russia. The P. M. had always said that he was never to be woken up for anything but Invasion (of England). I therefore postponed telling him till 8 am. His only comment was, 'Tell the B.B.C. I will broadcast at 9 to –night. 'He began to prepare the speech at 11a. m., and except for luncheon（= lunch）, at which Sir Stafford Cripps, Lord Cranborne, and Lord Beaverbrook were present, h e devoted the whole day to it… The speech was only ready at twenty minutes to nine."In this broadcast I said:"The Nazi regime is indistinguishable from the worst features of Communism. It is devoid of all theme and principle except appetite and racial domination. It excels all forms of human wickedness in the efficiency of its cruelty and ferocious aggression. No one has been a more consistent consistent opponent of Communism than I have for the last twenty - five years. I will unsay no word that I have spoken about it. But all this fades away before the spectacle which is now unfolding. The past, with its crimes, its follies, and its tragedies, flashes away. I see the Russian soldiers standing on the threshold of their native land, guarding the fields which their fathers have tilled from time immemorial. I see them guarding their homes where mothers and wives pray - ah, yes, for there are times when all pray – for the safety of their loved ones, thereturn of the bread-winner, of their champion, of their protector. I see the ten thousand villages of Russia where the means of existence is wrung so hardly from the soil, but where there are still primordial human joys, where maidens laugh and children play. I see advancing upon all this in hideous onslaught the Nazi war machine, with its clanking , heel-clicking, dandified Prussian officers, its crafty expert agents fresh from the cowing and tying down of a dozen countries. I see also the dull, drilled, docile , brutish masses of the Hun soldiery plodding on like a swarm of crawling locusts. I see the German bombers and fighters in the sky, still smarting from many a British whipping, delighted to find what they believe is an easier and a safer prey."Behind all this glare, behind all this storm, I see that small group of villainous men who plan, organise, and launch this cataract of horrors upon mankind..."I have to declare the decision of His Majesty's Government - and I feel sure it is a decision in which the great Dominions will in due concur –for we must speak out now at once, without a day's delay. I have to make the declaration, but can you doubt what our policy will be? We have but one aim and one single, irrevocable purpose. We are resolved to destroy Hitler and every vestige of the Nazi regime. From this nothing will turn us – nothing. We will never parley; we will never negotiate with Hitler or any of his gang. We shall fight him by land, we shall fight him by sea, we shall fight him in the air, until, with God's help, we have rid the earth of his shadow and liberated its peoples from his yoke. Any man or state who fights on against Nazidom will have our aid. Any man or state who marches with Hitler is our foe... That is our policy and that is our declaration. It follows therefore that we shall give whatever help we can to Russia and the Russian people. We shall appeal to all our friends and allies in every part of the world to take the same course and pursue it, as we shall faithfully and steadfastly to the end...."This is no class war, but a war in which the whole British Empire and Commonwealth of Nations is engaged, without distinction of race, creed, or party. It is not for me to speak of the action of the United States, but this I will say：if Hitler imagines that his attack on Soviet Russia will cause the slightest divergence of aims or slackening of effort in the great democracies who are resolved upon his doom, he is woefully mistaken. On the contrary, we shall be fortified and encouraged in our efforts to rescue mankind from his tyranny. We shall be strengthened and not weakened in determination and in resources."This is no time to moralise on the follies of countries and Governments which have allowed themselves to be struck down one by one, when by united action they could have saved themselves and saved the world from this tyranny. But when I spoke a few minutes ago of Hitler's blood-lust and the hateful appetites which have impelled or lured him on his Russian adventure I said there was one deeper motive behind his outrage. He wishes to destroy the Russian power because he hopes that if he succeeds in this he will be able to bring back the main strength of his Army and Air Force from the East and hurl it upon this Island, which he knows he must conquer or suffer the penalty of his crimes. His invasion of Russia is no more than a penalty to an attempted invasion of the British Isles. He hopes, no doubt, that all this may be accomplished before the winter comes, and that he can overwhelm Great Britain before the Fleet and air-power of the United States may intervene. He hopes that he may once again repeat, upon a greater scale than ever before, that process of destroying his enemies one by one by which he has so long thrived and prospered, and that then the scene will be clear for the final act, without which all his conquests would be in vain – namely, the subjugation of the Western Hemisphere to his will and to his system."The Russian danger is therefore our danger, and the danger of the United States, just as the cause of any Russian fighting for his hearth ）and home is the cause of free men and free peoples in every quarter of the globe. Let us learn the lessons already taught by such cruel experience. Let us redouble our exertions, and strike with united strength while life and power remain. "第五课关于希特勒入侵苏联的讲话温斯顿o邱吉尔二十二日星期天早晨，我一醒来便接到了希特勒入侵苏联的消息。
翻译学习必备词汇（1）伯乐good judge of talent (the name of a legendary person in the state of Qin during the Spring and Autumn Period who excelled in evaluating horses)薄利多销small profit, large sale volume博士后post-doctoral博士生导师tutor of a Ph.D. student博彩（业）lottery industry剥夺冠军strip the gold medal of somebody播客podcast博客圈blogosphere薄利多销small profit, large sales volume; small profits but quick returns; small profits and good sales博士生Ph.D candidate BP 机beeper, pagerB to B (B2B) business to business B to C (B2C) business to consumer不安全性行为unprotected sex不败记录clean record, spotless record步步高升Promoting to a higher position补偿贸易compensatory trade不承诺放弃使用武器not undertake to renounce the use of force不承诺放弃使用武力will not commit ourselves to rule out the use of force不打不成交"No discord, no concord. "布达拉宫the Potala Palace不到长城非好汉He who has never been to the Great Wall is not a true man.不得转让not negotiable不分上下的总统选举结果the neck-and-neck presidential election result 不感冒have no interest不搞劳民伤财的“形象工程” refrain from building “vanity projects”that waste both money and manpower不管部部长minister without portfolio不怀恶意的谎言white lie不记名投票secret ballot《不见不散》Be there or be square.不结盟运动non-aligned movement不可抗力force majeure不可推卸的责任compelling obligation不可再生资源non-renewable resources布雷顿森林体系Bretton Woods System不良贷款non-performing loan不买账not take it; not go for it不眠之夜white night不明飞行物unidentified flying object (UFO)不拿原则换人情refrain from seeking personal favor at the expense of principle补缺选举by-election不惹是非Stay out of trouble.; Let sleeping dogs lie.不速之客gate-crasher补习班tutoring center (Macao's Education and Youth Affairs Bureau has ordered two local privatetutoring centers to be temporarily shut down as it received reports of a sexual abuse cases involving the two centers and young boys, the Macao Post Daily reported on Friday. 据《澳门邮报》周五报道，澳门教育暨青年局下令暂时关闭两家当地的私立补习班，因为该局收到有关这两家补习班对男生进行性虐待的报告。
龙飞虎高频英语单词Dragons, tigers, and the blending of these two powerful creatures make up a fascinating part of Chinese culture. 龙，虎，以及这两只强大生物的结合构成了中国文化中令人着迷的部分。
The dragon, representing power, strength, and prosperity, is one of the most revered mythological creatures in Chinese folklore. 龙代表力量，力量和繁荣，在中国传说中是最受尊敬的神话生物之一。
Tigers, on the other hand, symbolize courage, protection, and bravery, also holding a significant place in Chinese history and culture. 而另一方面，老虎象征勇气，保护和勇气，在中国历史和文化中也占有重要的位置。
The combination of dragons and tigers, often referred to as "Lung Fu Hu", is seen as a symbol of ultimate power and protection. 龙虎的结合，经常被称为“龙虎”，被视为终极力量和保护的象征。
This pairing embodies the perfect balance of yin and yang, representing the harmonious coexistence of these two majestic creatures. 这种配对体现了阴阳的完美平衡，代表着这两种威严生物的和谐共存。
魔鬼词典爱情1.男女之间达到无法分离时的状态，通常是以金钱为计量单位的。
2.在你觉得生活无法再好时开始，又再你觉得生活无法再坏时结束的那一段心灵状态。
艾滋病消化不良所导致的友邦惊诧论，谁摊上谁就是晚年地主。
哀悼告诉别人：显示同情比丧失亲人更为不幸。
癌症终生的内疚，正是它蚕食着你的肉体和灵魂。
安慰一种受到赞扬的欺骗行为，常常围绕某个不幸者产生。
澳大利亚这个国家居民至今还没有明确的归属感，因为他们不知道自己是生活在地球上最小的大陆上，还是最大的岛屿上。
癌症在废除死刑制度之后的民主、法治国度里，授予医生的一种宣判死刑的特权。
安慰人人都使用过和被使用过的武器。
当你安慰别人的时候你就觉得高人一等了，安慰是不用付任何代价而能用你使用过的手指揩他人的屁股。
暗器未经提防的杀伤武器，以其短小、飘逸而又精明能干著称。
它是以弱胜强，以小胜大的秘密和关键。
傲慢涂在自尊与自重的脸皮上的润滑油，对手下、年幼者、顶头上司以外的鞭长莫及难以报复的大人物都可以傲慢，这是傲慢者摸索总结出的一条安全规则。
芭蕾以高人一等的脚法表现的老叟百读不懂，小伙百读不厌的东西。
巴基斯坦鸡蛋摔在地毯上导致的一句外语："巴叽湿毯"。
半身雕像女人胸部的雕塑。
伴娘在新郎眼里最漂亮的女人。
保证书这是厂家的许诺，说它的产品在保修期内不会出毛病。
被告一个被指控的人，在其清白无辜被证明之前，他是有罪的。
本能这是一种先天的知识，它警告你说你根本不知道到底是怎么回事。
便携式电脑可以方便地拎回家去用的公家电脑。
辩合法的强词夺理。
辩论这是一种口头或书面的战争，参加战斗的人们轮流怀疑他们的信念，相信他们的怀疑。
卑鄙当某人用不同寻常的方法获得成功时你给他的一种评价，它同时包含了一种懊悔的心情---要是我先能想到如此妙计该多好。
背部是你朋友的身体的一部分，专供你处在不幸之中时注视的。
备分就像大部分人要读世界名著一样，经常想起，经常说起，却从来没有做的一件事。
国际象棋英语词典In the realm of chess, the language barrier can often pose a significant challenge for players seeking to expand their knowledge and skills beyond their native tongues. Fortunately, the existence of a comprehensive English chess dictionary has bridged this gap, enabling players from diverse linguistic backgrounds to delve deeper into the strategies, tactics, and terminologies of the game.The English chess dictionary is not just a repository of terms and definitions; it is a gateway to a rich and diverse chess culture. It offers players a standardized language to communicate their moves, strategies, and insights, regardless of their mother tongue. This standardization is crucial in maintaining the integrity and universality of the game, ensuring that players from around the world can understand and appreciate each other's play. Moreover, the dictionary serves as a valuable resource for players who are learning the game. It provides clear and concise explanations of chess terminologies, from basic concepts like "pawn" and "rook" to more advanced strategies like "smothered mate" and "zwischenzug." These definitionsare often accompanied by illustrative examples and diagrams, making it easier for beginners to grasp the nuances of the game.For competitive players, the dictionary is an indispensable tool for honing their skills. It allows themto delve deeper into the strategies employed by masters and grandmasters, understanding the reasoning behind their moves and learning from their successes and failures. By studying the terminologies and concepts outlined in the dictionary, players can enhance their understanding of the game and improve their decision-making abilities.Furthermore, the English chess dictionary plays apivotal role in the development of chess literature and resources. Many chess books, articles, and online resources are written in English, making the dictionary a crucialtool for translating and understanding these materials.This enables players from all over the world to access a wealth of chess knowledge and insights, further expanding their horizons and enhancing their skills.In conclusion, the English chess dictionary is a vital component of the chess ecosystem. It breaks down languagebarriers, promotes standardization, and serves as aresource for players at all levels. Whether you're a beginner just starting out or a seasoned pro looking tohone your skills, having a reliable English chessdictionary at your fingertips is essential for enhancing your understanding and enjoyment of the game.**国际象棋英语词典的重要性及其在学习与竞技中的应用** 在国际象棋领域，语言障碍往往成为玩家在母语之外拓展知识与技能的重大挑战。
Chapter 1 The Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1、The Definition of a WordLexicology focuses on the study of meanings and origins of words。
According to semanticists(语义学家), a word is a unit of meaning.A word is a minimal（最小的）free form of a language that has a given sound，meaningand syntactic function（句法功能).2、 VocabularyAll the words in a language make up what is generally known as its vocabulary。
3、 Sound and MeaningThe relationship between sound and meaning is no logic4、 Sound and FormThere was more agreement between sound and form in Old English than in Modern English。
With the development of the language，more and more differences arose between sound and form.（1）、What is the relationship between sound and meaning? Give examples to illustrate it.The relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary and conventional。
Learning New Compositions from Given OnesJi DonghongDepartment of Computer ScienceTsinghua UniversityBeijing, 100084, P. R. ChinaEmail: jdh@He JunDepartment of Computer ScienceHerbin Institute of TechnologyEmail: hj@Huang ChangningDepartment of Computer ScienceTsinghua UniversityBeijing, 100084, P. R. ChinaEmail: hcn@Abstract:In this paper, we study the problem of learning new compositions of words from given ones with a specific syntactic structure, e.g., A-N or V-N structures. We first cluster words according to the given compositions, then construct a cluster-based compositional frame for each word cluster, which contains both new and given compositions relevant with the words in the cluster. In contrast to other methods, we don’t pre-define the number of clusters, and formalize the problem of clustering words as a non-linear optimization one, in which we specify the environments of words based on word clusters to be determined, rather than their neighboring words. To solve the problem, we make use of a kind of cooperative evolution strategy to design an evolutionary algorithm.Key words: word compositions, evolutionary learning, clustering, natural language processing.1. IntroductionWord compositions have long been a concern in lexicography(Benson et al. 1986; Miller et al. 1995), and now as a specific kind of lexical knowledge, it has been shown that they have an important role in many areas in natural language processing, e.g., parsing, generation, lexicon building, word sense disambiguation, and information retrieving, etc.(e.g., Abney 1989, 1990; Benson et al. 1986; Yarowsky 1995; Church and Hanks 1989; Church, Gale, Hans, and Hindle 1989). But due to the huge number of words, it is impossible to list all compositions between words by hand in dictionaries. So an urgent problem occurs: how to automatically acquire word compositions?In general, word compositions fall into two categories: free compositions and bound compositions, i.e., collocations. Free compositions refer to those in which words can be replaced by other similar ones, while in bound compositions, words cannot be replaced freely(Benson 1990). Free compositions are predictable, i.e., their reasonableness can be determined according to the syntactic and semantic properties of the words in them. While bound compositions are not predictable, i.e., their reasonableness cannot be derived from the syntactic and semantic propertiesof the words in them(Smadja 1993).N ow with the availability of large-scale corpus, automatic acquisition of word compositions, especially word collocations from them have been extensively studied(e.g., Choueka et al. 1988; Church and Hanks 1989; Smadja 1993). The key of their methods is to make use of some statistical means, e.g., frequencies or mutual information, to quantify the compositional strength between words. These methods are more appropriate for retrieving bound compositions, while less appropriate for retrieving free ones. This is because in free compositions, words are related with each other in a more loose way, which may result in the invalidity of mutual information and other statistical means in distinguishing reasonable compositions from unreasonable ones.In this paper, we start from a different point to explore the problem of automatic acquisition of free compositions. Although we cannot list all free compositions, we can select some typical ones as those specified in some dictionaries(e.g., Benson 1986; Zhang et al. 1994). According to the properties held by free compositions, we can reasonably suppose that selected compositions can provide strong clues for others. Furthermore we suppose that words can be classified into clusters, with the members in each cluster similar in their compositional ability, which can be characterized as the set of the words able to combined with them to form meaningful phrases. Thus any given composition, although specifying the relation between two words literally, suggests the relation between two clusters. So for each word(or cluster), there exist some word clusters, the word (or the words in the cluster) can and only can combine with the words in the clusters to form meaningful phrases. We call the set of these clusters compositional frame of the word (or the cluster).A seemingly plausible method to determine compositional frames is to make use of pre-defined semantic classes in some thesauri(e.g., Miller et al. 1993; Mei et al. 1996). The rationale behind the method is to take such an assumption that if one word can be combined with another one to form a meaningful phrase, the words similar to them in meaning can also be combined with each other. But it has been shown that the similarity between words in meaning doesn’t correspond to the similarity in compositional ability(Zhu 1982). So adopting semantic classes to construct compositional frames will result in considerable redundancy.An alternative to semantic class is word cluster based on distributional environment (Brown et al., 1992), which in general refers to the surrounding words distributed around certain word (e.g., Hatzivassiloglou et al., 1993; Pereira et al., 1993), or the classes of them(Bensch et al., 1995), or more complex statistical means (Dagan et al., 1993). According to the properties of the clusters in compositional frames, the clusters should be based on the environment, which, however, is narrowed in the given compositions. Because the given compositions are listed by hand, it is impossible to make use of statistical means to form the environment, the remaining choices are surrounding words or classes of them.Pereira et al.(1993) put forward a method to cluster nouns in V-N compositions, taking the verbs which can combine with a noun as its environment. Although its goal is to deal with the problem of data sparseness, it suffers from the problem itself. A strategy to alleviate the effects of the problem is to cluster nouns and verbs simultaneously. But as a result, the problem of word clustering becomes a bootstrapping one, or a non-linear one: the environment is also to be determined. Bensch et al. (1995) proposed a definite method to deal with the generalized version of the non-linear problem, but it suffers from the problem of local optimization.In this paper, we focus on A-N compositions in Chinese, and explore the problem of learningnew compositions from given ones. In order to copy with the problem of sparseness, we take adjective clusters as nouns’ environment, and take noun clusters as adjectives’ environment. In order to avoid local optimal solutions, we propose a cooperative evolutionary strategy. The method uses no specific knowledge of A-N structure, and can be applied to other structures.The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: in section 2, we give a formal description of the problem. In section 3, we discuss a kind of cooperative evolution strategy to deal with the problem. In section 4, we explore the problem of parameter estimation. In section 5, we present our experiments and the results as well as their evaluation. In section 6, we give some conclusions and discuss future work.2. Problem SettingGiven an adjective set and a noun set, suppose for each noun, some adjectives are listed as its compositional instances1. Our goal is to learn new reasonable compositions from the instances. To do so, we cluster nouns and adjectives simultaneously and build a compositional frame for each noun.Suppose A is the set of adjectives, N is the set of nouns, for any a symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∈}A, let f(a)symbol 205 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5⊆}N be the instance set of a, i.e., the set of nouns in N which can be combined with a, and for any n symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∈}N, let g(n)symbol 205 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5⊆}A be the instance set of n, i.e., the set of adjectives in A which can be combined with n. We first give some formal definitions in the following:Definition 1 partitionSuppose U is a non-empty finite set, we call <U1, U2, ..., U k> a partition of U, if:i) for any U i, and U j, i symbol 185 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≠}j, U i symbol 199 \f "Symbol" \s10.5∩}U j•symbol 102 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5φ,ii) U=U ii k1≤≤UWe call U i a cluster of U.Suppose U•< A1, A2, ..., A p > is a partition of A, V•<N1, N2, ..., N q> is a partition of N, f and g are defined as above, for any N i, let g(N i)•{A j:_symbol 36 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∃n symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∈}N i, A j symbol 199 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∩}g(n)symbol 185 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≠}symbol 102 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5φ}, and for anyn, let δ<>U V n,()•symbol 124 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5|{a:_symbol 36 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∃A j, A j symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∈}g(N k), a symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∈}A j}symbol 45 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5−g(n)symbol 124 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5|, where n symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∈}N k. Intuitively,δ<>U V n,()is the number of the new instances relevant with n. We define the general learning amount as the following:Definition 2 learning amountδ<>U V,1 The compositional instances of the adjectives can be inferred from those of the nouns.δ<>U V ,•δ<>∈∑n N n ,()Based on the partitions of both nouns and adjectives, we can define the distance between nouns and that between adjectives.Definition 3 distance between wordsfor any a symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∈}A , let f a ()={N i :_1symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}i symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}q , N i symbol 199 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∩}f(a)symbol 185 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≠}symbol 102 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5φ}, for any n symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∈}N , let g n U ()={A i :_1symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}i symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}p , A i symbol 199 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∩}g(n)symbol 185 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≠}symbol 102 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5φ}, for any two nouns n 1 and n 2, any two adjectives a 1 and a 2, we define the distances between them respectively as the following: i) dis n n U (,)12=1-g n g n g n g n U U U U ()()()()1212∩∪ii) dis a a V (,)12=1-f a f a f a f a V V V V ()()()()1212∩∪According to the distances between words, we can define the distances between word sets .Definition 4 distance between word setsGiven any two adjective sets X 1, X 2symbol 205 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5⊆}A , any two noun sets Y 1, Y 2symbol 205 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5⊆}N , their distances are:i) dis X X V (,)12=a X a X V dis a a 112212∈∈,max{(,)}ii) dis Y Y U (,)12 =n Y n Y dis n n 112212∈∈,max {(,)}Intuitively, the distance between word sets refer to the biggest distance between words respectively in the two sets.We formalize the problem of clustering nouns and adjectives simultaneously as an optimization problem with some constraints. (1)To determine a partition U •<A 1, A 2, ..., A p > of A , and a partition V •<N 1, N 2, ..., N q > of N , where p , q symbol 62 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5>0, which satisfies i) and ii), and minimize δ<>U V ,.i) for any a 1, a 2symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∈}A i , 1symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}i symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}p , dis a a (,)12<t 1; for A i and A j , 1symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}i symbol 185 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≠}j symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}p , dis A A V i j (,)symbol 179 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≥} t 1;ii) for any n 1, n 2symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∈}N i , 0symbol 163 \f"Symbol" \s 10.5≤}i symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}q , dis n n U (,)12<t 1; for N i and N j , 1symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}i symbol 185 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≠}j symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}q , dis N N i j (,)symbol 179 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≥} t 2;where 0symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}t 1, t 2symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}1.Intuitively, the conditions i) and ii) make the distances between words within clusters smaller, and those between different clusters bigger, and to minimize δ<>U V ,means to minimize the distances between the words within clusters. In fact, (U , V ) can be seen as an abstraction model over given compositions, and t 1, t 2 can be seen as its abstraction degree . Consider the two special case: one is t 1=t 2 =0, i.e., the abstract degree is the lowest, when the result is that one noun forms a cluster and on adjective forms a cluster, which means that no new compositions are learned. The other is t 1=t 2 =1, the abstract degree is the highest, when a possible result is that all nouns form a cluster and all adjectives form a cluster, which means that all possible compositions, reasonable or unreasonable, are learned. So we need estimate appropriate values for the two parameters, in order to make an appropriate abstraction over given compositions, i.e., make the compositional frames contain as many reasonable compositions as possible, and as few unreasonable ones as possible.3. Cooperative EvolutionSince the beginning of evolutionary algorithms, they have been applied in many areas in AI(Davis et al., 1991; Holland 1994). Recently, as a new and powerful learning strategy,cooperative evolution has gained much attention in solving complex non-linear problem. In this section, we discuss how to deal with the problem (1) based on the strategy.According to the interaction between adjective clusters and noun clusters, we adopt such a cooperative strategy: after establishing the preliminary solutions, for any preliminary solution, we optimize N ’s partition based on A ’s partition, then we optimize A ’s partition based on N ’s partition, and so on, until the given conditions are satisfied.3.1 Preliminary SolutionsWhen determining the preliminary population, we also cluster nouns and adjectives respectively.However, we see the environment of a noun as the set of all adjectives which occur with it in given compositions, and that of an adjective as the set of all the nouns which occur with it in given compositions. Compared with (1), the problem is a linear clustering one.Suppose a 1, a 2symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∈}A , f is defined as above, we define the linear distance between them as (2):(2) dis (a 1, a 2)•1-f a f a f a f a ()()()()1212∩∪Similarly, we can define the linear distance between nouns dis (n 1, n 2) based on g . In contrast, we call the distances in definition 3 non-linear distances .According to the linear distances between adjectives, we can determine a preliminary partition of N : randomly select an adjective and put it into an empty set X , then scan the otheradjectives in A , for any adjective in A -X, if its distances from the adjectives in X are all smaller than t 1, then put it into X , finally X forms a preliminary cluster. Similarly, we can build another preliminary cluster in (A -X ). So on, we can get a set of preliminary clusters, which is just a partition of A . According to the different order in which we scan the adjectives, we can get different preliminary partitions of A .Similarly, we can determine the preliminary partitions of N based on the linear distances between nouns. A partition of A and a partition of N forms a preliminary solution of (1), and all possible preliminary solutions forms the population of preliminary solutions, which we also call the population of 0th generation solutions.3.2 Evolution OperationIn general, evolution operation consists of recombination, mutation and selection. Recombination makes two solutions in a generation combine with each other to form a solution belonging to nextgeneration. Suppose <U i 1(); V i 1()> and <U i 2(); V i 2()> are two ith generation solutions, whereU i 1() and U i 2() are two partitions of A , V i 1() and V i 2() are two partitions of N , then <U i 1()•V i 2()>and <U i 2(); V i 1()> forms two possible (i +1)th generation solutions.Mutation makes a solution in a generation improve its fitness , and evolve into a new onebelonging to next generation. Suppose <U i (); V i ()> is a ith generation solution, whereU i ()•<A 1, A 2, ..., A p >•V i ()•<N 1, N 2, ..., N q > are partitions of A and N respectively, the mutation is aimed at optimizing Vi () into V i ()£«1 based on U i (), and makes V i ()£«1 satisfy the condition ii)in (1), or optimizing U i () into Ui ()£«1 based on V i (), and makes U i ()£«1 satisfy the condition i)in (1), then moving words across clusters to minimize δ<>U V ,.We design three steps for mutation operation: splitting , merging and moving , the former two are intended for the partitions to satisfy the conditions in (1), and the third intended to minimizeδ<>U V ,. In the following, we take the evolution of V i ()£«1 as an example to demonstrate the three steps.symbol 183 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5•} Splitting Procedure . For any N k , 1symbol 163 \f "Symbol"\s 10.5≤}k symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}q , if there exist n 1, n 2symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∈}N k , such that dis n n U i ()(,)12symbol 179 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≥} t 2, then splitting N k into two subsets X and Y . The procedure is given as the following:i) Put n 1 into X , n 2 into Y ,ii) Select the noun in (N k -(X symbol 200 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∪}Y )) whose distance from n 1is the smallest, and put it into X ,iii) Select the noun in (N k -(X symbol 200 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∪}Y )) whose distance from n 2is the smallest, and put it into Y,iv) Repeat ii) and iii), until X symbol 200 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∪}Y = N k .For X (or Y ), if there exist n 1, n 2symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∈}X (or Y ), dis n n U i ()(,)12symbol 179 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≥} t 2, then we can make use of the above procedure to split it into moresmaller sets. Obviously, we can split any N k in V i () into several subsets which satisfy thecondition ii) in (1) by repeating the procedure.symbol 183 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5•} Merging procedure . If there exist N j and N k , where1symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}j,k symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}q , such that dis N N U j k i ()(,)symbol 60 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5<t 2, then merging them into a new cluster.It is easy to prove that U i () and V i () will meet the condition i) and ii) in (1) respectively, after splitting and merging procedure.symbol 183 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5•} Moving procedure . We call moving n from N j to N k a word move , where 1symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}j symbol 185 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≠}k symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}q , denoted as (n , N j , N k ), if the condition (ii) remains satisfied. The procedure is as the following:i) Select a word move (n , N j , N k ) which minimizes δ<>U V ,,ii) Move n from N j to N k ,iii) Repeat i) and ii)•until there are no word moves which reduce δ<>U V ,.After the three steps, U i ()and V i () evolve into U i ()£«1and V i ()£«1 respectively.Selection operation selects the solutions among those in the population of certain generation according to their fitness. We define the fitness of a solution as its learning amount.We use J i to denote the set of ith generation solutions, H (i , i+1), as in (3), specifies the similarity between ith generation solutions and (i +1)th generation solutions.(3) H (i , i+1)=Min U V J Min U V J U V i i i U V i i i i i i i {:_(,)}{:_(,)}()()()(),()(),()()δδ<>+++<>++∈∈11111Let t 3 be a threshold for H (i , i+1), the following is the general evolutionary algorithm:Procedure Clustering (A , N , f , g );begini) Build preliminary solution population I 0,ii) Determine 0th generation solution set J 0 according to their fitness,iii) Determine I i+1 based on J i :a) Recombination: if (U i 1(),V i 1()), (U i 2(),V i 2())symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s10.5∈}J i , then (U i 1(),V i 2()), (U i 2(),V i 1())symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s10.5∈}I i+1,b) Mutation: if (U i (),V i ())symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∈}J i , then(U i (),V i ()£«1), (U i ()£«1,V i ())symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∈}I i+1,iv) Determine J i+1 from I i+1 according to their fitness,v) If H (i ,i+1)>t 3, then exit, otherwise goto iii),end •After determining the clusters of adjectives and nouns, we can construct the compositional frame for each noun cluster or each noun. In fact, for each noun cluster N i , g (N i )={A j :_symbol 36 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∃n symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∈}N i , A j symbol 199 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∩}g (n )symbol 185 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≠}symbol 102 \f"Symbol" \s 10.5φ} is just its compositional frame, and for any noun in N i , g (N i ) is also its compositional frame. Similarly, for each adjective (or adjective cluster), we can also determine its compositional frame.4. Parameter EstimationThe parameters t 1 and t 2 in (1) are the thresholds for the distances between the clusters of A and N respectively. If they are too big, the established frame will contain more unreasonable compositions, on the other hand, if they are too small, many reasonable compositions may not be included in the frame. Thus, we should determine appropriate values for t 1 and t 2, which makes the fame contain as many reasonable compositions as possible, meanwhile as few unreasonable ones as possible.Suppose F i is the compositional frame of N i , let F =<F 1, F 2, ..., F q >, for any F i , let A F i •{a :_symbol 36 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∃X symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∈}F i , a symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∈}X }. Intuitively, A F i is the set of the adjectives learned as the compositionalinstances of the noun in N i . For any n symbol 206 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5∈}N i , we use A n to denote the set of all the adjectives which in fact can modify n to form a meaningful phrase, we now define deficiency rate and redundancy rate of F . For convenience, we use symbol 100 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5δF to represent symbol 100 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5δ(, ).Definition 5 Deficiency rate symbol 97 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5αFsymbol 97 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5αF = n N n F i q nn N i iA A A∈≤≤∈∑∑∑−1Intuitively, symbol 97 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5αF refers to the ratio between the reasonable compositions which are not learned and all the reasonable ones.Definition 6 Redundancy rate symbol 98 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5βFsymbol 98 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5βF •n N F ni q Fi i A A ∈≤≤∑∑−1δIntuitively, symbol 98 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5βF refers to the ratio between unreasonable compositions which are learned and all the learned ones.So the problem of estimating t 1 and t 2 can be formalized as (5):(5) to find t 1 and t 2, which makes symbol 97 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5αF =0, and symbol 98 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5βF =0.But, (5) may exists no solutions, because its constraints are two strong, on one hand, the sparseness of instances may cause symbol 97 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5αF not to get 0 value, even if t 1and t 2 close to 1, on the other hand, the difference between words may cause symbol 98 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5βF not to get 0 value, even if t 1 and t 2 close to 0. So we need to weaken (5).In fact, both symbol 97 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5αF and symbol 98 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5βF can be seen as the functions of t 1 and t 2, denoted as symbol 97 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5αF (t 1, t 2) and symbol 98 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5βF (t 1,t 2) respectively. Given some values for t 1 and t 2, we can compute symbol 97\f "Symbol" \s 10.5αF and symbol 98 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5βF . Although there may exist no values (t 1*, t 2*) for (t 1, t 2), such that symbol 97 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5αF (t 1*, t 2*)=symbol 98 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5βF (t 1*, t 2*)=0, but with t 1 and t 2 increasing, symbol 97 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5αF tends to decrease, while symbol 98 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5βF tends to increase. So we can weaken (5) as (6).(6) to find t 1 and t 2, which maximizes (7). (7) ααF t t T t t F t t T t t t t T t t t t T t t (,)(,)(,)(,)(,)(,)**(,)(,)******12112122121211212212∈∈∑∑−whereT 1(t 1*, t 2*)={(t 1, t 2):_0symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}t 1symbol 163\f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}t 1*, 0symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}t 2symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}t 2*}, T 2(t 1*, t 2*)={(t 1, t 2):_t 1*<t 1symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}1, t 2*<t 2symbol 163 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≤}1}Intuitively, if we see the area ([0, 1]; [0, 1]) as a sample space for t 1 and t 2, T 1(t 1*, t 2*) and T 2(t 1*, t 2*) are its sub-areas. So the former part of (7) is the mean deficiency rate of the points in T 1(t 1*, t 2*), and the latter part of (7) is the mean deficiency rate of the points in T 2(t 1*, t 2*). To maximize (7) means to maximize its former part, while to minimize its latter part. So ourweakening (5) into (6) lies in finding a point (t 1*, t 2*), such that the mean deficiency rate of thesample points in T 2(t 1*, t 2*) tends to be very low, rather than finding a point(t 1*, t 2*), such that its deficiency rate is 0.5 Experiment Results and EvaluationWe randomly select 30 nouns and 43 adjectives, and retrieve 164 compositions(see Appendix I)between them from Xiandai Hanyu Cihai (Zhang et al. 1994), a word composition dictionary of Chinese. After checking by hand, we get 342 reasonable compositions(see Appendix I), among which 177 ones are neglected in the dictionary. So the sufficiency rate 2(denoted as symbol 103 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5γ) of these given compositions is 47.9%.We select 0.95 as the value of t 3, and let t 1=0.0, 0.1, 0.2, …, 1.0, t 2=0.0, 0.1, 0.2, …, 1.0respectively, we get 121 groups of values for symbol 97 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5αF and symbol 98 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5βF . Fig.1 and Fig.2 demonstrate the distribution of symbol 97 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5αF and symbol 98 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5βF respectively.2 Sufficiency rate refers to the ratio between given reasonable compositions and all reasonable ones.19deficiencyratet2t1 Fig. 1 The distribution of symbol 97 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5αF.19redundancerate(%)t2(1/10)t1(1/10)Fig. 2 The distribution of symbol 98 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5βF.For any given t1, and t2,we found (7) get its biggest value when t1=0.4 and t2=0.4, so we select 0.4 as the appropriate value for both t1 and t2. The result is listed in Appendix II. From Fig.1 and Fig.2, we can see that when t1=0.4 and t2=0.4, both symbol 97 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5αF and symbol 98 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5βF get smaller values. With the two parameters increasing, symbol 97 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5αF decreases slowly, while symbol 98 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5βF increases severely, which demonstrates the fact that the learning of new compositions from the given ones has reached the limit at the point: the other reasonable compositions will be learned at a cost of severely raising the redundancy rate.From Fig.1, we can see that symbol 97 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5αF generally increases as t1 and t2 increase, this is because that to increase the thresholds of the distances between clusters means to raise the abstract degree of the model, then more reasonable compositions will be learned. On the other hand, we can see from Fig.2 that when t1symbol 179 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≥}0.4, t2symbol 179 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5≥}0.4, symbol 98 \f "Symbol" \s 10.5βF roughly increases as t1 and t2 increase3,3 On some points, it may be not the case.。
129 Sonja PoulsenThe BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English: A Guide to Word Combinations. Compiled by Morton Benson, Eve-lyn Benson and Robert Ilson. John Benjamins Publishing Company/Munksgaards Ordbøger, Amsterdam/Philadel-phia 1986.1. IntroductionA dictionary specializing in the presentation of the idiosyncratic word combinations or collocations of current English is a welcome innovation and potentially a very useful tool for language production. — Although the need to include collocations in general-purpose dictionaries is increas-ingly recognized, such dictionaries are always up against problems of space. Consequently, collocations are mostly relegated to the example ma-terial, and therefore only shown on a very selective basis.Especially foreign learners are likely to benefit from a comprehensive dictionary of collocations, which will help them avoid translating word combinations from their own language directly, thereby violating the usage restrictions of the target language.In the following I will look at the word combinations included in the BBI and the typology on which it is based, but since the BBI is not the first dictionary of English word combinations, I will begin by saying a few words about its predecessors2. Predecessors of the BBIOne is the “Dictionary of English Style” published in 1961 by Prof. Dr Albrecht Reum from Leipzig in co-operation with A.H.J. Knight, Trinity College, Cambridge. Its aim was not much different from that of the BBI: it was meant to help young Germans produce genuine texts in English without formulating them in German first:“Es ist sein vornehmstes Ziel, den Aufsatz- bzw. Briefschreiber dazu zu erzie-hen, statt seine Gedanken deutsch zu formulieren und dann ins Englische zuübertragen, gleich in englischen Denk- und Satzformen niederzuschreiben.”The dictionary concentrated on the vocabulary of “a contemporary, ed-ucated Englishman” (approx. 10,000 words) and, in addition to explana-Hermes, Journal of Linguistics 7 – 1991130tions (in German), synonyms and antonyms, extensive information was given about the combinations in which the words were found:“Das Stilwörterbuch … versucht in engem Rahmen einen Begriff davon zugeben, wie die Wörter … im Zusammenhang der Rede gegenwärtig verwen-det werden, in welchen Bedeutungen sie heute noch eine Rolle spielen, vonwelchen Attributen, Prädikaten und Adverbialien begleitet sie dem englis-chen V olke von heute geläufig und in welchen sprichwörtlichen Wendungensie ihm vertraut sind.”Another dictionary of English word combinations, “The Word Finder”compiled and edited by J.l. Rodale — was first published as early as 1947. The aim of “The Word Finder” was totally different from that of Reum’s “Dictionary of Style” Although it contained long lists, e.g. of adjectives and verbs to be combined with a given noun, or adverbs to go with a cer-tain verb, the idea was not to enable ordinary users to produce typical col-locations, but to help young writers in their literary aspirations. Conse-quently, it did not include many of the recurrent combinations that are now normally referred to as collocations. Nevertheless, the dictionary was rec-ommended to Danish students of English even in the 1970s.According to the foreword to the seventeenth printing, 1965, “only words that are evocative, that stimulate and unfurl the wings of the imagi-nation, are of real assistance to the aspiring writer” As an illustration, the foreword showed how the simple thought expressed in “His cheerful char-acter charmed me very much” can be “more sumptuously expressed” by means of the dictionary: “His piquant charm was of a perplexingly elusive character, haunting, subtle, yet its very intensity was irresistible” (!) Without questioning the sincerity of the editors of “the Word Finder”, who “trust that all students of this book will succeed in sending winged words on far-flung odysseys to Fame”, I think that most students of En-glish will be content to find that the aims of the BBI are closer to those expressed by Albrecht Reum.Finally, I would like to mention The Oxford Dictionary of Current Id-iomatic English (ODCIE). The first volume, published in 1975, contains verbs with prepositions and particles. It shows the collocational patterns of the verb entries in a very comprehensive and consistent way and, although it is narrower in scope than the BBI, it may serve as a standard of compar-ison.3.The scope and typology of the BBIThe aim of the BBI is to give “essential grammatical and lexical recur-rent word combinations, often called collocations”. It does not include id-131 ioms like to kill two birds with one stone, which are defined as frozen ex-pressions in which the meaning of the whole does not reflect the meaning of the component parts. However, it does include some phrases that lie be-tween collocations and idioms, in that the meaning of the component parts are reflected partially in the meaning of the whole. Such expressions are mainly similes like free as a bird and sweet as sugar, but also fixed phrases like to mix b usiness with pleasure. The BBI specifically excludes free combinations, which are defined as combinations that “consist of elements that are joined in accordance with the general rules of English syntax and freely allow substitution” (I ntroduction, ix). Furthermore, free lexical combinations are described as “those in which the two elements do not re-peatedly co-occur, the elements are not bound specifically to each other; they occur with other items freely” (Introduction, xxiv).The typology of the BBI can be illustrated as follows (the types of word combination included in the dictionary are underlined):All word combinationsIdioms Transitional Combinations Collocations Free CombinationsGrammatical Collocations Lexical Collocations It is worth noting that there is no transitional category between colloca-tions and free combinations to parallel that between collocations and id-ioms. The failure to address the problems of demarcation involved results in some vacillation as to whether certain types of combination should be included or not (see 3.1 and 3.2 below).As regards the scope of the BBI in terms of areas of language covered, the dictionary attempts ‘to give only the most commonly used lexical col-locations” (I ntroduction, xxvi). According to the I ntroduction, colloca-tions that are used only in technical language (used in the sense of LSP) are not normally included — on the other hand, the dictionary does give “some technical collocations that will be of interest to students and teachers of English for special purposes”. — Considering the size of the dictionary, it is quite impressive how many LSP collocations are included,132but, on the other hand, users looking for a specific combination will often consult the dictionary in vain. Combinations like file an affidavit and lodge an appeal can be looked up, but it is not possible to find balance sheet and bill of exchange and the verbs used about the “creation” of these documents (draw up a b alance sheet and draw a b ill of exchange on somebody)3.1 Grammatical collocationsCollocation is normally seen as a lexical phenomenon although it oc-curs within the framework of syntax and may itself be subject to lexi-cogrammatical restrictions. However, the BBI uses the concept of gram-matical collocation, defined as a phrase consisting of a dominant word (noun, adjective, verb), and a preposition or grammatical structure such as an infinitive or clause. The reason for including combinations with prepo-sitions in a special category is that they are categorized as “grammatical words” (Benson 1985: 61). — The same reasoning is not applied to com-binations with delexical or “empty” verbs like make, do and have, which also have grammatical functions, and I think that it is debatable whether a new category is required to accommodate prepositions.Extending the concept of collocation to include combinations between a lexical item and a grammatical structure (irrespective of the lexical items it contains) does call for a new concept, however. The grammatical struc-tures are subject to usage restrictions connected with specific lexical items and the patterns found here (e.g. verb patterns) belong to an area that may be said to lie between grammar and lexis.Such information can also be found in general-purpose dictionaries and, in a dictionary of word combinations, it might have been preferable to leave it out in order to be able to show lexical collocations (including com-binations with prepositions) on a more comprehensive scale.However, it may also be argued that, because of their idiosyncratic na-ture, grammatical patterns of this kind are complementary to lexical collo-cations and that it is therefore natural to include them. At any rate, the pat-terns are described in a very user-friendly way with examples, possible alternatives and usage notes as well as by means of a coding system refer-ring to the introductory notes.The choices made as to which types of combination to include are ac-counted for in the Introduction, the main principle being that structures which can be produced by using the general rules of grammar do not be-long in the dictionary. — Although this seems to be a sound principle, it133 may cause problems, which can be seen from the examples given in the In-troduction to illustrate noun + preposition combinations. The authors say that they are going to include the combination blockade against,but not blockade of, since the latter is a regular transformation of a verb + object structure: to blockade enemy ports the blockade of enemy ports. How-ever, the two prepositional phrases are alternatives that fulfil the same lexical function:ofthe blockade{enemy portsagainstTo give only one possibility is misleading, because it gives the user the wrong impression that only blockade against is acceptable.The combinations with apathy also given as examples do not pose the same problems. Apathy of as in the apathy of the electorate, is not an alter-native to apathy towards as in his apathy towards the poverty of the people.towardsapathy{his fate*ofIn other words it does not have the same lexical function and excluding it from the dictionary will not mislead users into believing that it is unac-ceptable as an alternative to the genitive construction.A category of “open collocations” between collocations and free com-binations would make it possible to include blockade of without including apathy of.3.2 Lexical collocationsLexical collocations are defined in contrast to grammatical collocations as normally not containing prepositions, infinitives or clauses and typical-ly consisting of nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs (Introduction, xxiv).Seven types of lexical collocation are included, five of which are ac-counted for by combinations with nouns: three are combinations of nouns and verbs, one covers adjective plus noun combinations, including com-pounds with an adjectival noun as the first element, and a further type gives the unit associated with a given noun. The two remaining types of collocation are combinations of adverbs and adjectives and of verbs and adverbs, respectively.Morton Benson has described lexical collocations as usually consisting of two “equal” lexical components — in contrast to grammatical colloca-tions (Benson 1985: 62), but this principle of equality is not reflected in the BBI. Generally combinations with nouns are found in noun entries, so that in practice a hierarchical relationship is assumed between the con-stituent elements. From the point of view of language production this is much to be preferred (Cp. Hausmann 1985: 119). Collocations are syntag-matic combinations with a main element, or base, which is determined by another, secondary element and it is natural for users to look up a noun to find the verbs, adjectives or prepositions to go with it, not the other way round. Verbs and adjectives are only relevant as base items in collocations with adverbs and prepositions (or in grammatical collocations including infinitives or clauses). — A practical advantage of this hierarchical view is that it saves a lot of space in the dictionary.The different types of lexical collocation are based on the concept oflexical functions, which was introduced by Apresyan, Mel’cˆu k andZˆo lkovsky (Apresyan et al. 1969) working on a new type of dictionary called “The Explanatory and Combinatory Dictionary of Modern Rus-sian”.A standard lexical function was defined as followsA standard lexical function is a meaning relation between a key word (orword combination) C0and other words and word combinations C i , whichmeets the following three requirements:(1)this relation occurs in a sufficiently great number of word pairs, i.e. itmanifests itself through many different C0(2)this relation has diverse means of expression, i.e. the number of differ-ent C i in the language is rather great(3)the choice of the right C i for the expression of a given relation with agiven C0is determined, as a rule, by the C0itself (sometimes undersupplementary conditions)The authors identified no less than 47 standard lexical functions, which were given Greek- and Latin sounding names, plus a number of individual functions that could not be accommodated in the standard list.The BBI has chosen to focus on a limited number of lexical functions, some of which do however, cover several of the functions identified by Apresyan et al. (1969). In one type of collocation the verb thus denotes the function creation and or activation (inflict a wound, run a test), in a second type the function is eradication and or nullification as in lift blockade. Fur-ther functions express characteristic action (silence reigns) or high degree( 134135 cutthroat competition, deeply ab sorb ed, effect deeply) and, collocations indicating the unit associated with a noun constitute a final function (a piece of advice an act of violence, etc.).The failure to address the problems of demarcation between colloca-tions and free combinations was seen in the combinations of nouns and prepositions (cp. the examples with blockade mentioned above), but is even more evident from the vacillation about which combinations to include under the different lexical functions. — According to the I ntroduction (xxv) many combinations with verbs such as build,cause,cook,gro w, manufacture etc. are considered to be free combinations and are therefore excluded although they belong to the lexical function “creation and or ac-tivation”. I t gives the following examples of such free combinations, which are found to be “predictable on the basis of the meaning of their constituent elements”:build bridges (houses, roads)cause damage (deafness, a death)cook meat (potatoes, vegetables)However, it seems that the authors are not altogether satisfied with the criterion of “predictability” since, nevertheless, five of these nine “free combinations” are included in the dictionary (build a bridge/house; cause damage/death,; cook meat). Although, cook vegetab les is not included, cooked vegetables is,and whereas cook potatoes has been left out, bake potatoes is included.I think these inconsistencies are attribuable to a rather vague definition of collocations (“essential grammatical and lexical recurrent word combi-nations “) and more specifically to the failure to distinguish between free combinations and “open collocations”. From a decoding point of view, such collocations may well be predictable on the basis of the meaning of their constituent elements, but for encoding purposes they have to be in-cluded if they express a lexical function central to the meaning or use of a given lexical item.This is especially necessary if they belong to a set of alternative expres-sions and leaving them out would give users the wrong impression that they had better be avoided, as in the examples of combinations with blockade given earlier. (Cp. Hausmann 1979: 193). Leaving out cause from the set of alternative verbs collocating with damage would therefore have been a mistake:136causedo}damageinflictIt is therefore fortunate that, in spite of its declared intentions, the BBI does give many such “open collocations”, but less fortunate that it does not do so consistently. Thus the entry for inflation gives.control and curb as possible collocates, but not the combination reduce inflation which is presumably no less frequent. (In a citation bank including 1000 combina-tions with inflation, reduce inflation occurred 15 times, curb inflation 10 times, and control inflation 7 times; cp Poulsen 1991: 75). By comparison, the entry for unemployment includes reduce.without any alternatives.A further aspect is that the most open collocations also tend to be the most neutral ones from a stylistic point of view, so that leaving them out will lead to a misrepresentation of the collocational range of an item, in that the unmarked level of formality will be missing.To present users with a comprehensive choice, I think it is necessary to decide what lexical functions are relevant in the case of individual items and then to show the full range of alternatives in each case, including open as well as more restricted collocations. At least a distinction should be made between open sets of collocates to which other words can be freely added, and sets that virtually exhaust the possible range of combinations. In the ODCIE, V ol. 1, a warning sign () precedes sets that represent a severely limited range of choice (Introduction to the ODCIE 6.5).This would prevent the rather incomplete and uneven treatment of items which I have found in a number of entries. Thus the entry for in-junction includes issue but not serve an injunction on sby, whereas the entry for writ includes issue as well as serve. The entry for bill(statement of money owed) gives many relevant collocations, but not make out a bill, al-though the lexical function of “creation” is considered to be important. Deficit is in the dictionary, but to run a deficit is not. The entry for busi-ness at first glance seems quite comprehensive, but in the sense of “firm”it gets only a few lines — and not a word about “business failure” or “going to the wall” although this expresses the function of “eradication and/or nullification”.4. Concluding remarksAs will appear from the above comments on the BBI, I do not think it quite lives up to what one might expect from a specialized dictionary of collocations, namely that it should present users with a truly comprehen-sive range of alternative collocates expressing the lexical functions re-quired in the case of individual items.This results in a number of “gaps” where relevant lexical functions are not included or are not fully represented. A special problem is the failure to address the problem of demarcation between collocations and free com-binations. This leads to ,insistencies in the treatment of “open colloca-tions”, which lie between the two, and may give users a wrong impression of the collocational range of a given item.In spite of the critical remarks about the BBI, I still think it deserves much credit for its functional approach to word combinations, which are represented in a user-friendly way and on a much more comprehensive scale than is found in general purpose dictionaries. — At any rate, a dic-tionary like the BBI with its focus on recurrent word combinations is a vast improvement on the “winged words” of the Word Finder, which my generation of students had to resort to.LiteratureApresyan, Yu.D. / I.A. Mel’cˆu k / A.K. Zˆolkovsky (1969): Semantics and Lexicography:Towards a new type of unilingual dictionary, in F.Kiefer (ed.):Studies in syntax and se-mantics.Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel 1969, 1-33.Benson, Morton (1985): Collocations and Idioms, in: C.J. Brumfitt (General Editor): Dic-tionaries, Lexicography and Language Learning. Pergamon Press in association with the British Council, 1985.Benson, Morton / Evelyn Benson / Robert Ilson (1986): Lexic ographic Description of En-glish.Studies in Language Companion Series, Vol. 14, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company 1986, 252-262.Cowie, A.P., et al (1975): The Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English, V olume 1, Oxford: Oxford University Press 1975.Hausmann, Franz Joseph (1979): Un dictionnaire de collocations est-il possible? Travaux de linguistique et litterature17, Centre de philologie et de litteratures romances de l’université de Strasbourg 1979, 187-195.Poulsen, Sonja (not published): Word Combinations as Le xical Building Blocks. A theo-retical framework and a possible concep t for a specialized dictionary o f English collo-cations for text producti o n.Reum, Albrecht (1961): A Dictionary of English Style, München: Max Hueber Verlag 1961.Rodale, J.l. (1965): The Word Finder. Emmaus, Pennsylvania: Rodale Books, Inc.1947.137138。
