Language and Gender1. Introduction1.1 Sex vs genderSex: a biological constructGender: a social construct (psychological, social, and cultural differences between males and females)1.2 Two kinds of gender differences in language usea. language sexismb. neutral gender differences without sex discrimination2. Sexist practices in language use2.1Naming conventions and forms of addressMr/Miss/Mrs-only one form of address for men, Mr., regardless of marital status. However,-the marital status of women was distinguished by Miss and Mrs., reflecting the notion that whether or not a woman is in marriage is her defining characteristic;-Feminists coined another address form, Ms.Surnaming practice- If a woman gets married, she may retain their own surname, or adopts her husband‘s surname, or adopt a last name which is hyphenated hybrid of her own surname and her husband‘s. And yet she may use her own surname in professional settings and her husband‘s in community, church, and leisure settings.2.2 Gender difference in lexical choice- he/man approach. The use of male terms to refer both to males in particular and to human beings in general. Such forms designate men as the ―unmarked‖ and women as the ―marked‖human category.he, man, chairman, headmaster, etc- Masculine terms are neutral whereas the feminine counterparts are marked.Dog --- bitch, master --- mistress bachelor --- spinster- Words which began with either neutral or positive connotations over time acquired negative implications and finally ended up as ―sexual slurs‖.e.g., hussy from huswife (the female head of the house)‗rustic ‘ rude womanlewd, brazen woman or prostitutedoll a young woman with a pretty babyish faceparamour (mistress)- Word formation: masculine words are base words from which the feminine words are derivede.g., he—she; man – woman; Mr – Mrs;2. 3 Beyond lexicon2.3.1 Discourse organizatione.g. A man who suffered head injuries when attacked by two men who broke into his home…,was pinned down on the bed by intruders who took it in turns to rape his wife.( sexist stance taken by the newspapers)The experience of the man is foregrounded: he is the first person to be mentioned, the grammatical subject of the main clause, and the subject of the verbs --- suffered and was forced. The woman, referred to not by her own name or by her profession but as his wife.2.3.2Common themes about women talk-Women talk, or gossip, too much;-However, feminists argue that men talk more than women meetings, television talk shows, and classrooms.-Spender‘s (1985) explanation for this: a double standard is in operation. Society prescribes that girls and women talk very little, so even if they talk less than men but go beyond the prescribed limits, they are seen as talking too much. In addition, women‘s speech may be negatively evaluated because the topics women have traditionally been preoccupied with (children, relationships, household tasks) were dismissed as trivial or mere gossip.- A complete list of Lakoff‘s claims:a.Stronger expletives are reserved for men; weaker expletives are reserved for women.b.Women‘s speech is more polite than man‘s.c.Topics that are considered trivial or unimportant are women‘s domain.d.Women use ‗empty‘ adjectives (adorable, charming, divine, nice).e.Women use tag questions more than men.f.Women use question intonation in statements to express uncertainty (―Your name is Tammy‖).g.Women speak in ‗italics‘(use intensifiers more than men; ―I feel so happy.‖)h.Women use hedges more than men do(―It‘s kinda nice, you know‖).i.Women use (hyper-)correct grammar.j.Women don‘t tell jokes.3. Theoretical explanations3.1 Liberal feminism and deficit theory3.1.1 Liberal feminism: first consciousness of past discrimination, a desire for women to gain equal access to opportunities traditionally reserved for elite, propertied men with no special accommodations which might draw attention to their "femaleness". Liberal feminists emphasize gender-neutral solutions, and women's moving into the public sphere --- that traditionally forbidden to women.3.1.2 deficit theory/ deficiency approach (Robin Lakoff):-Male is superior, female is subordinate, and therefore woman is inferior to man;-Male speech represents norms while female‘s represents deviations from the norms, and therefore woman speech is inferior to man‘s;-Woman‘s speech style is a powerless style, subordinate in phonology, lexis and syntax.- ineffectiveness of their communication requires compensatory behavior: assimilation to what was in effect a male norm, with no guarantee that it would have the desired effect.- some women give themselves permission to use a wider range of options than those restricted by norms of femininity;- challenge the grammatical masculine generic, outdated and sexist naming practices.3.2 Radical feminism: dominance/conflict models3.2.1 Radical feminism- Reject any construction of knowledge that does not put women at the center;- Women‘s oppression is a result of male control of their sexuality and procreative capacities.Women were the first oppressed group;Their oppression is the most widespread;Their oppression is the deepest and most difficult to eradicate;Their oppression causes the most suffering to its victims.3.2.2 Dominance approach (D. Zimmerman, C. West, and P. Fishman)- A radical feminist approach to language involves a transvaluation of meanings so that what is good in patriarchy is actually bad for women, and what is bad in patriarchy is actually healthy for women.- Retains a traditional, negative evaluation of women‘s speech but attributes women‘s linguistic inadequacies to their political and cultural subordination to men;- Men‘s conversational dominance reflects their political and cultural domination of women.- Zimmerman & West (1975) in cross-sex exchanges, male initiated 96% of the total interruptions, effectively cutting off both the female's turns at talk and the topics they were attempting to develop.- Fisherman (1977, 1978): women asked more than 70% of the questions; men's topic-raising led to discussion 28 out of 29 times, while 30 out of 47 attempts by women to raise a topic were ignored by their male partners.3.3 Dual Cultures: difference Model3.3.1 Dual Cultures- explain differences between men's and women's conversational styles in terms of the two segregated subcultures;- reject patriarchal values that discount the female sphere.- Contrasts are made between women's relational behavior that stresses connectedness, care and responsibility, and men's competitive behavior that stresses individual competence to insure justice and rights.3.3.2 Difference model (Troemel-Ploetz, Deborah Tannen, and Deborah Cameron)3.3.2.1 Troemel-Ploetz-the characteristics of women‘s talk are collaboration, cooperation, balancing of speaking rights, symmetry, and mutual support;-women are fair, honest, clear, modest, respectful, and generous;-women handle power differently from the way men do; they undo hierarchies rather than reaffirm them.3.3.2.2 Deborah Tannen‘ studies of genderlect:3.3.2.2.1 Introduction- Genderlect: a term that suggests that masculine and feminine styles of discourse are best viewed as two distinct cultural dialects and not inferior or superior ways of speaking.- Miscommunication between men and women is both common and insidious because the parties usually don't realize that the encounters are cross-cultural.- Tannen‘s approach departs from much feminist scholarship that claims that conversations between men and women reflect male domination.- male and female conversational styles are equally valid;3.3.2.2.2 Difference between men and women- More than anything else, women seek human connection.- Men are concerned mainly with status.- men and women do not seek only status and connection, but these are their primary goals.- Rapport talk versus report talk.Rapport Talk: the conversational style Tannen associates with women, which seeks to establish connection.Report Talk: the conversational style Tannen associates with men, which seeks to command attention, convey information, and insist on agreement.e.g.,A. Public speaking versus private speaking.1. Women talk more than men in private conversations.2. In the public arena, men vie for ascendancy and speak much more than women.3. Men assume a lecture style to establish a ―one-up‖ position, command attention, convey information, and insist on agreement.4. Men's monologue style is appropriate for report, but not for rapport.B. Telling a story.1. Men tell more stories and jokes than do women.2. Telling jokes is a masculine way to negotiate status.3. Men are the heroes in their own stories.4. When women tell stories, they downplay themselves.C. Listening.1. Women show attentiveness through verbal and nonverbal cues.2. Men may avoid these cues to keep from appearing ―one-down.‖3. A woman interrupts to show agreement, to give support, or to supply what she thinks the speaker will say (a cooperative overlap).4. Men regard any interruption as a power move.D. Asking questions.1. Men don't ask for help because it exposes their ignorance.2. Women ask questions to establish a connection with others.3. When women state their opinions, they often use tag questions to soften the sting of potential disagreement and to invite participation in open, friendly dialogue.E. Conflict.1. Men usually initiate and are more comfortable with conflict.2. To women, conflict is a threat to connection to be avoided at all costs.3. Men are extremely wary about being told what to do.。
