Shell shock during World War OneA On 7 July 1916, Arthur Hubbard painfully set pen to paper in an attempt to explain to his mother why he was no longer in France. He had been taken from the battlefields and deposited in the East Suffolk and Ipswich Hospital suffering from “shell shock”. In his words, his breakdown was related to witnessing “a terrible sight that I shall never forget as long as I live”. He told his mother:B “We had strict orders not to take prisoners, no matter if wounded. My first job was when I had finished cutting some of their wire away, to empty my magazine(弹仓) on 3 Germans that came out of one of their deep dugouts(防空壕), bleeding badly, and put them out of misery. They cried for mercy, but I had my orders, they had no feeling whatever for us poor chaps... it makes my head jump to think about it."C Hubbard had gone over the top(跳出战壕) at the Battle of the Somme. While he managed to fight as far as the fourth line of trenches, by 3.30p.m practically his whole battalion had been wiped out by German artillery. He was buried, dug himself out, and during the subsequent retreat was almost killed by machine gun fire. Within this landscape of horror, he collapsed.D Arthur Hubbard was one of millions of men who suffered psychological trauma as a result of their war experiences. Symptoms ranged from uncontrollable diarrhea(腹泻) to unrelenting anxiety. Soldiers who had bayoneted(用刺刀刺) men in the face developed hysterical tics(抽搐) of their own facial muscles. Stomach cramps seized men who knifed their foes in the abdomen. Snipers(狙击手) lost their sight. Terrifying nightmares of being unable to withdraw bayonets from the enemies' bodies persisted long after the slaughter.E The dreams might occur “right in the middle of an ordinary conversation” when “the face of a Boche(德国兵) that I have bayoneted, with its horrible gurgle and grimace(怪相), comes sharply into view”, an infantry captain complained. An inability to eat or sleep after the slaughter was common. Nightmares did not always occur during the war. World War One soldiers like Rowland Luther did not suffer until after the armistice(停战) when he cracked up and found himself unable to eat, deliriously(神智混乱地) reliving his experiences of combat.F These were not exceptional cases. It was clear to everyone that large numbers of combatants could not cope with the strain of warfare. By the end of World War One, the army had dealt with 80,000 cases of shell shock. As early as 1917, it was recognized that war neuroses accounted for one-seventh of all personnel discharged for disabilities from the British Army. Once wounds were excluded, emotional disorders were responsible for one-third of all discharges. Even more worrying was the fact that a higher proportion of officers were suffering in this way. According to one survey published in 1917, while the ratio of officers to men at the front was 1:30, among patients in hospitals specializing in war neuroses, the ratio of officers to men was 1:6. Whatmedical officers quickly realized was that everyone had a breaking point: weak or strong, courageous or cowardly - war frightened everyone witless.G More difficult, however, was understanding what caused some panic-stricken men to suffer extremes of trauma. In the early years of World War One, shell shock was believed to be the result of a physical injury to the nerves. In other words, shell shock was the result of being buried alive or exposed to heavy bombardment. The term itself had been coined, in 1917, by a medical officer called Charles Myers. But Myers rapidly became unhappy with the term, recognizing that many men suffered the symptoms of shell shock without having even been in the front lines. As a consequence, medical officers increasingly began emphasizing psychological factors as providing sufficient cause for breakdown. Alfred Jones, president of the British Psychoanalytic Association, explained: War constituted an official abrogation(取消) of civilized standards in which men were not only allowed, but encouraged:H “To indulge in behavior of a kind that is throughout abhorrent to the civilized mind.... All sorts of previously forbidden and hidden impulses, cruel, sadistic, murderous and so on, are stirred to greater activity, and the old intrapsychical conflicts which, according to Freud, are the essential cause of all neurotic disorders, and which had been dealt with before by means of repression of one side of the conflict are now reinforced, and the person is compelled to deal with them afresh under totally different circumstances.”I Consequently, the return to the mental attitude of civilian life could spark off severe psychological trauma. The authors of one of the standard books on shell shock went so far as to point out that a soldier who suffered a neurosis had not lost his reason but was laboring under the weight of too much reason: his senses were 'functioning with painful efficiency.J Nevertheless, how were these men to be cured of their painful afflictions? From the start, the purpose of treatment was to restore the maximum number of men to duty as quickly as possible. During World War One, four-fifths of men who had entered hospital suffering shell shock were never able to return to military duty. However, the shift from regarding breakdown as organic to viewing it as psychological had inevitable consequences in terms of treatment. If breakdown was a paralysis of the nerves, then massage, rest, dietary regimes and electric shock treatment were invoked. If a psychological source was indicated, the talking cure, hypnosis, and rest would speed recovery. In all instances, occupational training and the inculcation(反复灌输) of masculinity were highly recommended. As the medical superintendent(负责人) at one military hospital in York put it, although the medical officer must show sympathy, the patient must be induced to face his illness in a manly way.K Sympathy was only rarely forthcoming. Sufferers had no choice but to acknowledge that their reputations as soldiers and men had been dealt a severe blow. After a major bombardment or particularly bloody attack, signs of emotional weakness could be overlooked, but in the midst ofthe fray, the attitude was much less sympathetic. When the shell shocked men returned home, things were not much better. Men arriving at Netley Hospital were greeted with silence: People were described as hanging their heads in “inexplicable shame”. No one better described the mix of shame and anger experienced by the war-damaged than the poet, Siegfried Sassoon. In October 1917, while he was at Craiglockhart, one of the most famous hospitals for curing officers with war neuroses, he wrote a poem, simply called “Survivors”:L No doubt they'll soon get well; the shock and strain / Have caused their stammering, disconnected talk. / Of course they're “longing to go out again”, - / These boys with old, scared faces, learning to walk. / They'll soon forget their haunted nights; their cowed / Subjection to the ghosts of friends who died, - / Their dreams that drip with murder; and they'll be proud / Of glorious war that shatter'd their pride... / Men who went out to battle, grim and glad; / Children, with eyes that hate you, broken and mad.____ 26. The symptoms of soldiers’ shell shock ranged from out-of-control diarrhea to endless anxiety, all related to their war experiences.____ 27. How shell shock was treated depended on what its source was viewed, physical or psychological.____ 28. At the Battle of Somme, Hubbard collapsed after experiencing the horror of the war.____ 29. Many men suffered the symptoms of shell shock even if they had never been in the front lines.____ 30. The authors of one book on shell shock pointed out that the reason that a soldier suffereda neurosis was that he had been afflicted with too much reason.____ 31. Siegfried Sassoon wrote a poem best describing the mixed feelings of shame and anger experienced by the war-beaten soldiers.____ 32. To some soldiers, the nightmares might occur just in the middle of an ordinary conversation long after the ending of the war.____ 33. The medical officer must show sympathy in treatment of shell shock, but even so, he must encourage patients to face their illness in a masculine way.____ 34. Not only soldiers, a high proportion of officers also suffered from shell shock, which wasa worrying fact.____ 35. It was believed that shell shock resulted from the injury of the nerves in the early years of World War One.26-30 D J C G I 30-35 K E J F GLive in Albert Einstein’s worldA 6 a.m. Your satellite-enabled alarm clock goes off. Blame Albert Einstein for rousting you out of bed. Your clock sounds precisely at 6 a.m. because it’s one of those fancy digital models that is synchronized (使同步) with the government’s atomic clocks and calibrated every second throughthe Global Positioning Satellite array circling the Earth. If they could not correct for the effects of relativity, Einstein’s most famous discovery, GPS signals would accumulate so many errors that their data would be meaningless.B 6:15 a.m. You nick yourself shaving and drip toothpaste on your shirt. Blame Einstein for the mess. His creation of a formula to measure the size of molecules (分子) dissolved in liquids made it possible for scientists to create or improve thousands of consumer products, including better shaving creams and toothpastes.C 6:30 a.m. You turn on the television to check the weather and traffic. It’s raining, and the traffic cameras show that the cars are already backed up for miles on the interstate. Blame Einstein for your bad mood. His declaration of the photoelectric (光电的) effect made possible the eventual invention of television cameras and the remotes that control them.D You’ve been up for just a half-hour, and already your day is being controlled by Albert Einstein. Most likely, we think of Einstein first as the man who paved the way to development of the atomic bomb. This is not the right way to look at him. Michel Janssen, a science and technology historian at the University of Minnesota, points out that Einstein had virtually nothing to do with developing the bomb. Einstein, in fact, was refused security clearance to have any role in the Manhattan Project, said Janssen, who was trained as a physicist and edited the volumes of Einstein’s collected papers on relativity.E However, many of Einstein’s other theories, which began pouring out in a burst of incandescent creativity 100 years ago, turned physics and our understanding of the natural world on their heads, giving scientists the tools to mold almost every observable aspect of life as we live it in today. His postulation (假定) of the photon (光子) and the photoelectric effect, which was described in his first great paper of 1905 and won him the Nobel Prize in 1921, gave us scores of everyday applications.F Einstein’s identifying of photons underlay the development of many of the advanced electronic inventions of the 20th century. It was the statement of the quantity effect, without which we would not have cellular telephones or smoke detectors or burglar alarms or those doors that automatically open at the supermarket or on the elevator.G Indeed, you can argue that the entire field of computers and semiconductors owes its existence to Einstein’s paper of 1905. That’s why it’s pointless to speculate about what he might have accomplished had he been born 75 or 80 years later and therefore been able to use computers. Without his having done the work he did when he did it, we might not have computers today, or atleast not in the form we recognize.H Moreover, it’s possible that in today’s scientific world, Einstein would have trouble getting his ideas heard. Science today is an institutionalized pursuit: What are your university degrees? What university or research institute are you affiliated with? How much peer-reviewed research have you published? How much grant money can you command? While Einstein’s work at the patent office in Bern, Switzerland, gave him wide opportunity to conduct sophisticated experiments on advanced submissions, he was, in his great year of 1905, still a 26-year-old government worker. If intelligent people really gave his manuscripts a careful read, they would have recognized something profound.I Robert Schumann, who co-edited Einstein’s collected papers and served as former director of the Einstein Papers Project, is more hopeful that his voice would have broken through. The journal that published his 1905 papers was the leading physics journal of the day. Among the editors who reviewed his submissions were Nobel laureate Wilhelm Roentgen, who discovered X-rays, and Max Planck, another Nobel winner, who came as close to matching Einstein in sheer brain power as anyone else ever did. If such esteemed editors found merit in the theories of the government clerk then, it is likely that they would do so today.J Much of Einstein’s work was multidisciplinary and abstract, while physics today is focused and empirical. “The possibility of coming out of almost no where, for a number of reasons, wouldn’t work today because of the highly philosophical character of his work. The questions he asked himself deal with space and time, which are philosophical concepts,” said Schumann.K Michel Janssen said there was “som ething special about the age that Einstein was working where he was, in a way, the right man at the right time at the right place. Between 1900 and 1925, you saw this tremendous overhaul (变革) of physics, and it is hard to imagine that today we’re going to see an overhaul on that scale.”L Einstein’s research paper on the photoelectric effect was just one of those that fundamentally altered how physicists look at the world. From the other papers came an almost equally wide range of modern applications: CD and DVD players use lasers, which Einstein first theorized in 1917 in advancing his work on the photoelectric and photovoltaic effects. “We have lasers in every supermarket checkout lane,” said John Rigden an American physicist. Medical revolutions like the PET scan rest on positrons (正电子), described by science journalist Robert Matthews as “antimatter electrons,” whose existence was implied by special relativity and quantum theory. Another one is carbon dating (碳年代测定法). We can take a stab at measuring how old fossils are thanks to Einstein (E=mc2 shows that mass and energy are interconnected; by measuring thedegradation of nuclei in atoms of organic materials, the theory goes, we can measure how long they’ve been degrading).M And all those everyday consumer products owe their existence, in no small part, to manufacturing methods that wouldn’t work without Einstein’s enunciation of the atomic theory of matter. In essence, Einstein proved that atoms exist. Before Einstein’s paper of May 1905, “many reputabl e scientists didn’t believe in atoms,” Rigden said. “May 1905 put the last nail in the coffin. No longer could the reality of atoms be denied. The nucleus wasn’t even discovered until 1909, so Einstein’s prescience was off the charts.”N What’s the most important was Einstein’s restoration of the belief in the power of reason and intellect. He gave science back its confidence. Thus, he is a standard because of what he did and how he did it.___ 26. Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for his postulation of the photoelectric effect, which has already found wide applications in our daily life.___ 27. The invention or improvement of countless consumer products is based on Einstein’s formula for the size of molecules in liquids.___ 28. Einstein had proved the existence of atoms several years before the discovery of the nucleus.___ 29. Einstein’s formula makes it possible to use carbon dating to determine the approximate age of an ancient object, such as old fossils.___ 30. Hadn’t it been for the theory of quantity effect, we wouldn’t have got the electronic inventions like mobile phones, automatic doors and so on.___ 31. Einstein’s ideas may be difficult to get heard today in that the current scientific pursuit is too institutionalized.___ 32. TV cameras and their remote controls owe their existence to the law of the photoelectric effect.___ 33. Without Einstein’s contribution, computers today might not have been invented.___ 34. A great revolution in physics happened in the first 25 years of the 20th century, but such a revolution is unlikely to take place today.___ 35.It’s inappropriate to blame Einstein for the first atomic bomb, for he wasn’t involved in its research project.26-30 E B M L F 31-35 H C G K DTaking a leap of faith to a new careerA It's a dream most people have at some point: just walking out of their job. It could be because work has become unbearable or unbearably boring. Or maybe it's the opposite – the job is fine, the colleagues are great, the boss is appreciative. But it's a rut (老一套), and unless you leave, youknow you'll be stuck on the wage-slave treadmill (令人厌倦的工作) forever. You always wanted more.B This is what motivated Miles Timothy, 24, to leave his secure job last year without a new one lined up. "I'd been working at a small business finance company for two years after leaving college. I was considering it as my career as it was going well. But I've always been creative and I wanted to do something in that line. My job didn't entirely fulfill me, and I thought it better to leave now before mortgage, kids and other responsibilities."C So Timothy left last October to set up a website business targeting a niche market. He admits it was a tough decision but has no regrets. "I was worried about telling my family, but my mum said I should go for it, and my dad said he wishes he'd done something similar. High unemployment and the state of the economy did concern me, and there is this attitude today that if you're lucky enough to have a job you shou ld stay as so many people are looking for work” "But I don't subscribe to that view. I think it limits you, and you've got to keep track of where you want to get to. I did my research, gave plenty of notice, then took the plunge. I saved a bit to keep me ticking over and I'll have to live without partying for a while, but it's very exciting and I'm looking forward to the future.”D To stay focused, Timothy won't even take a part-time job. He wants to concentrate all his energy on his new venture. But when Nancy Burgess, 40, left her sales liaison (联络) job in a large publishing house in 2001 to become a freelance translator, she took a part-time job for a short while in a women-only sex shop to keep money coming in. Once there was enough work, she became a full-time freelance translator. "I'd grown tired of the commute and wanted to move out of London," she recalls. "My degree was in French and I had many friends who were translators, so that got me thinking this was something I could do”. "I knew I didn't want to spend the rest of my life clocking in and out, so I left and started a master's degree in translation studies.I got translation work while there, it snowballed and I'm still doing it now."E Burgess knew it was risky giving up well-paid work with a regular salary, prospects and a pension. "I was working for a brilliant company. It was a high-pressure job involving trips to New York. So it took a lot to step away. But the reality of day-to-day work wasn't as exciting as it sounds and I was thinking about the future. I knew I wanted kids and to move away from the city.I couldn't do that if I stayed” "So, though I woke in the night a few times after I'd given my notice, and wondered if it had been a big mistake(turns out it wasn't), I'm massively, eternally, grateful to myself for taking that step, and for the people who supported me. In the end, it's just you who has to make it work. If you're good at your job you will find work. Despite the recession, people still need translations and want them done well. If you do a good job, your reputation means they'll come back to you. I have no regrets." Now with a six-month-old baby, Burgess is especially grateful for the flexibility of a freelancer's life.F It seems counter-intuitive to leave secure employment during a recession. But statistics show this isn't anecdotal (轶事的). Charles Levy, a senior economist at The Work Foundation, says, "The latest data from the Office for National Statistics, comparing the three months to October with the previous three months, highlights a significant shift from employment into self-employment. While the number of employees fell 252,000, there were 166,000 more people in self-employment. Rather than wait for employers to gain confidence and recruitment, it's hoped that workers will start out on their own business. This could create the churn needed to inject dynamism into our economy."G However, it isn't all good news. "There are signs some businesses are choosing to use subcontracting and work with networks of self-employed people to avoid tougher rules," Levy cautions. "The rise of self-employment could simply reflect a change in management practices and benefit rules, rather than a wave of brave new entrepreneurs."H Levy also points out that employment growth has been held back in recent years by a lack of new companies starting and hiring. "This is a real concern. Employment and business churn is vital for a dynamic economy. If people are too afraid, or unable, to switch jobs , ultimately, the labor productivity will be held back."I Karen Gale, a 31-year-old civil servant working in digital development, is strongly considering it. "We've been going through a review common across the public sector and it may lead to redundancies(裁员)," she says. "But in the intervening time, no one knows what their job is. So there's a lot of uncertainty. It could be a full year before the review is done. When you have redundancies, the first people to jump ship are those confident of getting work elsewhere. “If I haven't fou nd something soon I'm just going to leave because I can't stand it,” she says. "I sit at my desk all day, and try not to cry. I've almost forgotten how to do a real job. I feel so deskilled. I need to get out before I become unemployable."J Gale says lo ts of public sector workers are sick of being vilified in the press. “We're demonized (被恶魔化). It's incredibly demotivating. My husband is a journalist and he's just gone freelance so finances are stretched and we're broke after our wedding. But he's told me to just resign, as I go home every night and cry. Our relationship is suffering. For the sake of my mental health and our marriage, I feel I have no choice but to leave. I'll see if I can get agency work. It might take a while, but I think eventually I'll get something better."K It might work out better than Gale fears. Leaving a job without one to go can seem like madness, but it can also be energizing. It's often the most successful people who tend to take risks. Lucy Jolin, 37, left a secure job 10 years ago to become a freelance journalist and author – her latest book is Coping with Drug Problems in the Family. To her, it's better to regret something you've done than something you haven't.L If you're thinking about taking the plunge it could go badly, but it could be brilliant. You'll never know unless you do it. And let's face it; no one's job is secure these days anyway.____ 26. In recent years, there are few new companies started, which has affected employment growth.____ 27. No one knows whether it is worthwhile to take the risk of resigning his job unless he does it.____ 28. It seems crazy to quit a job without having a new one, but it can make people feel energized.____ 29. Leaving a fixed job during an economic recession seems irrational, but the data shows many people shift from employment to self-employment.____ 30. Timothy’s parents backed him up when he left his stable job for his dream.____ 31. At a certain period of time, most people dream to change their job, whether it is unbearable or satisfying.____ 32. Although she suffered a lot shortly after quitting her job, Burgess was very grateful to herself for her resignation from a brilliant company.____ 33. Timothy left his secure job because the job didn’t fulfill him in every w ay.____ 34. The defamation from the media has an incredibly negative impact on many civil servants.____ 35. Facing layoffs, the first job-hoppers are those who believe that they can get a job somewhere else.26-30 H L K F C 31-35 A E B J I。
