《语言教学流派第二版》自己整理笔记

《语⾔教学流派第⼆版》⾃⼰整理笔记第⼀章A brief history of language teaching第⼆章The nature of approaches and methods前两章很简单，详见前⾯中⽂导读第三章The oral approach and situational language teachingThe oral approach (situational language teaching) is a grammar-based method in whichprinciples of grammatical and lexical gradation are used and new teaching points arepresented and practiced through meaningful situation-based activities.⼀、Background1. Two of the leaders were Harold palmer and A.S.Hornby.2. Vocabulary control3. Grammar control⼆、The Oral Approach and Situational Language TeachingThe main characteristics of the approach were as follows:1. Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is taught orally.2. The target language is the language of the classroom.3. New language points are introduced and practiced situationally.4. Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered.5. Items of grammar are graded by their complexity.6. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established.三、Approach(2).An inductive approach is used to the teaching of grammar(3).The same processed are thought to occur both in child language learning and in second language learning.四、Design(1). Practical command of the four basic skills of language(2). Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial.(3). Automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns is fundamental.—a list of the basic structures and sentence patternsa drill-based manner to practicing the new sentence patterns(2) Situation: the use of concrete objects, pictures and realia, which together with actions and gestures(3) Practice techniques: guided repetition, substitution activities, pair practiceThreefold: a model、a skillful manipulator、on the lookout for errors(2)Visual aids: consists of wall charts, flashcards, pictures, stick figuresThe teacher is expected to be the master of his textbook.五、ProcedureAim: to move from controlled to freer practice of structures and from oral use of sentenceRevision ( to prepare for new work if necessary)Presentation of new structure or vocabularyOral practice (drilling)Choral imitationIndividual imitationIsolationBuilding up to a new modelElicitationSubstitution drillingQuestion-answer drillingCorrection第四章The Audiolingual MethodIt is a method of foreign or second language teaching which (a) emphasizes the teaching ofspeaking and listening before reading and writing (b) uses dialogues and drills. (c)discourages use of the mother tongue in the classroom (d) often makes use of contrastiveanalysis. The audiolingual method was prominent in the 1950s and 1960s, especially in theUnited States, and has been widely used in many other parts of the world.⼀、BackgroundThe combination of structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures, and behaviorist psychology led to the Audiolingual Method.情境法与听说法的异同There are many similarities between situational language teaching and audiolingualism.1. The order in which language skills are introduced2. Focus on accuracy through drill and practice in the basic structures3. Sectence patterns of the target languageHowever, situational language teaching was a development of the earlier Direct Method and does not have the strong ties to linguistic and behavioral psychology that characterize audiolingualism. The similarities of the two methods reflect similar views about the nature of language and of language learning, through these views were in fact development from quite different traditions.⼆、Approach1. Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation.2. Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in the target language are presented in sporken form before they are seen in written form.3. Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis. Hence the approach to the teaching of grammar is essentially inductive rather than deductive.4.The meaning of word can be learned in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation.三、Design、accurate pronunciation, reading comprehension and productionModels the target languageControls the direction and pace of learningTape recorders and audiovisual equipment四、Procedure1、The process of teaching involves extensive oral instruction2、The procedures the teacher should adopt ( Brook)3、In a typical audiolingual lesson the following procedures will be observed:a. Recognition;b. Imitation and repetitionc. Patterns drill:d. Follow-up activities五、The decline of Audiolingualism1、Criticism on two fronts: the theoretical foundations（both in language and language learning）and the practical results fell short of expectation.2、the theoretical attack: Noam Chomsky’s theory of transformational grammar第五章Total Physical ResponseTotal Physical Response is a language learning method based on the coordination of speechand action. This method of learning was developed by James Asher, a professor of psychologyat San Jose State University, California.⼀、Background1、the “trace theory” of memory in psychology2、developmental psychology：child first language acquisition3、humanistic psychology: the role of affective factors4、Comprehension Approach5、a tradition: the use of physical actions to teach a foreign language at an introductory level⼆、Approachstructuralist or grammar-based views of languagedetailed cognitive map (abstractions and nonabstractions)the central role of comprehension in language learningReminiscent of the views of behavioral psychology: a stimulus-response viewLearning hypotheses ( to facilitate or inhibit foreign language learning )According to Asher, the language learning theories are similar to those of other behavioral psychologists. The principals that help elaborate his idea are:1. Second language learning is parallel to first language learning and should reflect the samenaturalistic processes.2. Listening should develop before speaking.3. Once listening comprehension has been developed, speech develops naturally and effortlesslyout of it.4. Adults should use right-brain motor activities, while the left hemisphere watches and learns.三、Designoral proficiency at a beginning levelA sentence-based syllabusA fixed number of items be introduced at a timeImperative drills are the major classroom activity.Role plays：center on everyday situationSlide presentationsA primary role : listener and performerHave little influence over the contentActive and direct roleWell prepared and well organizedTeachers follow the example of parents giving feedbackNo basic text, materials and realia play an increasing role in later learning stages.Student kits that focus on specific situations (supporting materials)四、ProcedureAsher’s account of a course:ReviewNew commandsRole reversalReading and writingConclusion:Total Physical Response has enjoyed some popularity because of its support by those who emphasize the role of comprehension in second language acquisition.第六章The Silent WayIt is a method of foreign-language teaching developed by Gattegno which makes use of gesture,mime, visual aids, wall charts, and in particular Cuisiniere rods (wooden sticks of differentlengths and colors) that the teacher uses to help the students to talk. The method takes itsname from the relative silence of the teacher using these techniques.⼀、BackgroundThe premise of the Silent WayThe learning hypothesesLearning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates. (discovery learning)Learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects.Learning is facilitated by problem solving.⼆、ApproachBy the "spirit" of the language Gattegno is referring to the way each language isComposed of phonological and suprasegmentalA structural approachArtificial approachThe self of the learnerLearning to learn三、DesignAn immediate objectives: to provide the learner with a basic practical knowledge of the grammar of the languageLearners exert a strong influence over each other’s learning.To teach, to test, to get out of the wayCreate an environmentThe colored cuisenaire rodsThe vocabulary or word chartsOther materials四、ProcedureA standard formatPractice of the sounds (using the pronunciation charts)Practice of sentence patterns, structure, and vocabulary (using the rods and charts)A sample lessonFidel chartConclusion:The actual practices of the Silent Way are much less revolutionary than might be expected. The innovations derive from the manner in which classroom activities are organized, the indirect role the teacher is required to assume in directing and monitoring learner performance, the responsibility placed upon learners, and the materials used.第七章Community Language Learning社团语⾔学习法It is a method of second and foreign language teaching developed by Charles Curran. CLL is an application of counseling learning(咨询学习法)to second and foreign languageteaching and learning. It uses techniques developed in group counseling to help people withpsychological and emotional problems. The method makes use of group learning in small orlarge groups. Thes e groups are the “Community”. The method places emphasis on thelearners’ personal feelings and their reactions to language learning. Learners say thingswhich they want to talk about, in their native language. The teacher (known as “Counselor”)translat es the learners’ sentences into the foreign language, and the learner then repeats thisto other members of the group.⼀、Background1、Rogerian counseling——Charles A. Curren2、Humanistic techniques：the whole person3、Language alternation⼆、ApproachLanguage as social processThe interactional view of language: interaction between equals, interaction betweenunequalsThe whole-person learning (five stages)Consensual validationS(secure)A(attention and aggression)R(retention and reflection)D(discrimination)the personal commitments三、Designnot defined.Teacher transfers knowledge and proficiency to the learner.Goal: attaining near-native like mastery of the target languageTopic-based courseTeacher’s responsibility：teacher transfers knowledge and proficiency to the learnerGoal: attenting near-native like mastery of the target language.Translation, Group Work, Recording, Transcription, Analysis, Reflection andbecome counselors to other learnersSpecific teacher roles are keyed to the five development stages.providing a safe environmentMaterials may be developed by the teacher as the course develops.the use of teaching machines四、Procedure1、classical CLL and personal interpretations of it2、the description of some typical activities in CLL classed3、 a protocol of what a first day’s CLL class coveredConclusion:Community Language Learning is the most responsive of the methods we have reviewed in terms of its sensitivity to learner communication intent. It places unusual demands on language teachers. Critics of Community Language Learning question many aspects of CLL. Supporters of CLL emphasize the positive benefits of a method that centered on the learner and stresses the humanistic side of language learning.⾃⼰想法：学校英语⾓活动Question for discussion:社团学习法把语⾔学习过程⽐作是咨询过程，你们觉得这个⽐喻合适吗？为什么？第⼋章SuggostopediaSuggestopedia/Lozanov Method (暗⽰法/罗扎诺夫法)It is a method of foreign-language teaching developed by the Bulgarian Lozanov. It makes use of dialogues, situations and translation to present and practise language, and in particular,makes use of music, visual images, and relaxation exercises to make learning morecomfortable and effective.⼀、Background1、Suggestology2、the most conspicuous characteristics of Suggestopedia3、Soviet psychology4、mental states5、the centrality of music and musical rhythm to learning⼆、Approachwhole meaningful textsix principal theoretical components:authority, infantilization, double-planedness, intonation, rhythm, concertpseudo-passivenessthe type of musicthe rate of presentation of material to be learned within the rhythmic pattern三、Designdeliver advanced conversational proficiency quicklytime duration——30 dayseach uniteach unitexpected teacher behaviorsDirect support materials: text and tapeIndirect support materials: classroom fixtures and music四、ProcedureBancroft’s description: a four-hour language class has three distinct parts.The first part: an oral review sectionThe second part: new material is presented and discussedThe third part: the séance or concert sessionConclusion:Suggestopedia has probably received both the most enthusiastic and the most critical response of any of the so-called new methods. It is not productive to further belabor the science/nonscience, date/double-talk issues and instead try to identify and validate those techniques from Suggestopedia that appear effective and that harmonize with other successful techniques in the language teaching inventory.Question for discussion;暗⽰法强调⾳乐的作⽤，那么⾳乐在外语学习过程中究竟起了怎样的作⽤？谈谈你们的看法。

《语言教学的流派第二版》自己整理的笔记第一章 A brief history of language teaching第二章 The nature of approaches and methods前两章很简单，详见前面中文导读第三章 The oral approach and situational language teachingThe oral approach (situational language teaching) is a grammar-based method inwhich principles of grammatical and lexical gradation are used and new teachingpoints are presented and practiced through meaningful situation-based activities.一、Background1. Two of the leaders were Harold palmer and A.S.Hornby.2. Vocabulary control3. Grammar control二、The Oral Approach and Situational Language TeachingThe main characteristics of the approach were as follows:1. Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is taught orally.2. The target language is the language of the classroom.3. New language points are introduced and practiced situationally.4. Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered.5. Items of grammar are graded by their complexity.6. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established.三、Approach○1a type of British “structuralism”.○2 One distinctive feature: structures must be linked to situations in which they could be used○3 Language was viewed as purposeful activity related to goals and situations in the real world.a type of behaviorist habit-learning theory(three processes in learning a language)(1). Language learning as habit formation(2).An inductive approach is used to the teaching of grammar(3).The same processed are thought to occur both in child language learning and in second language learning.四、Design(1). Practical command of the four basic skills of language(2). Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial.(3). Automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns is fundamental.(4). Writing derives from speech.(1) A structural syllabus—a list of the basic structures and sentence patterns(2) Situation: the manner of presenting and practicing sentence patterns(1) SLT employs a situational approach to presenting new sentence patterns and a drill-based manner to practicing the new sentence patterns(2) Situation: the use of concrete objects, pictures and realia, which together with actions and gestures(3) Practice techniques: guided repetition, substitution activities, pair practice(1) Listen, repeat and responds to questions and commands(2) Have no control over the content of learningThreefold: a model、a skillful manipulator、on the lookout for errorsThe teacher is essential to the success of the method.(1)Textbook: contains organized lessons(2)Visual aids: consists of wall charts, flashcards, pictures, stick figuresThe teacher is expected to be the master of his textbook.五、ProcedureAim: to move from controlled to freer practice of structures and from oral use of sentenceRevision ( to prepare for new work if necessary)Presentation of new structure or vocabularyOral practice (drilling)Choral imitationIndividual imitationIsolationBuilding up to a new modelElicitationSubstitution drillingQuestion-answer drillingCorrection第四章 The Audiolingual MethodIt is a method of foreign or second language teaching which (a) emphasizes theteaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing (b) uses dialoguesand drills. (c) discourages use of the mother tongue in the classroom (d) oftenmakes use of contrastive analysis. The audiolingual method was prominent in the1950s and 1960s, especially in the United States, and has been widely used in manyother parts of the world.一、BackgroundThe combination of structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures, and behaviorist psychology led to the Audiolingual Method.情境法与听说法的异同There are many similarities between situational language teaching and audiolingualism.1. The order in which language skills are introduced2. Focus on accuracy through drill and practice in the basic structures3. Sectence patterns of the target languageHowever, situational language teaching was a development of the earlier Direct Method and does not have the strong ties to linguistic and behavioral psychology that characterize audiolingualism. The similarities of the two methods reflect similar views about the nature of language and of language learning, through these views were in fact development from quite different traditions.二、ApproachStructural linguistics (1950s): a reaction to traditional grammarThe primary medium of language is oral: speech is language.Behavioral psychology: stimulus-response chainsLearning principles:1. Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation.2. Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in the target language are presented in sporken form before they are seen in written form.3. Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis. Hence the approach to the teaching of grammar is essentially inductive rather than deductive.4.The meaning of word can be learned in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation.三、DesignShort-range objectives：Listening comprehension、accurate pronunciation, reading comprehension and production of correct sentences in writing.Long-range objectives ：To develop in the students the same types of abilities that native speakers haveA linguistic syllabus: phonology, morphology, and syntax of the languageA lexical syllabus of basic vocabularyLanguage skills: listening, speaking, reading, writingDialoguesDrills --Various kinds of drills : repetition, inflection, replacement…Organisms that can be directed by skilled training techniques to produce correct responses a reactive role, have little controlCentral and activeModels the target languageControls the direction and pace of learningMonitors and corrects the learners’ performanceTextbookTape recorders and audiovisual equipment四、Procedure1、The process of teaching involves extensive oral instruction2、The procedures the teacher should adopt ( Brook)3、In a typical audiolingual lesson the following procedures will be observed:a. Recognition;b. Imitation and repetitionc. Patterns drill:d. Follow-up activities五、The decline of Audiolingualism1、Criticism on two fronts: the theoretical foundations（both in language and language learning） and the practical results fell short of expectation.2、the theoretical attack: Noam Chomsky’s t heory of transformational grammar第五章Total Physical ResponseTotal Physical Response is a language learning method based on the coordinationof speech and action. This method of learning was developed by James Asher, aprofessor of psychology at San Jose State University, California.一、Background1、the “trace theory” of memory in psychology2、developmental psychology：child first language acquisition3、humanistic psychology: the role of affective factors4、Comprehension Approach5、a tradition: the use of physical actions to teach a foreign language at an introductorylevel二、Approachstructuralist or grammar-based views of languagedetailed cognitive map (abstractions and nonabstractions)<Bio-program>the central role of comprehension in language learningReminiscent of the views of behavioral psychology: a stimulus-response viewLearning hypotheses ( to facilitate or inhibit foreign language learning ) According to Asher, the language learning theories are similar to those of other behavioral psychologists. The principals that help elaborate his idea are:1. Second language learning is parallel to first language learning and should reflectthe same naturalistic processes.2. Listening should develop before speaking.3. Once listening comprehension has been developed, speech develops naturally andeffortlessly out of it.4. Adults should use right-brain motor activities, while the left hemisphere watchesand learns.三、Designoral proficiency at a beginning levelSpecific instructional objectives are not elaborated.Be inferred from an analysis of the exercise types employed in TPR classesA sentence-based syllabusA fixed number of items be introduced at a timeAttention to both the global meaning of language and the finer details of itsImperative drills are the major classroom activity.Role plays：center on everyday situationSlide presentationsA primary role : listener and performerHave little influence over the contentMonitor and evaluate their own progressActive and direct roleWell prepared and well organizedTeachers follow the example of parents giving feedbackNo basic text, materials and realia play an increasing role in later learning stages.Student kits that focus on specific situations (supporting materials)四、ProcedureAsher’s account of a course:ReviewNew commandsRole reversalReading and writingConclusion:Total Physical Response has enjoyed some popularity because of its support by those who emphasize the role of comprehension in second language acquisition.第六章The Silent WayIt is a method of foreign-language teaching developed by Gattegno which makesuse of gesture, mime, visual aids, wall charts, and in particular Cuisiniere rods(wooden sticks of different lengths and colors) that the teacher uses to help thestudents to talk. The method takes its name from the relative silence of the teacherusing these techniques.一、BackgroundThe premise of the Silent WayThe learning hypothesesLearning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates. (discovery learning)Learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects.Learning is facilitated by problem solving.二、ApproachGattegno views language as a substitute for experience.By the "spirit" of the language Gattegno is referring to the way each language isComposed of phonological and suprasegmentalA structural approachArtificial approachThe self of the learnerLearning to learn三、DesignAn immediate objectives: to provide the learner with a basic practical knowledge of the grammar of the languageLearners exert a strong influence over each other’s learning.To teach, to test, to get out of the wayCreate an environmentThe colored cuisenaire rodsThe vocabulary or word chartsOther materials四、ProcedureA standard formatPractice of the sounds (using the pronunciation charts)Practice of sentence patterns, structure, and vocabulary (using the rods and charts)A sample lessonFidel chartConclusion:The actual practices of the Silent Way are much less revolutionary than might be expected. The innovations derive from the manner in which classroom activities are organized, the indirect role the teacher is required to assume in directing and monitoring learner performance, the responsibility placed upon learners, and the materials used.第七章Community Language Learning社团语言学习法It is a method of second and foreign language teaching developed by CharlesCurran. CLL is an application of counseling learning(咨询学习法)to second andforeign language teaching and learning. It uses techniques developed in groupcounseling to help people with psychological and emotional problems. The methodmakes use of group learning in small or large groups. These groups are the“Community”. The method places emphasis on the learners’ personal feelings andtheir reactions to language learning. Learners say things which they want to talkabout, in their native language. The teacher (known as “Counselor”) translatesthe learners’ sen tences into the foreign language, and the learner then repeats thisto other members of the group.一、Background1、Rogerian counseling——Charles A. Curren2、Humanistic techniques：the whole person3、Language alternation二、ApproachLanguage as social processThe interactional view of language: interaction between equals, interaction between unequalsThe whole-person learning (five stages)Consensual validationS(secure)A(attention and aggression)R(retention and reflection)D(discrimination)the personal commitments三、Designnot defined.Teacher transfers knowledge and proficiency to the learner.Goal: attaining near-native like mastery of the target languageTopic-based courseTeacher’s responsibility： teacher transfers knowledge and proficiency to the learner Goal: attenting near-native like mastery of the target language.Translation, Group Work, Recording, Transcription, Analysis,members of a communitybecome counselors to other learnersSpecific teacher roles are keyed to the five development stages.providing a safe environmentMaterials may be developed by the teacher as the course develops.the use of teaching machines四、Procedure1、 classical CLL and personal interpretations of it2、 the description of some typical activities in CLL classed3、a protocol of what a first day’s CLL class coveredConclusion:Community Language Learning is the most responsive of the methods we have reviewed in terms of its sensitivity to learner communication intent. It places unusual demands on language teachers. Critics of Community Language Learning question many aspects of CLL. Supporters of CLL emphasize the positive benefits of a method that centered on the learner and stresses the humanistic side of language learning.自己想法：学校英语角活动Question for discussion:社团学习法把语言学习过程比作是咨询过程，你们觉得这个比喻合适吗？为什么？第八章 SuggostopediaSuggestopedia/Lozanov Method (暗示法/罗扎诺夫法)It is a method of foreign-language teaching developed by the Bulgarian Lozanov.It makes use of dialogues, situations and translation to present and practiselanguage, and in particular, makes use of music, visual images, and relaxationexercises to make learning more comfortable and effective.一、Background1、Suggestology2、the most conspicuous characteristics of Suggestopedia3、Soviet psychology4、mental states5、the centrality of music and musical rhythm to learning二、Approachwhole meaningful textsix principal theoretical components:authority, infantilization, double-planedness, intonation, rhythm, concertpseudo-passivenessthe type of musicthe rate of presentation of material to be learned within the rhythmic pattern 三、Designdeliver advanced conversational proficiency quicklytime duration——30 dayseach uniteach unitexpected teacher behaviorsExpected teacher behaviorsDirect support materials: text and tapeIndirect support materials: classroom fixtures and music四、ProcedureBancroft’s description: a four-hour language class has three distinct parts. The first part: an oral review sectionThe second part: new material is presented and discussedThe third part: the séance or concert sessionConclusion:Suggestopedia has probably received both the most enthusiastic and the most critical response of any of the so-called new methods. It is not productive to further belabor the science/nonscience, date/double-talk issues and instead try to identify and validate those techniques from Suggestopedia that appear effective and that harmonize with other successful techniques in the language teaching inventory.Question for discussion;暗示法强调音乐的作用，那么音乐在外语学习过程中究竟起了怎样的作用？谈谈你们的看法。

第一章A b r i e f h i s t o r y o f l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g 第二章The nature of approaches and methods前两章很简单，详见前面中文导读第三章The oral approach and situational language teachingThe oral approach (situational language teaching) isa grammar-based method in which principles ofgrammatical and lexical gradation are used and newteaching points are presented and practiced throughmeaningful situation-based activities.一、Background1. Two of the leaders were Harold palmer and .2. Vocabulary control3. Grammar control二、The Oral Approach and Situational Language TeachingThe main characteristics of the approach were as follows:1. Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is taught orally.2. The target language is the language of the classroom.3. New language points are introduced and practiced situationally.4. Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered.5. Items of grammar are graded by their complexity.6. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established.三、Approach○1 a type of British “structuralism”.○2 One distinctive feature: structures must be linked to situations in which they could be used○3 Language was viewed as purposeful activity related to goals and situations in the real world.a type of behaviorist habit-learning theory(three processes in learning a language)(1). Language learning as habit formation(2).An inductive approach is used to the teaching of grammar(3).The same processed are thought to occur both in child language learning and in second language learning.四、Design(1). Practical command of the four basic skills of language(2). Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial.(3). Automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns is fundamental.(4). Writing derives from speech.(1) A structural syllabus—a list of the basic structures and sentence patterns(2) Situation: the manner of presenting and practicing sentence patterns(1) SLT employs a situational approach to presenting new sentence patterns and a drill-based manner to practicing the new sentence patterns(2) Situation: the use of concrete objects, pictures and realia, which together with actions and gestures(3) Practice techniques: guided repetition, substitution activities, pair practice(1) Listen, repeat and responds to questions and commands(2) Have no control over the content of learningThreefold: a model、a skillful manipulator、on the lookout for errors The teacher is essential to the success of the method.(1)Textbook: contains organized lessons(2)Visual aids: consists of wall charts, flashcards, pictures, stick figures The teacher is expected to be the master of his textbook.五、ProcedureAim: to move from controlled to freer practice of structures and from oral use of sentencepatterns to their automatic use in speech, reading and writing.PronunciationRevision ( to prepare for new work if necessary)Presentation of new structure or vocabularyOral practice (drilling)Reading of material on the new structure, or written exercisesListening practiceChoral imitationIndividual imitationIsolationBuilding up to a new modelElicitationSubstitution drillingQuestion-answer drillingCorrection第四章The Audiolingual MethodIt is a method of foreign or second language teachingwhich (a) emphasizes the teaching of speaking andlistening before reading and writing (b) usesdialogues and drills. (c) discourages use of the mothertongue in the classroom (d) often makes use ofcontrastive analysis. The audiolingual method wasprominent in the 1950s and 1960s, especially in theUnited States, and has been widely used in many otherparts of the world.一、BackgroundThe combination of structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures, and behaviorist psychology led to the Audiolingual Method.情境法与听说法的异同There are many similarities between situational language teaching and audiolingualism.1. The order in which language skills are introduced2. Focus on accuracy through drill and practice in the basic structures3. Sectence patterns of the target languageHowever, situational language teaching was a development of the earlier Direct Method and does not have the strong ties to linguistic and behavioral psychology that characterize audiolingualism. The similarities of the two methods reflect similar views about the nature of language and of language learning, through these views were in fact development from quite different traditions.二、ApproachStructural linguistics (1950s): a reaction to traditional grammarThe primary medium of language is oral: speech is language.Behavioral psychology: stimulus-response chainsLearning principles:1. Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation.2. Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in the target language are presented in sporken form before they are seen in written form.3. Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis. Hence the approach to the teaching of grammar is essentially inductive rather than deductive.4.The meaning of word can be learned in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation.三、DesignShort-range objectives：Listening comprehension、accurate pronunciation, reading comprehension and production of correct sentences in writing.Long-range objectives ：To develop in the students the same types of abilities that native speakers haveA linguistic syllabus: phonology, morphology, and syntax of the language A lexical syllabus of basic vocabularyLanguage skills: listening, speaking, reading, writingDialoguesDrills --Various kinds of drills : repetition, inflection, replacement…Organisms that can be directed by skilled training techniques to produce correct responsesa reactive role, have little controlCentral and activeModels the target languageControls the direction and pace of learningMonitors and corrects the learners’ performanceTextbookTape recorders and audiovisual equipment四、Procedure1、The process of teaching involves extensive oral instruction2、The procedures the teacher should adopt ( Brook)3、In a typical audiolingual lesson the following procedures will be observed:a. Recognition;b. Imitation and repetitionc. Patterns drill:d. Follow-up activities五、The decline of Audiolingualism1、Criticism on two fronts: the theoretical foundations（both in language and language learning） and the practical results fell short of expectation.2、the theoretical attack: Noam Chomsky’s theory of transformational grammar第五章Total Physical ResponseTotal Physical Response is a language learning methodbased on the coordination of speech and action. Thismethod of learning was developed by James Asher, aprofessor of psychology at San Jose State University,California.一、Background1、the “trace theory” of memory in psychology2、developmental psychology：child first language acquisition3、humanistic psychology: the role of affective factors4、Comprehension Approach5、a tradition: the use of physical actions to teach a foreignlanguage at an introductory level二、Approachstructuralist or grammar-based views of languagedetailed cognitive map (abstractions and nonabstractions)<Bio-program> the central role of comprehension in language learninglanguage can be internalized as wholes or chunksReminiscent of the views of behavioral psychology: a stimulus-response viewLearning hypotheses ( to facilitate or inhibit foreign language learning ) According to Asher, the language learning theories are similar to those of other behavioral psychologists. The principals that help elaborate his idea are:1. Second language learning is parallel to first language learning andshould reflect the same naturalistic processes.2. Listening should develop before speaking.3. Once listening comprehension has been developed, speech developsnaturally and effortlessly out of it.4. Adults should use right-brain motor activities, while the lefthemisphere watches and learns.三、DesignThe general objectives: to teach oral proficiency at a beginning level Specific instructional objectives are not elaborated.Be inferred from an analysis of the exercise types employed in TPRclassesA sentence-based syllabusA fixed number of items be introduced at a timeAttention to both the global meaning of language and the finer details of its organizationImperative drills are the major classroom activity.Role plays：center on everyday situationSlide presentationsReading and writing activitiesA primary role : listener and performerHave little influence over the contentMonitor and evaluate their own progressActive and direct roleWell prepared and well organizedTeachers follow the example of parents giving feedbackCautions: illusion of simplicity; having too narrow a tolerance for errorsNo basic text, materials and realia play an increasing role in later learning stages.Student kits that focus on specific situations (supporting materials) 四、ProcedureAsher’s account of a course:ReviewNew commandsRole reversalReading and writingConclusion:Total Physical Response has enjoyed some popularity because of its support by those who emphasize the role of comprehension in second languageacquisition.It represents a useful techniques and is compatible with other approaches第六章The Silent WayIt is a method of foreign-language teaching developedby Gattegno which makes use of gesture, mime, visualaids, wall charts, and in particular Cuisiniere rods(wooden sticks of different lengths and colors) thatthe teacher uses to help the students to talk. Themethod takes its name from the relative silence of theteacher using these techniques.一、BackgroundThe premise of the Silent WayThe learning hypothesesLearning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates. (discovery learning)Learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects.Learning is facilitated by problem solving.二、ApproachGattegno views language as a substitute for experience.By the "spirit" of the language Gattegno is referring to the way each language isComposed of phonological and suprasegmentalA structural approachVocabulary as a central dimensionSurrenderArtificial approachThe self of the learnerLearning to learn三、DesignThe general objectives: to give beginning level students oral and aural facilityAn immediate objectives: to provide the learner with a basic practical knowledge of the grammar of the languageTeach learners how to learn a languagea basically structural syllabusvocabularysimple linguistic tasksresponses to commands, questions and visual cuesLearners are expected to develop independence, autonomy andresponsibility.Learners exert a strong influence over each other’s learning.Playing varying rolesTeacher silence is the most demanding aspect of the Silent Way.To teach, to test, to get out of the wayCreate an environmentTeacher likes the complete dramatist.The pronunciation chartsThe colored cuisenaire rodsThe vocabulary or word chartsOther materials四、ProcedureA standard formatPractice of the sounds (using the pronunciation charts)Practice of sentence patterns, structure, and vocabulary (using the rods and charts)A sample lessonFidel chartConclusion:The actual practices of the Silent Way are much less revolutionary than might be expected. The innovations derive from the manner in which classroom activities are organized, the indirect role the teacher is required to assume in directing and monitoring learner performance, the responsibility placed upon learners, and the materials used.第七章Community Language Learning社团语言学习法It is a method of second and foreign languageteaching developed by Charles Curran. CLL is anapplication of counseling learning(咨询学习法)tosecond and foreign language teaching and learning. Ituses techniques developed in group counseling to helppeople with psychological and emotional problems. Themethod makes use of group learning in small or largegroups. These groups are the “Community”. The methodplaces emphasis on the learners’ personal feelingsand their reactions to language learning. Learners saythings which they want to talk about, in their nativelanguage. The teacher (known as “Counselor”)translates the learners’ sentence s into the foreignlanguage, and the learner then repeats this to othermembers of the group.一、Background1、Rogerian counseling——Charles A. Curren2、Humanistic techniques：the whole person3、Language alternation二、ApproachTraditional structuralist positionLanguage as social processThe interactional view of language: interaction between equals,interaction betweenunequalsinteraction between learners and knowers, interaction betweenlearners.Contracted with traditional views (a putative learning view, thebehavioral view)The whole-person learning (five stages)Consensual validationS(secure)A(attention and aggression)R(retention andreflection)D(discrimination)the personal commitments三、DesignExplicit linguistic or communicative objectives are not defined.Teacher transfers knowledge and proficiency to the learner.Goal: attaining near-native like mastery of the target languageSpecific objectives are not addressed.No conventional language syllabusTopic-based courseTeacher’s responsibility： teacher transfers knowledge and proficiencyto the learnerGoal: attenting near-native like mastery of the target language.Combines innovative learning tasks and activities with conventional ones.Translation, Group Work, Recording, Transcription, Analysis, Reflection and observation, Listening, Free conversationmembers of a communitybecome counselors to other learnersFive stagesCounselorSpecific teacher roles are keyed to the five development stages.providing a safe environmentNote two “asides” in the discussion of learning security.A textbook is not considered a necessary component.Materials may be developed by the teacher as the course develops.the use of teaching machines四、Procedure1、? classical CLL and personal interpretations of it2、? the description of some typical activities in CLL classed3、? a protocol of what a first day’s CLL class coveredConclusion:Community Language Learning is the most responsive of the methods we have reviewed in terms of its sensitivity to learner communication intent. It places unusual demands on language teachers. Critics of Community Language Learning question many aspects of CLL. Supporters of CLL emphasize the positive benefits of a method that centered on the learner and stresses the humanistic side of language learning.自己想法：学校英语角活动Question for discussion:社团学习法把语言学习过程比作是咨询过程，你们觉得这个比喻合适吗？为什么？第八章SuggostopediaSuggestopedia/Lozanov Method (暗示法/罗扎诺夫法)It is a method of foreign-language teachingdeveloped by the Bulgarian Lozanov. It makes use ofdialogues, situations and translation to present andpractise language, and in particular, makes use ofmusic, visual images, and relaxation exercises to makelearning more comfortable and effective.一、Background1、Suggestology2、the most conspicuous characteristics of Suggestopedia3、Soviet psychology4、mental states5、the centrality of music and musical rhythm to learning二、Approachlexis is centralwhole meaningful texta language to be its vocabulary and the grammar rules for organizing vocabularya desuggestive-suggestive sensesix principal theoretical components:authority, infantilization, double-planedness, intonation, rhythm, concert pseudo-passivenessthe type of musicthe rate of presentation of material to be learned within the rhythmic pattern三、Designdeliver advanced conversational proficiency quicklyincreased access to understanding and creative solutions of problemscourse descriptiontime duration——30 dayseach unitthe whole courseimitation, question and answer, role playeach unitlistening activitiesThe mental state of the learner is critical to success, mind-altering infantilizationthe primary role of the teacherexpected teacher behaviorsneeds three to six months training in acting, singing, and psychotherapeutic techniquesExpected teacher behaviorsDirect support materials: text and tapeIndirect support materials: classroom fixtures and music四、ProcedureBancroft’s description: a four-hour language class has three distinct parts.The first part: an oral review sectionThe second part: new material is presented and discussedThe third part: the séance or concert sessionConclusion:Suggestopedia has probably received both the most enthusiastic and the most critical response of any of the so-called new methods. It is not productive to further belabor the science/nonscience, date/double-talk issues and instead try to identify and validate those techniques from Suggestopedia that appear effective and that harmonize with other successful techniques in the language teaching inventory.Question for discussion;暗示法强调音乐的作用，那么音乐在外语学习过程中究竟起了怎样的作用？谈谈你们的看法。

Task-Based Language TeachingDefinitionTask-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) refers to an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching.The relationships between TBLT and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)Task-based language teaching:• a logical development of CLT•formed part of the communicative language teaching movement from the 1980s.Eg:◎Activities that involve real communication are essential for language learning ◎Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning ◎Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process•The role of tasks has received further support from some researchers in second language acquisition (SLA), who are interested in developing pedagogical applications of SLA.•Task is regarded as the potential building blocks of SLA instruction.•SLA research has focused on the strategies and cognitive processemployed by second language learners•Language learning is believed to depend on immersing students not merely in “comprehensible input” but in tasks that require them to negotiate meaning and engage in naturalistic and meaningful communication.The key assumptions of task-based instruction are summarized by Feez（1998:17) as :The focus is on process rather than procedure. Basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasize communication and meaning. Learner learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully while engaged in the activities and tasksActivities and tasks can be either: those that learners might need to achieve in real life; those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom.Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty.The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors including the previous experience of the learner, the complexity of the task, the language required to undertake the task, and the degree of support availablewhat is “task” ?A task is an activity or goal that is carried out using language, such as finding a solution to a puzzle, reading a map, and giving directions,making a telephone call etc.Nunan (1989:10) offers this definition: the task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. And also have a sense of complexity.•“Task” first appeared in the vocational training practices of the 1950s. Task focus here first derived from training design concerns of military regarding new military technologies and occupational specialties of the period. Task analysis initially focus on solo psychomotor tasks for which little communication or collaboration was involved, and largely manual tasks were translated into training tasks.Task-based training identified several key areas of concern: Analysis of real world task-use situationsThe translation of those into teaching task descriptionsThe detailed design of instructional tasksThe sequencing of instructional tasks in classroom training/teaching Four major categories of team performance function in task-based instructionOrientation function:process for generating and distributing information necessary to task accomplishment to team membersOrganizational function:process necessary for members to coordinate actions necessary for performanceAdaption function:process occurring as a team members adapt their performance to each other to complete the taskMotivational function:defining team objectives and “energizing the group’ to complete the taskWhat is academic task?•The academic task is the mechanism through which the curriculum is enacted for students (Doyle 1983: 161)•Academic tasks are defined as four important dimensions:◎The products students are asked to produce◎The operations they are required to use in order to produce these products◎The cognitive operations required and resources available◎The accountability system involvedDefinition of a Task◆Prabhu: a task is “ an activities which requires learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allows teachers to control and regulate that process.”◆Crookes :a task is “ a piece of work or an activity, usually with a specified objective, undertaken as part of an educational course, at work, or used to elicit data for research.”Willis (1996) proposes six task types built on more or less traditional knowledge hierarchies.listing(列举型任务)work in groups: for a healthy lifestyle, what you should do and shouldn't do. make a list(brainstorming, fact-finding)ordering and sorting(排序与分类型任务)In the lesson of "How to make a milk shake?", disturb the main process, then rearrange them according to the actual ordercomparing (比较型任务）What things are the same at Spring Festival and Christmas Day? What things are different?problem solving(解决问题型任务)think of three low budget solutions to the problem of looking after a cat when the family is absent.sharing personal experiences(分享个人经验型任务)After students plant trees, ask them to talk about the significance of planting trees.creative tasks (创造型任务）work in groups: ask students to discuss their ideal bedroom, and make a sketch, with there be pattern.Pica, Kanagy and Falodun (1993) classify tasks according to the type of interaction that occurs in task accomplishment.Jigsaw tasks(拼图式任务)：These involve learners combining different pieces of information to form a whole.Information-gap tasks(信息差型任务)：one set of information--a complementary set of information--negotiate and find out--complete an activityProblem-solving tasks (解决问题型任务): Students are given a problem and a set of information. They must arrive at a solution to the problem. Decision- making tasks(选择决定型任务)：Students are given a problem for which there are a number of possible outcomes and they must choose one through negotiation and discussion.Opinion exchange tasks(交换观点型任务): Learners engage in discussion and exchange of ideas. They do not need to reach agreement. Other characteristics of tasks have also been describedone-way or two-way: whether the task involves a one-way exchange of information or two-way exchange.convergent or divergent: whether the students achieve a common goal or several different goals.collaborative or competitive: whether the students collaborate to carryout a task or compete with each other on a task.single or multiple outcomes: whether there is a single outcome or many different outcomes are possible.concrete or abstract language: whether the task involves the use of concrete language or abstract language.simple or complex processing: whether the task requires relatively simple or complex cognitive processing.simple or complex language: whether the linguistic demands of the task are relatively simple or complex.reality-based or not reality-based: whether the task mirrors a real-world activity or is a pedagogical activity not found in the real world.teacher rolesA central role of the teacher is in selecting, adapting ,and /or creating the tasks themselves and then forming these into an instructional sequence in keeping with learner needs, interests and language skill level.任务型教学的优点:1.注重真实场景下的、以明确目标为导向；它要求学生通过完成任务的学习活动来掌握真实、实用和有意义的语言。

Task-Based Language TeachingDefinitionTask-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) refers to an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching.The relationships between TBLT and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)Task-based language teaching:• a logical development of CLT•formed part of the communicative language teaching movement from the 1980s.Eg:◎Activities that involve real communication are essential for language learning ◎Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning ◎Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process•The role of tasks has received further support from some researchers in second language acquisition (SLA), who are interested in developing pedagogical applications of SLA.•Task is regarded as the potential building blocks of SLA instruction.•SLA research has focused on the strategies and cognitive processemployed by second language learners•Language learning is believed to depend on immersing students not merely in “comprehensible input” but in tasks that require them to negotiate meaning and engage in naturalistic and meaningful communication.The key assumptions of task-based instruction are summarized by Feez（1998:17) as :The focus is on process rather than procedure. Basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasize communication and meaning. Learner learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully while engaged in the activities and tasksActivities and tasks can be either: those that learners might need to achieve in real life; those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom.Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty.The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors including the previous experience of the learner, the complexity of the task, the language required to undertake the task, and the degree of support availablewhat is “task” ?A task is an activity or goal that is carried out using language, such as finding a solution to a puzzle, reading a map, and giving directions,making a telephone call etc.Nunan (1989:10) offers this definition: the task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. And also have a sense of complexity.•“Task” first appeared in the vocational training practices of the 1950s. Task focus here first derived from training design concerns of military regarding new military technologies and occupational specialties of the period. Task analysis initially focus on solo psychomotor tasks for which little communication or collaboration was involved, and largely manual tasks were translated into training tasks.Task-based training identified several key areas of concern: Analysis of real world task-use situationsThe translation of those into teaching task descriptionsThe detailed design of instructional tasksThe sequencing of instructional tasks in classroom training/teaching Four major categories of team performance function in task-based instructionOrientation function:process for generating and distributing information necessary to task accomplishment to team membersOrganizational function:process necessary for members to coordinate actions necessary for performanceAdaption function:process occurring as a team members adapt their performance to each other to complete the taskMotivational function:defining team objectives and “energizing the group’ to complete the taskWhat is academic task?•The academic task is the mechanism through which the curriculum is enacted for students (Doyle 1983: 161)•Academic tasks are defined as four important dimensions:◎The products students are asked to produce◎The operations they are required to use in order to produce these products◎The cognitive operations required and resources available◎The accountability system involvedDefinition of a Task◆Prabhu: a task is “ an activities which requires learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allows teachers to control and regulate that process.”◆Crookes :a task is “ a piece of work or an activity, usually with a specified objective, undertaken as part of an educational course, at work, or used to elicit data for research.”Willis (1996) proposes six task types built on more or less traditional knowledge hierarchies.listing(列举型任务)work in groups: for a healthy lifestyle, what you should do and shouldn't do. make a list(brainstorming, fact-finding)ordering and sorting(排序与分类型任务)In the lesson of "How to make a milk shake?", disturb the main process, then rearrange them according to the actual ordercomparing (比较型任务）What things are the same at Spring Festival and Christmas Day? What things are different?problem solving(解决问题型任务)think of three low budget solutions to the problem of looking after a cat when the family is absent.sharing personal experiences(分享个人经验型任务)After students plant trees, ask them to talk about the significance of planting trees.creative tasks (创造型任务）work in groups: ask students to discuss their ideal bedroom, and make a sketch, with there be pattern.Pica, Kanagy and Falodun (1993) classify tasks according to the type of interaction that occurs in task accomplishment.Jigsaw tasks(拼图式任务)：These involve learners combining different pieces of information to form a whole.Information-gap tasks(信息差型任务)：one set of information--a complementary set of information--negotiate and find out--complete an activityProblem-solving tasks (解决问题型任务): Students are given a problem and a set of information. They must arrive at a solution to the problem. Decision- making tasks(选择决定型任务)：Students are given a problem for which there are a number of possible outcomes and they must choose one through negotiation and discussion.Opinion exchange tasks(交换观点型任务): Learners engage in discussion and exchange of ideas. They do not need to reach agreement. Other characteristics of tasks have also been describedone-way or two-way: whether the task involves a one-way exchange of information or two-way exchange.convergent or divergent: whether the students achieve a common goal or several different goals.collaborative or competitive: whether the students collaborate to carryout a task or compete with each other on a task.single or multiple outcomes: whether there is a single outcome or many different outcomes are possible.concrete or abstract language: whether the task involves the use of concrete language or abstract language.simple or complex processing: whether the task requires relatively simple or complex cognitive processing.simple or complex language: whether the linguistic demands of the task are relatively simple or complex.reality-based or not reality-based: whether the task mirrors a real-world activity or is a pedagogical activity not found in the real world.teacher rolesA central role of the teacher is in selecting, adapting ,and /or creating the tasks themselves and then forming these into an instructional sequence in keeping with learner needs, interests and language skill level.任务型教学的优点:1.注重真实场景下的、以明确目标为导向；它要求学生通过完成任务的学习活动来掌握真实、实用和有意义的语言。

第三章The oral approach and situational language teachingThe oral approach (situational language teaching) is a grammar-based method inwhich principles of grammatical and lexical gradation are used and new teachingpoints are presented and practiced through meaningful situation-based activities.一、Background1. Two of the leaders were Harold palmer and A.S.Hornby.2. Vocabulary control3. Grammar control二、The Oral Approach and Situational Language TeachingThe main characteristics of the approach were as follows:1. Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is taught orally.2. The target language is the language of the classroom.3. New language points are introduced and practiced situationally.4. Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered.5. Items of grammar are graded by their complexity.6. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established.三、Approach1、Theory of language○1a type of British “structuralism”.○2One distinctive feature: structures must be linked to situations in which they could be used○3Language was viewed as purposeful activity related to goals and situations in the real world.2、Theory of learninga type of behaviorist habit-learning theory(three processes in learning a language)(1). Language learning as habit formation(2).An inductive approach is used to the teaching of grammar(3).The same processed are thought to occur both in child language learning and in second language learning.四、Design1、Objectives:(1). Practical command of the four basic skills of language(2). Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial.(3). Automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns is fundamental.(4). Writing derives from speech.2、The syllabus(1) A structural syllabus—a list of the basic structures and sentence patterns(2) Situation: the manner of presenting and practicing sentence patterns3、Types of learning and teaching activities(1) SLT employs a situational approach to presenting new sentence patterns and a drill-based manner to practicing the new sentence patterns(2) Situation: the use of concrete objects, pictures and realia, which together with actions and gestures(3) Practice techniques: guided repetition, substitution activities, pair practice4、Learner roles(1) Listen, repeat and responds to questions and commands(2) Have no control over the content of learning5、Teacher rolesThreefold: a model、a skillful manipulator、on the lookout for errorsThe teacher is essential to the success of the method.6、The role of instructional materials(1)Textbook: contains organized lessons(2)Visual aids: consists of wall charts, flashcards, pictures, stick figuresThe teacher is expected to be the master of his textbook.五、ProcedureAim: to move from controlled to freer practice of structures and from oral use of sentence patterns to their automatic use in speech, reading and writing.The teaching of a structure: four partsPronunciationRevision ( to prepare for new work if necessary)Presentation of new structure or vocabularyOral practice (drilling)Reading of material on the new structure, or written exercisesThe sequence of activities:Listening practiceChoral imitationIndividual imitationIsolationBuilding up to a new modelElicitationSubstitution drillingQuestion-answer drillingCorrection第四章The Audiolingual MethodIt is a method of foreign or second language teaching which (a) emphasizes theteaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing (b) uses dialoguesand drills. (c) discourages use of the mother tongue in the classroom (d) oftenmakes use of contrastive analysis. The audiolingual method was prominent inthe 1950s and 1960s, especially in the United States, and has been widely used inmany other parts of the world.一、BackgroundThe combination of structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures, and behaviorist psychology led to the Audiolingual Method.二、Approach1、Theory of languageStructural linguistics (1950s): a reaction to traditional grammarThe primary medium of language is oral: speech is language.2、Theory of learningBehavioral psychology: stimulus-response chainsLearning principles:1. Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation.2. Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in the target language are presented in sporken form before they are seen in written form.3. Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis. Hence the approach to the teaching of grammar is essentially inductive rather than deductive.4.The meaning of word can be learned in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation.三、Design1、ObjectivesShort-range objectives：Listening comprehension、accurate pronunciation, reading comprehension and production of correct sentences in writing.Long-range objectives ：To develop in the students the same types of abilities that native speakers have2、The syllabusA linguistic syllabus: phonology, morphology, and syntax of the languageA lexical syllabus of basic vocabularyLanguage skills: listening, speaking, reading, writing3、Types of learning and teaching activitiesDialoguesDrills --Various kinds of drills : repetition, inflection, replacement…4、Learner rolesOrganisms that can be directed by skilled training techniques to produce correct responsesa reactive role, have little control5、Teachers rolesCentral and activeModels the target languageControls the direction and pace of learningMonitors and corrects the learners’ performance6、The role of instructional materialsTextbookTape recorders and audiovisual equipment四、Procedure1、The process of teaching involves extensive oral instruction2、The procedures the teacher should adopt ( Brook)3、In a typical audiolingual lesson the following procedures will be observed:a. Recognition;b. Imitation and repetitionc. Patterns drill:d. Follow-up activities五、The decline of Audiolingualism1、Criticism on two fronts: the theoretical foundations（both in language and language learning）and the practical results fell short of expectation.2、the theoretical attack: Noam Chomsky’s theory of transformational grammar情境法与听说法的异同There are many similarities between situational language teaching and audiolingualism.1. The order in which language skills are introduced2. Focus on accuracy through drill and practice in the basic structures3. Sectence patterns of the target languageHowever, situational language teaching was a development of the earlier Direct Method and does not have the strong ties to linguistic and behavioral psychology that characterize audiolingualism. The similarities of the two methods reflect similar views about the nature of language and of language learning, through these views were in fact development from quite different traditions.第五章Communicative Language Teaching又称：功能—意念法（The Functional-Notional Approach ）The CLT is an approach to foreign or second language teaching which emphasizesthat the goal of language learning is communicative competence. Teachingmaterials used with the Communicative approach often teach the language neededto express and understand different kinds of functions. The approach follows aNational syllabus and emphasizes the processes of communication to getinformation, and using language for social interaction with other people.一、BackgroundThe origins of the CLT are to be found in the changes in the British language teaching tradition dating from the late 1960s.In the late sixties, the current SLT was questioned.British applied linguistics began to emphasize the fundamental dimension of language teaching at that time- the functional and communicative potential of language. Scholars argued for focus in language teaching on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures.二、Approachlanguage as communication三、Design1、ObjectivesPiepho’s discussion (general objectives)1.an integrative and content level(language as a means of expression)2.an linguistic and instrumental level(language as a semiotic system and an object of learning)3.an affective level of interpersonal relationships and conduct(language as a means of expressing values and judgments about oneself and others.)4.a level of individual learning needs(remedial learning based on error analysis)5.a general educational level of extra-linguistic goals(language learning within the school curriculum) No defined particular objectives2、The syllabusNotional syllabus which specified the semantic-grammatical categories and the categories of communicative function that learners need to express.3、Types of learning and teaching activitiesClassroom activities are unlimited.Littlewood (functional communication activities and social interaction activities)1. Functional communication activities: ones aimed at developing certain languageskills and functions, but which involve communication, and2. Social interaction activities, such as conversation and discussion sessions, dialoguesand role plays4、Learner roles①a negotiator②a communicator③a contributor④an independent learner5、Teacher roles①a facilitator of the communication②an independent participant within the learning-teaching group③Need analyst (formally and informally)④Counselor⑤Group process manager6、The role of instructional materialsText-based materialsTask-based materialsRealia 实物教具四、ProcedureDescription of typical classroom procedures used in a lesson based on CLT principles is not feasible.Conclusion:Communicative Language Teaching is best considered an approach rather than a method. It appeared at a time when British language was ready for a paradigm shift. CLT appealed to those who sought a more humanistic approach to teaching, one in which the interactive processes of communication received priority. Now that the initial wave of enthusiasm has passed, some of the claims of CLT are being looked at more critically.第六章Total Physical ResponseTotal Physical Response is a language learning method based on the coordinationof speech and action. This method of learning was developed by James Asher, aprofessor of psychology at San Jose State University, California.一、Background1、the “trace theory” of memory in psychology2、developmental psychology：child first language acquisition3、humanistic psychology: the role of affective factors4、Comprehension Approach5、a tradition: the use of physical actions to teach a foreign language at an introductory level二、Approach1、Theory of languagestructuralist or grammar-based views of languagedetailed cognitive map (abstractions and nonabstractions)the central role of comprehension in language learninglanguage can be internalized as wholes or chunks2、Theory of learningReminiscent of the views of behavioral psychology: a stimulus-response viewLearning hypotheses ( to facilitate or inhibit foreign language learning ) According to Asher, the language learning theories are similar to those of other behavioral psychologists. The principals that help elaborate his idea are:1. Second language learning is parallel to first language learning and should reflect thesame naturalistic processes.2. Listening should develop before speaking.3. Once listening comprehension has been developed, speech develops naturally andeffortlessly out of it.4. Adults should use right-brain motor activities, while the left hemisphere watchesand learns.三、Design1、ObjectivesThe general objectives: to teach oral proficiency at a beginning levelSpecific instructional objectives are not elaborated.2、The syllabus:Be inferred from an analysis of the exercise types employed in TPR classesA sentence-based syllabusA fixed number of items be introduced at a timeAttention to both the global meaning of language and the finer details of itsorganization3、Types of learning and teaching activitiesImperative drills are the major classroom activity.Role plays：center on everyday situationSlide presentationsReading and writing activities4、Learner rolesA primary role : listener and performerHave little influence over the contentMonitor and evaluate their own progress5、Teacher rolesActive and direct roleWell prepared and well organizedTeachers follow the example of parents giving feedbackCautions: illusion of simplicity; having too narrow a tolerance for errors6、The role of instructional materialsNo basic text, materials and realia play an increasing role in later learning stages.Student kits that focus on specific situations (supporting materials)四、ProcedureAsher’s account of a course:ReviewNew commandsRole reversalReading and writingConclusion:Total Physical Response has enjoyed some popularity because of its support by thosewho emphasize the role of comprehension in second language acquisition.It represents a useful techniques and is compatible with other approaches to teaching.4.Traits 1. It uses psychomotor systems to teach.2. It support kinesthetic learning style, which is good for those who need to be active in the class.3. Command forms used to convey information.4. It works well with mixed-ability classes.5. It is very memorable, and it really helps students to remember phrases or words.6. It is a lot of fun, students enjoy it and it can be a real stirrer in the class.7. It is very effective with teenagers and young learners.第七章The Silent WayIt is a method of foreign-language teaching developed by Gattegno which makesuse of gesture, mime, visual aids, wall charts, and in particular Cuisiniere rods(wooden sticks of different lengths and colors) that the teacher uses to help thestudents to talk. The method takes its name from the relative silence of the teacherusing these techniques.一、BackgroundThe premise of the Silent WayThe learning hypothesesLearning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates. (discovery learning)Learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects.Learning is facilitated by problem solving.二、Approach1、Theory of languageGattegno views language as a substitute for experience.By the "spirit" of the language Gattegno is referring to the way each language isComposed of phonological and suprasegmentalA structural approachVocabulary as a central dimension2、Theory of learningSurrenderArtificial approachThe self of the learnerLearning to learn三、Design1、ObjectivesThe general objectives: to give beginning level students oral and aural facilityAn immediate objectives: to provide the learner with a basic practical knowledge of the grammar of the languageTeach learners how to learn a language2、The syllabusa basically structural syllabusvocabulary3、Types of learning and teaching activitiessimple linguistic tasksresponses to commands, questions and visual cues4、Learner rolesLearners are expected to develop independence, autonomy and responsibility.Learners exert a strong influence over each other’s learning.Playing varying roles5、Teacher rolesTeacher silence is the most demanding aspect of the Silent Way.To teach, to test, to get out of the wayCreate an environmentTeacher likes the complete dramatist.6、The role of instructional materialsThe pronunciation chartsThe colored cuisenaire rodsThe vocabulary or word chartsOther materials四、ProcedureA standard formatPractice of the sounds (using the pronunciation charts)Practice of sentence patterns, structure, and vocabulary (using the rods and charts)A sample lessonConclusion:The actual practices of the Silent Way are much less revolutionary than might be expected. The innovations derive from the manner in which classroom activities are organized, the indirect role the teacher is required to assume in directing and monitoring learner performance, the responsibility placed upon learners, and the materials used.第八章Community Language LearningIt is a method of second and foreign language teaching developed by Charles Curran. CLL is an application of counseling learning(咨询学习法)to second andforeign language teaching and learning. It uses techniques developed in groupcounseling to help people with psychological and emotional problems. The methodmakes use of group learning in small or large groups. These groups are the“Community”. The method places emphasis on the learners’ personal feelings andtheir reactions to language learning. Learners say things which they want to talkabout, in their native language. The teacher (known as “Counselor”) translatesthe learners’ sentences into the foreign language, and the learner then repeats thisto other members of the group.一、Background1、Rogerian counseling2、Humanistic techniques：the whole person3、Language alternation二、Approach1、Theory of languageTraditional structuralist positionLanguage as social processThe interactional view of language: interaction between equals, interaction between unequals2、Theory of learningContracted with traditional views (a putative learning view, the behavioral view)The whole-person learning (five stages)Consensual validationS(secure)A(attention and aggression)R(retention and reflection)D(discrimination)the personal commitments三、Design1、ObjectivesExplicit linguistic or communicative objectives are not defined.Teacher transfers knowledge and proficiency to the learner.Goal: attaining near-native like mastery of the target languageSpecific objectives are not addressed.2、The syllabusNo conventional language syllabusTopic-based courseTeacher’s responsibility3、Types of learning and teaching activitiesCombines innovative learning tasks and activities with conventional ones.Translation, Group Work, Recording, Transcription, Analysis, Reflection and observation, Listening, Free conversation4、Learner rolesmembers of a communitybecome counselors to other learnersFive stages5、Teacher rolesCounselorSpecific teacher roles are keyed to the five development stages.providing a safe environmentNote two “asides” in the discussion of learning security.6、The role of instructional materialsA textbook is not considered a necessary component.Materials may be developed by the teacher as the course develops.the use of teaching machines四、Procedure1、 classical CLL and personal interpretations of it2、 the description of some typical activities in CLL classed3、 a protocol of what a first day’s CLL class coveredConclusion:Community Language Learning is the most responsive of the methods we have reviewed in terms of its sensitivity to learner communication intent. It places unusual demands on language teachers. Critics of Community Language Learning question many aspects of CLL. Supporters of CLL emphasize the positive benefits of a method that centered on the learner and stresses the humanistic side of language learning.Question for discussion:社团学习法把语言学习过程比作是咨询过程，你们觉得这个比喻合适吗？为什么？第九章The Natural ApproachIt is a term for an approach proposed by Terrell, to develop teaching principleswhich(a) emphasize natural communication rather than formal grammar study(b) are tolerant of learners’ errors(c) emphasize the informal acquisition of language rules.一、Background1、Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen2、The Natural Approach and traditional approaches3、The Natural Approach and the Natural Method二、Approach1、Theory of languagecommunication as the primary function of languagegive little attention to a theory of languageThe importance of vocabulary is stressed.view language learning as mastery of structures by stages (I+1)a view of language consists of lexical items, structure, and messages2 Theory of learning: Krashen’s language acquisition theoryThe Acquisition/Learning hypothesisThe monitor hypothesisThe natural order hypothesisThe input hypothesisThe affective filter hypothesis三、Design1、ObjectivesExpectationSpecific objectives depend upon learner needs and the skill and level being taught.It is important to communicate to learners what they can expect of a course as well as what they should not expect.2、The syllabusTwo points of view to approach course organizationContent selection3、Types of learning and teaching activitiesCommand-based activitiesDirect Method activitiesSituation-based practice of structures and patternsGroup-work activitiesthe characteristics of the Natural Approach4、Learner rolesa processor of comprehensible inputLearners’ roles change according to their stages of linguistic development.Learner have four kinds of responsibilities.5、Teacher rolesThree central rolesa. the primary source of comprehensible inputb. create a classroom atmospherec. choose and orchestrate a rich mix of classroom activities6、The role of instructional materialsthe primary goal of materialsthe primary aim of materialsother recommended materialsgames四、ProcedureThe Natural Approach adopts techniques and activities freely from various method sources.ExamplesConclusion:The Natural Approach belongs to a tradition of language teaching methods based on observation and interpretation of how learners acquire both first and second languages in nonformal setting. Its greatest claim to originality lies not in the techniques it employs but in their use in a method that emphasizes comprehensible and meaningful practice activities, rather than production of grammatically perfect utterances and sentences.Question for discussion:自然法的自然之处在哪里？创新之处又在哪里？第十章SuggostopediaSuggestopedia/Lozanov Method (暗示法/罗扎诺夫法)It is a method of foreign-language teaching developed by the Bulgarian Lozanov. It makes use of dialogues, situations and translation to present andpractise language, and in particular, makes use of music, visual images, andrelaxation exercises to make learning more comfortable and effective.一、Background1、Suggestology2、the most conspicuous characteristics of Suggestopedia3、Soviet psychology4、mental states5、the centrality of music and musical rhythm to learning二、Approach1、Theory of languagelexis is centralwhole meaningful texta language to be its vocabulary and the grammar rules for organizing vocabulary2、Theory of learninga desuggestive-suggestive sensesix principal theoretical components:authority, infantilization, double-planedness, intonation, rhythm, concertpseudo-passivenessthe type of musicthe rate of presentation of material to be learned within the rhythmic pattern三、Design1、Objectivesdeliver advanced conversational proficiency quicklyincreased access to understanding and creative solutions of problems2、The syllabuscourse descriptiontime durationeach unitthe whole course3、Types of learning and teaching activitiesimitation, question and answer, role playlistening activities4Learner rolesThe mental state of the learner is critical to success. mind-alteringinfantilization5、Teacher rolesthe primary role of the teacherexpected teacher behaviorsneeds three to six months training in acting, singing, and psychotherapeutic techniques6 The role of instructional materialsDirect support materials: text and tapeIndirect support materials: classroom fixtures and music四、ProcedureBancroft’s description: a four-hour language class has three distinct parts.The first part: an oral review sectionThe second part: new material is presented and discussedThe third part: the séance or concert sessionConclusion:Suggestopedia has probably received both the most enthusiastic and the most critical response of any of the so-called new methods. It is not productive to further belabor the science/nonscience, date/double-talk issues and instead try to identify and validate those techniques from Suggestopedia that appear effective and that harmonize with other successful techniques in the language teaching inventory.Question for discussion;暗示法强调音乐的作用，那么音乐在外语学习过程中究竟起了怎样的作用？谈谈你们的看法。

《语言教学的流派》笔记Task-Based Language Teaching Definition Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) refers to an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching.The relationships between TBLT and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)Task-based language teaching: ? a logical development of CLT? formed part of the communicative language teaching movement from the 1980s. Eg:◎Activities that involve real communication are essential for language learning ◎Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning ◎Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process? The role of tasks has received further support from some researchers in second language acquisition (SLA), who are interested in developing pedagogical applications of SLA. ? Task is regarded as the potential building blocks of SLA instruction.? SLA research has focused on the strategies and cognitive process employed by second language learners? Language learning is believed to depend on immersing students not merely in “comprehensible input〞 but in tasks that require them to negotiate meaning and engage in naturalistic and meaningful communication.The key assumptions of task-based instruction are summarized by Feez 〔1998:17) as :The focus is on process rather than procedure. Basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasize communication and meaning.Learner learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully while engaged in the activities and tasksActivities and tasks can be either: those that learners might need to achieve in real life; those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom. Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty.The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors including the previous experience of the learner, the complexity of the task, the language required to undertake the task, and the degree of support available what is “task〞 ?A task is an activity or goal that is carried out using language, such as finding a solution to a puzzle, reading a map, and giving directions, making a telephone call etc.Nunan (1989:10) offers this definition: the task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. And also have a sense of complexity.? “Task〞 first appeared in the vocational training practices of the 1950s. Task focus here first derived from training design concerns of military regarding new military technologies and occupational specialties of the period. Task analysis initially focus on solo psychomotor tasks for which little communication or collaboration was involved, and largely manual tasks were translated into training tasks. Task-based training identified several key areas of concern: Analysis of real world task-use situationsThe translation of those into teaching task descriptions The detailed design of instructional tasksThe sequencing of instructional tasks in classroom training/teaching Four major categories of team performance function in task-based instructionOrientation function:process for generating and distributing information necessary to task accomplishment to team membersOrganizational function:process necessary for members to coordinate actions necessary for performance Adaption function:process occurring as a team members adapt their performance to each other to complete the task Motivational function:defining team objectives and “energizing the group? to complete the taskWhat is academic task?? The academic task is the mechanism through which the curriculum is enacted for students (Doyle 1983: 161)? Academic tasks are defined as four important dimensions: ◎The products students are asked to produce◎The operations they are required to use in order to produce these products◎The cognitive operations required and resources available ◎The accountability system involved Definition of a Task ◆Prabhu: a task is “ an activities which requires learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allows teachers to control and regulate that process.〞◆ Crookes : a task is “ a piece of work or an activity, usually witha specified objective, undertaken as part of an educational course, at work, or used to elicit data for research.〞Willis (1996) proposes six task types built on more or less traditional knowledge hierarchies. listing(列举型任务)work in groups: for a healthy lifestyle, what you should do and shouldn't do. make a list(brainstorming, fact-finding)ordering and sorting(排序与分类型任务)In the lesson of \then rearrange them according to the actual order comparing (比拟型任务〕What things are the same at Spring Festival and Christmas Day? What things are different?problem solving(解决问题型任务)think of three low budget solutions to the problem of looking after a cat when the family is absent.sharing personal experiences(分享个人经验型任务)After students plant trees, ask them to talk about the significance of planting trees.creative tasks (创造型任务〕。

《语⾔教学的流派》笔记（最新整理）第三章The oral approach and situational language teachingThe oral approach (situational language teaching) is a grammar-based method inwhich principles of grammatical and lexical gradation are used and new teachingpoints are presented and practiced through meaningful situation-based activities.⼀、Background1. Two of the leaders were Harold palmer and A.S.Hornby.2. Vocabulary control3. Grammar control⼆、The Oral Approach and Situational Language TeachingThe main characteristics of the approach were as follows:1. Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is taught orally.2. The target language is the language of the classroom.3. New language points are introduced and practiced situationally.4. Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered.5. Items of grammar are graded by their complexity.6. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established.三、Approach1、Theory of languagea type of British “structuralism”.○1One distinctive feature: structures must be linked to situations in which they could be used○2Language was viewed as purposeful activity related to goals and situations in the real world.○32、Theory of learninga type of behaviorist habit-learning theory(three processes in learning a language)(1). Language learning as habit formation(2).An inductive approach is used to the teaching of grammar(3).The same processed are thought to occur both in child language learning and in second language learning.四、Design1、Objectives:(1). Practical command of the four basic skills of language(2). Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial.(3). Automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns is fundamental.(4). Writing derives from speech.2、The syllabus(1) A structural syllabus—a list of the basic structures and sentence patterns(2) Situation: the manner of presenting and practicing sentence patterns3、Types of learning and teaching activities(1) SLT employs a situational approach to presenting new sentence patterns and a drill-based manner to practicing the new sentence patterns(2) Situation: the use of concrete objects, pictures and realia, which together with actions and gestures(3) Practice techniques: guided repetition, substitution activities, pair practice4、Learner roles(1) Listen, repeat and responds to questions and commands(2) Have no control over the content of learning5、Teacher rolesThreefold: a model、a skillful manipulator、on the lookout for errorsThe teacher is essential to the success of the method.6、The role of instructional materials(1)Textbook: contains organized lessons(2)Visual aids: consists of wall charts, flashcards, pictures, stick figuresThe teacher is expected to be the master of his textbook.五、ProcedureAim: to move from controlled to freer practice of structures and from oral use of sentence patterns to their automatic use in speech, reading and writing.The teaching of a structure: four partsPronunciationRevision ( to prepare for new work if necessary)Presentation of new structure or vocabularyOral practice (drilling)Reading of material on the new structure, or written exercisesThe sequence of activities:Listening practiceChoral imitationIndividual imitationIsolationBuilding up to a new modelElicitationSubstitution drillingQuestion-answer drillingCorrection第四章The Audiolingual MethodIt is a method of foreign or second language teaching which (a) emphasizes theteaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing (b) uses dialoguesand drills. (c) discourages use of the mother tongue in the classroom (d) oftenmakes use of contrastive analysis. The audiolingual method was prominent inthe 1950s and 1960s, especially in the United States, and has been widely used inmany other parts of the world.⼀、BackgroundThe combination of structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures, and behaviorist psychology led to the Audiolingual Method.⼆、Approach1、Theory of languageStructural linguistics (1950s): a reaction to traditional grammarThe primary medium of language is oral: speech is language.2、Theory of learningBehavioral psychology: stimulus-response chainsLearning principles:1. Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation.2. Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in the target language are presented in sporken form before they are seen in written form.3. Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis. Hence the approach to the teaching of grammar is essentially inductive rather than deductive.4.The meaning of word can be learned in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation.三、Design1、ObjectivesShort-range objectives：Listening comprehension、accurate pronunciation, reading comprehension and production of correct sentences in writing.Long-range objectives ：To develop in the students the same types of abilities that native speakers have2、The syllabusA linguistic syllabus: phonology, morphology, and syntax of the languageA lexical syllabus of basic vocabularyLanguage skills: listening, speaking, reading, writing3、Types of learning and teaching activitiesDialoguesDrills --Various kinds of drills : repetition, inflection, replacement…4、Learner rolesOrganisms that can be directed by skilled training techniques to produce correct responsesa reactive role, have little control5、Teachers rolesCentral and activeModels the target languageControls the direction and pace of learningMonitors and corrects the learners’ performance6、The role of instructional materialsTextbookTape recorders and audiovisual equipment四、Procedure1、The process of teaching involves extensive oral instruction2、The procedures the teacher should adopt ( Brook)3、In a typical audiolingual lesson the following procedures will be observed:a. Recognition;b. Imitation and repetitionc. Patterns drill:d. Follow-up activities五、The decline of Audiolingualism1、Criticism on two fronts: the theoretical foundations（both in language and language learning）and the practical results fell short of expectation.2、the theoretical attack: Noam Chomsky’s theory of transformational grammar情境法与听说法的异同There are many similarities between situational language teaching and audiolingualism.1. The order in which language skills are introduced2. Focus on accuracy through drill and practice in the basic structures3. Sectence patterns of the target languageHowever, situational language teaching was a development of the earlier Direct Method and does not have the strong ties to linguistic and behavioral psychology that characterize audiolingualism. The similarities of the two methods reflect similar views about the nature of language and of language learning, through these views were in fact development from quite different traditions.第五章Communicative Language Teaching⼜称：功能—意念法（The Functional-Notional Approach ）The CLT is an approach to foreign or second language teaching which emphasizesthat the goal of language learning is communicative competence. Teachingmaterials used with the Communicative approach often teach the language neededto express and understand different kinds of functions. The approach follows aNational syllabus and emphasizes the processes of communication to getinformation, and using language for social interaction with other people.⼀、BackgroundThe origins of the CLT are to be found in the changes in the British language teaching tradition dating from the late 1960s.In the late sixties, the current SLT was questioned.British applied linguistics began to emphasize the fundamental dimension of language teaching at that time- the functional and communicative potential of language. Scholars argued for focus in language teaching on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures.⼆、Approachlanguage as communication三、Design1、ObjectivesPiepho’s discussion (general objectives)1.an integrative and content level(language as a means of expression)2.an linguistic and instrumental level(language as a semiotic system and an object of learning)3.an affective level of interpersonal relationships and conduct(language as a means of expressing values and judgments about oneself and others.)4.a level of individual learning needs(remedial learning based on error analysis)5.a general educational level of extra-linguistic goals(language learning within the school curriculum) No defined particular objectives2、The syllabusNotional syllabus which specified the semantic-grammatical categories and the categories of communicative function that learners need to express.3、Types of learning and teaching activitiesClassroom activities are unlimited.Littlewood (functional communication activities and social interaction activities)1. Functional communication activities: ones aimed at developing certain languageskills and functions, but which involve communication, and2. Social interaction activities, such as conversation and discussion sessions, dialoguesand role plays4、Learner roles①a negotiator②a communicator③a contributor④an independent learner5、Teacher roles①a facilitator of the communication②an independent participant within the learning-teaching group③Need analyst (formally and informally)④Counselor⑤Group process manager6、The role of instructional materialsText-based materialsTask-based materialsRealia 实物教具四、ProcedureDescription of typical classroom procedures used in a lesson based on CLT principles is not feasible.Conclusion:Communicative Language Teaching is best considered an approach rather than a method. It appeared at a time when British language was ready for a paradigm shift. CLT appealed to those who sought a more humanistic approach to teaching, one in which the interactive processes of communication received priority. Now that the initial wave of enthusiasm has passed, some of the claims of CLT are being looked at more critically.第六章Total Physical ResponseTotal Physical Response is a language learning method based on the coordinationof speech and action. This method of learning was developed by James Asher, aprofessor of psychology at San Jose State University, California.⼀、Background1、the “trace theory” of memory in psychology2、developmental psychology：child first language acquisition3、humanistic psychology: the role of affective factors4、Comprehension Approach5、a tradition: the use of physical actions to teach a foreign language at an introductory level⼆、Approach1、Theory of languagestructuralist or grammar-based views of languagedetailed cognitive map (abstractions and nonabstractions)the central role of comprehension in language learninglanguage can be internalized as wholes or chunks2、Theory of learningReminiscent of the views of behavioral psychology: a stimulus-response viewLearning hypotheses ( to facilitate or inhibit foreign language learning ) According to Asher, the language learning theories are similar to those of other behavioral psychologists. The principals that help elaborate his idea are:1. Second language learning is parallel to first language learning and should reflect the same naturalistic processes.2. Listening should develop before speaking.3. Once listening comprehension has been developed, speech develops naturally and effortlessly out of it.4. Adults should use right-brain motor activities, while the left hemisphere watches and learns.三、Design1、ObjectivesThe general objectives: to teach oral proficiency at a beginning levelSpecific instructional objectives are not elaborated.2、The syllabus:Be inferred from an analysis of the exercise types employed in TPR classesA sentence-based syllabusA fixed number of items be introduced at a timeAttention to both the global meaning of language and the finer details of its organization3、Types of learning and teaching activitiesImperative drills are the major classroom activity.Role plays：center on everyday situationSlide presentationsReading and writing activities4、Learner rolesA primary role : listener and performerHave little influence over the contentMonitor and evaluate their own progress5、Teacher rolesActive and direct roleWell prepared and well organizedTeachers follow the example of parents giving feedbackCautions: illusion of simplicity; having too narrow a tolerance for errors6、The role of instructional materialsNo basic text, materials and realia play an increasing role in later learning stages. Student kits that focus on specific situations (supporting materials)四、ProcedureAsher’s account of a course:ReviewNew commandsRole reversalReading and writingConclusion:Total Physical Response has enjoyed some popularity because of its support by thosewho emphasize the role of comprehension in second language acquisition.It represents a useful techniques and is compatible with other approaches to teaching.4.Traits 1. It uses psychomotor systems to teach.2. It support kinesthetic learning style, which is good for those who need to be active in the class.3. Command forms used to convey information.4. It works well with mixed-ability classes.5. It is very memorable, and it really helps students to remember phrases or words.6. It is a lot of fun, students enjoy it and it can be a real stirrer in the class.7. It is very effective with teenagers and young learners.第七章The Silent WayIt is a method of foreign-language teaching developed by Gattegno which makesuse of gesture, mime, visual aids, wall charts, and in particular Cuisiniere rods(wooden sticks of different lengths and colors) that the teacher uses to help thestudents to talk. The method takes its name from the relative silence of the teacherusing these techniques.⼀、BackgroundThe premise of the Silent WayThe learning hypothesesLearning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates. (discovery learning)Learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects.Learning is facilitated by problem solving.⼆、Approach1、Theory of languageGattegno views language as a substitute for experience.By the "spirit" of the language Gattegno is referring to the way each language isComposed of phonological and suprasegmentalA structural approachVocabulary as a central dimension2、Theory of learningSurrenderArtificial approachThe self of the learnerLearning to learn三、Design1、ObjectivesThe general objectives: to give beginning level students oral and aural facilityAn immediate objectives: to provide the learner with a basic practical knowledge of the grammar of the language Teach learners how to learn a language2、The syllabusa basically structural syllabusvocabulary3、Types of learning and teaching activitiessimple linguistic tasksresponses to commands, questions and visual cues4、Learner rolesLearners are expected to develop independence, autonomy and responsibility.Learners exert a strong influence over each other’s learning.Playing varying roles5、Teacher rolesTeacher silence is the most demanding aspect of the Silent Way.To teach, to test, to get out of the wayCreate an environmentTeacher likes the complete dramatist.6、The role of instructional materialsThe pronunciation chartsThe colored cuisenaire rodsThe vocabulary or word chartsOther materials四、ProcedureA standard formatPractice of the sounds (using the pronunciation charts)Practice of sentence patterns, structure, and vocabulary (using the rods and charts)A sample lessonConclusion:The actual practices of the Silent Way are much less revolutionary than might be expected. The innovations derive from the manner in which classroom activities are organized, the indirect role the teacher is required to assume in directing and monitoring learner performance, the responsibility placed upon learners, and the materials used.第⼋章Community Language LearningIt is a method of second and foreign language teaching developed by Charles Curran. CLL is an application of counseling learning(咨询学习法)to second andforeign language teaching and learning. It uses techniques developed in groupcounseling to help people with psychological and emotional problems. The methodmakes use of group learning in small or large groups. These groups are the“Community”. The method places emphasis on the learners’ personal feelings andtheir reactions to language learning. Learners say things which they want to talkabout, in their native language. The teacher (known as “Counselor”) translatesthe learners’ sentences into the foreign language, and the learner then repeats thisto other members of the group.⼀、Background1、Rogerian counseling2、Humanistic techniques：the whole person3、Language alternation⼆、Approach1、Theory of languageTraditional structuralist positionLanguage as social processThe interactional view of language: interaction between equals, interaction between unequals2、Theory of learningContracted with traditional views (a putative learning view, the behavioral view)The whole-person learning (five stages)Consensual validationS(secure)A(attention and aggression)R(retention and reflection)D(discrimination)the personal commitments三、Design1、ObjectivesExplicit linguistic or communicative objectives are not defined.Teacher transfers knowledge and proficiency to the learner.Goal: attaining near-native like mastery of the target languageSpecific objectives are not addressed.2、The syllabusNo conventional language syllabusTopic-based courseTeacher’s responsibility3、Types of learning and teaching activitiesCombines innovative learning tasks and activities with conventional ones.Translation, Group Work, Recording, Transcription, Analysis, Reflection and observation, Listening, Free conversation4、Learner rolesmembers of a communitybecome counselors to other learnersFive stages5、Teacher rolesCounselorSpecific teacher roles are keyed to the five development stages.providing a safe environmentNote two “asides” in the discussion of learning security.6、The role of instructional materialsA textbook is not considered a necessary component.Materials may be developed by the teacher as the course develops.the use of teaching machines四、Procedure1、 classical CLL and personal interpretations of it2、 the description of some typical activities in CLL classed3、 a protocol of what a first day’s CLL class coveredConclusion:Community Language Learning is the most responsive of the methods we have reviewed in terms of its sensitivity to learner communication intent. It places unusual demands on language teachers. Critics of Community Language Learning question many aspects of CLL. Supporters of CLL emphasize the positive benefits of a method that centered on the learner and stresses the humanistic side of language learning.Question for discussion:社团学习法把语⾔学习过程⽐作是咨询过程，你们觉得这个⽐喻合适吗？为什么？第九章The Natural ApproachIt is a term for an approach proposed by Terrell, to develop teaching principleswhich(a) emphasize natural communication rather than formal grammar study(b) are tolerant of learners’ errors(c) emphasize the informal acquisition of language rules.⼀、Background1、Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen2、The Natural Approach and traditional approaches3、The Natural Approach and the Natural Method⼆、Approach1、Theory of languagecommunication as the primary function of languagegive little attention to a theory of languageThe importance of vocabulary is stressed.view language learning as mastery of structures by stages (I+1)a view of language consists of lexical items, structure, and messages2 Theory of learning: Krashen’s language acquisition theoryThe Acquisition/Learning hypothesisThe monitor hypothesisThe natural order hypothesisThe input hypothesisThe affective filter hypothesis三、Design1、ObjectivesExpectationSpecific objectives depend upon learner needs and the skill and level being taught.It is important to communicate to learners what they can expect of a course as well as what they should not expect.2、The syllabusTwo points of view to approach course organizationContent selection3、Types of learning and teaching activitiesCommand-based activitiesDirect Method activitiesSituation-based practice of structures and patternsGroup-work activitiesthe characteristics of the Natural Approach4、Learner rolesa processor of comprehensible inputLearners’ roles change according to their stages of linguistic development.Learner have four kinds of responsibilities.5、Teacher rolesThree central rolesa. the primary source of comprehensible inputb. create a classroom atmospherec. choose and orchestrate a rich mix of classroom activities6、The role of instructional materialsthe primary goal of materialsthe primary aim of materialsother recommended materialsgames四、ProcedureThe Natural Approach adopts techniques and activities freely from various method sources.ExamplesConclusion:The Natural Approach belongs to a tradition of language teaching methods based on observation and interpretation of how learners acquire both first and second languages in nonformal setting. Its greatest claim to originality lies not in the techniques it employs but in their use in a method that emphasizes comprehensible and meaningful practice activities, rather than production of grammatically perfect utterances and sentences.Question for discussion:⾃然法的⾃然之处在哪⾥？创新之处⼜在哪⾥？第⼗章SuggostopediaSuggestopedia/Lozanov Method (暗⽰法/罗扎诺夫法)It is a method of foreign-language teaching developed by the Bulgarian Lozanov. It makes use of dialogues, situations and translation to present andpractise language, and in particular, makes use of music, visual images, andrelaxation exercises to make learning more comfortable and effective.⼀、Background1、Suggestology2、the most conspicuous characteristics of Suggestopedia3、Soviet psychology4、mental states5、the centrality of music and musical rhythm to learning⼆、Approach1、Theory of languagelexis is centralwhole meaningful texta language to be its vocabulary and the grammar rules for organizing vocabulary2、Theory of learninga desuggestive-suggestive sensesix principal theoretical components:authority, infantilization, double-planedness, intonation, rhythm, concertpseudo-passivenessthe type of musicthe rate of presentation of material to be learned within the rhythmic pattern三、Design1、Objectivesdeliver advanced conversational proficiency quicklyincreased access to understanding and creative solutions of problems2、The syllabuscourse descriptiontime durationeach unitthe whole course3、Types of learning and teaching activitiesimitation, question and answer, role playlistening activities4Learner rolesThe mental state of the learner is critical to success. mind-alteringinfantilization5、Teacher rolesthe primary role of the teacherexpected teacher behaviorsneeds three to six months training in acting, singing, and psychotherapeutic techniques6 The role of instructional materialsDirect support materials: text and tapeIndirect support materials: classroom fixtures and music四、ProcedureBancroft’s description: a four-hour language class has three distinct parts.The first part: an oral review sectionThe second part: new material is presented and discussedThe third part: the séance or concert sessionConclusion:Suggestopedia has probably received both the most enthusiastic and the most critical response of any of the so-called new methods. It is not productive to further belabor the science/nonscience, date/double-talk issues and instead try to identify andvalidate those techniques from Suggestopedia that appear effective and that harmonize with other successful techniques in the language teaching inventory.Question for discussion;暗⽰法强调⾳乐的作⽤，那么⾳乐在外语学习过程中究竟起了怎样的作⽤？谈谈你们的看法。

Task-Based Language TeachingDefinitionTask-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) refers to an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching.The relationships between TBLT and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)Task-based language teaching:• a logical development of CLT•formed part of the communicative language teaching movement from the 1980s.Eg:◎Activities that involve real communication are essential for language learning ◎Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning ◎Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process •The role of tasks has received further support from some researchers in second language acquisition (SLA), who are interested in developing pedagogical applications of SLA.•Task is regarded as the potential building blocks of SLA instruction.•SLA research has focused on the strategies and cognitive process employed by second language learners•Language learning is believed to depend on immersing students not merely in “comprehensible input” but in tasks that require them to negotiate meaning and engage in naturalistic and meaningful communication.The key assumptions of task-based instruction are summarized by Feez（1998:17) as : The focus is on process rather than procedure. Basic elements are purposefulactivities and tasks that emphasize communication and meaning. Learner learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully while engaged in the activities and tasksActivities and tasks can be either: those that learners might need to achieve in real life; those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom.Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty.The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors including the previous experience of the learner, the complexity of the task, the language required to undertake the task, and the degree of support availablewhat is “task” ?A task is an activity or goal that is carried out using language, such as finding asolution to a puzzle, reading a map, and giving directions, making a telephone call etc.Nunan (1989:10) offers this definition: the task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. And also have a sense of complexity.•“Task” first appeared in the vocational training practices of the 1950s.Task focus here first derived from training design concerns of military regarding new military technologies and occupational specialties of the period. Task analysis initially focus on solo psychomotor tasks for which little communication or collaboration was involved, and largely manual tasks were translated into training tasks.Task-based training identified several key areas of concern:Analysis of real world task-use situationsThe translation of those into teaching task descriptionsThe detailed design of instructional tasksThe sequencing of instructional tasks in classroom training/teachingFour major categories of team performance function in task-based instruction Orientation function:process for generating and distributing information necessary to task accomplishment to team membersOrganizational function:process necessary for members to coordinate actions necessary for performance Adaption function:process occurring as a team members adapt their performance to each other to complete the taskMotivational function:defining team objectives and “energizing the group’ to complete the taskWhat is academic task?•The academic task is the mechanism through which the curriculum is enacted for students (Doyle 1983: 161)•Academic tasks are defined as four important dimensions:◎The products students are asked to produce◎The operations they are required to use in order to produce these products◎The cognitive operations required and resources available◎The accountability system involvedDefinition of a Task◆Prabhu: a task is “ an activities which requires learners to arrive at an outcomefrom given information through some process of thought, and which allows teachers to control and regulate that process.”◆Crookes :a task is “ a piece of work or a n activity, usually with a specified objective, undertaken as part of an educational course, at work, or used to elicit data for research.”Willis (1996) proposes six task types built on more or less traditional knowledge hierarchies.listing(列举型任务)work in groups: for a healthy lifestyle, what you should do and shouldn't do. make a list(brainstorming, fact-finding)ordering and sorting(排序与分类型任务)In the lesson of "How to make a milk shake?", disturb the main process, then rearrange them according to the actual ordercomparing (比较型任务）What things are the same at Spring Festival and Christmas Day? What things are different?problem solving(解决问题型任务)think of three low budget solutions to the problem of looking after a cat when the family is absent.sharing personal experiences(分享个人经验型任务)After students plant trees, ask them to talk about the significance of planting trees. creative tasks (创造型任务）work in groups: ask students to discuss their ideal bedroom, and make a sketch, withthere be pattern.Pica, Kanagy and Falodun (1993) classify tasks according to the type of interaction that occurs in task accomplishment.Jigsaw tasks(拼图式任务)：These involve learners combining different pieces of information to form a whole.Information-gap tasks(信息差型任务)：one set of information--a complementary set of information--negotiate and find out--complete an activityProblem-solving tasks (解决问题型任务): Students are given a problem and a set of information. They must arrive at a solution to the problem.Decision- making tasks(选择决定型任务)：Students are given a problem for which there are a number of possible outcomes and they must choose one through negotiation and discussion.Opinion exchange tasks(交换观点型任务): Learners engage in discussion and exchange of ideas. They do not need to reach agreement.Other characteristics of tasks have also been describedone-way or two-way: whether the task involves a one-way exchange of information or two-way exchange.convergent or divergent: whether the students achieve a common goal or several different goals.collaborative or competitive: whether the students collaborate to carry out a task or compete with each other on a task.single or multiple outcomes: whether there is a single outcome or many different outcomes are possible.concrete or abstract language: whether the task involves the use of concrete languageor abstract language.simple or complex processing: whether the task requires relatively simple or complex cognitive processing.simple or complex language: whether the linguistic demands of the task are relatively simple or complex.reality-based or not reality-based: whether the task mirrors a real-world activity or is a pedagogical activity not found in the real world.teacher rolesA central role of the teacher is in selecting, adapting ,and /or creating the tasks themselves and then forming these into an instructional sequence in keeping with learner needs, interests and language skill level.任务型教学的优点:1.注重真实场景下的、以明确目标为导向；它要求学生通过完成任务的学习活动来掌握真实、实用和有意义的语言。

Task-Based Language TeachingDefinitionTask-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) refers to an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching.The relationships between TBLT and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)Task-based language teaching:• a logical development of CLT•formed part of the communicative language teaching movement from the 1980s.Eg:◎Activities that involve real communication are essential for language learning ◎Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning ◎Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process•The role of tasks has received further support from some researchers in second language acquisition (SLA), who are interested in developing pedagogical applications of SLA.•Task is regarded as the potential building blocks of SLA instruction.•SLA research has focused on the strategies and cognitive processemployed by second language learners•Language learning is believed to depend on immersing students not merely in “comprehensible input” but in tasks that require them to negotiate meaning and engage in naturalistic and meaningful communication.The key assumptions of task-based instruction are summarized by Feez（1998:17) as :The focus is on process rather than procedure. Basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasize communication and meaning. Learner learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully while engaged in the activities and tasksActivities and tasks can be either: those that learners might need to achieve in real life; those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom.Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty.The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors including the previous experience of the learner, the complexity of the task, the language required to undertake the task, and the degree of support availablewhat is “task” ?A task is an activity or goal that is carried out using language, such as finding a solution to a puzzle, reading a map, and giving directions,making a telephone call etc.Nunan (1989:10) offers this definition: the task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. And also have a sense of complexity.•“Task” first appeared in the vocational training practices of the 1950s. Task focus here first derived from training design concerns of military regarding new military technologies and occupational specialties of the period. Task analysis initially focus on solo psychomotor tasks for which little communication or collaboration was involved, and largely manual tasks were translated into training tasks.Task-based training identified several key areas of concern: Analysis of real world task-use situationsThe translation of those into teaching task descriptionsThe detailed design of instructional tasksThe sequencing of instructional tasks in classroom training/teaching Four major categories of team performance function in task-based instructionOrientation function:process for generating and distributing information necessary to task accomplishment to team membersOrganizational function:process necessary for members to coordinate actions necessary for performanceAdaption function:process occurring as a team members adapt their performance to each other to complete the taskMotivational function:defining team objectives and “energizing the group’ to complete the taskWhat is academic task?•The academic task is the mechanism through which the curriculum is enacted for students (Doyle 1983: 161)•Academic tasks are defined as four important dimensions:◎The products students are asked to produce◎The operations they are required to use in order to produce these products◎The cognitive operations required and resources available◎The accountability system involvedDefinition of a Task◆Prabhu: a task is “ an activities which requires learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allows teachers to control and regulate that process.”◆Crookes :a task is “ a piece of work or a n activity, usually with a specified objective, undertaken as part of an educational course, at work, or used to elicit data for research.”Willis (1996) proposes six task types built on more or less traditional knowledge hierarchies.listing(列举型任务)work in groups: for a healthy lifestyle, what you should do and shouldn't do. make a list(brainstorming, fact-finding)ordering and sorting(排序与分类型任务)In the lesson of "How to make a milk shake?", disturb the main process, then rearrange them according to the actual ordercomparing (比较型任务）What things are the same at Spring Festival and Christmas Day? What things are different?problem solving(解决问题型任务)think of three low budget solutions to the problem of looking after a cat when the family is absent.sharing personal experiences(分享个人经验型任务)After students plant trees, ask them to talk about the significance of planting trees.creative tasks (创造型任务）work in groups: ask students to discuss their ideal bedroom, and make a sketch, with there be pattern.Pica, Kanagy and Falodun (1993) classify tasks according to the type of interaction that occurs in task accomplishment.Jigsaw tasks(拼图式任务)：These involve learners combining different pieces of information to form a whole.Information-gap tasks(信息差型任务)：one set of information--a complementary set of information--negotiate and find out--complete an activityProblem-solving tasks (解决问题型任务): Students are given a problem and a set of information. They must arrive at a solution to the problem. Decision- making tasks(选择决定型任务)：Students are given a problem for which there are a number of possible outcomes and they must choose one through negotiation and discussion.Opinion exchange tasks(交换观点型任务): Learners engage in discussion and exchange of ideas. They do not need to reach agreement. Other characteristics of tasks have also been describedone-way or two-way: whether the task involves a one-way exchange of information or two-way exchange.convergent or divergent: whether the students achieve a common goal or several different goals.collaborative or competitive: whether the students collaborate to carryout a task or compete with each other on a task.single or multiple outcomes: whether there is a single outcome or many different outcomes are possible.concrete or abstract language: whether the task involves the use of concrete language or abstract language.simple or complex processing: whether the task requires relatively simple or complex cognitive processing.simple or complex language: whether the linguistic demands of the task are relatively simple or complex.reality-based or not reality-based: whether the task mirrors a real-world activity or is a pedagogical activity not found in the real world.teacher rolesA central role of the teacher is in selecting, adapting ,and /or creating the tasks themselves and then forming these into an instructional sequence in keeping with learner needs, interests and language skill level.任务型教学的优点:1.注重真实场景下的、以明确目标为导向；它要求学生通过完成任务的学习活动来掌握真实、实用和有意义的语言。