外文翻译-原文

外文文献翻译译稿1卡尔曼滤波的一个典型实例是从一组有限的，包含噪声的，通过对物体位置的观察序列（可能有偏差）预测出物体的位置的坐标及速度。

在很多工程应用（如雷达、计算机视觉）中都可以找到它的身影。

同时，卡尔曼滤波也是控制理论以及控制系统工程中的一个重要课题。

例如，对于雷达来说，人们感兴趣的是其能够跟踪目标。

但目标的位置、速度、加速度的测量值往往在任何时候都有噪声。

卡尔曼滤波利用目标的动态信息，设法去掉噪声的影响，得到一个关于目标位置的好的估计。

这个估计可以是对当前目标位置的估计（滤波），也可以是对于将来位置的估计（预测），也可以是对过去位置的估计（插值或平滑）。

命名[编辑]这种滤波方法以它的发明者鲁道夫.E.卡尔曼（Rudolph E. Kalman）命名，但是根据文献可知实际上Peter Swerling在更早之前就提出了一种类似的算法。

斯坦利。

施密特（Stanley Schmidt）首次实现了卡尔曼滤波器。

卡尔曼在NASA埃姆斯研究中心访问时，发现他的方法对于解决阿波罗计划的轨道预测很有用，后来阿波罗飞船的导航电脑便使用了这种滤波器。

关于这种滤波器的论文由Swerling（1958）、Kalman (1960)与Kalman and Bucy（1961）发表。

目前，卡尔曼滤波已经有很多不同的实现。

卡尔曼最初提出的形式现在一般称为简单卡尔曼滤波器。

除此以外，还有施密特扩展滤波器、信息滤波器以及很多Bierman, Thornton开发的平方根滤波器的变种。

也许最常见的卡尔曼滤波器是锁相环，它在收音机、计算机和几乎任何视频或通讯设备中广泛存在。

以下的讨论需要线性代数以及概率论的一般知识。

卡尔曼滤波建立在线性代数和隐马尔可夫模型（hidden Markov model）上。

其基本动态系统可以用一个马尔可夫链表示，该马尔可夫链建立在一个被高斯噪声（即正态分布的噪声）干扰的线性算子上的。

系统的状态可以用一个元素为实数的向量表示。

外文文献翻译译文一、外文原文原文：China's Second BoardI. Significance of and events leading to the establishment of a Second BoardOn 31 March 2009 the China Securities Regulatory Commission (CSRC issued Interim Measures on the Administration of Initial Public Offerings and Listings of Shares on the ChiNext [i.e., the Second Board, also called the Growth Enterprise Market] ("Interim Measures"), which came into force on 1 May 2009. This marked the creation by the Shenzhen Stock Exchange of the long-awaited market for venture businesses. As the original plan to establish such a market in 2001 had come to nothing when the dotcom bubble burst, the market's final opening came after a delay of nearly 10 years.Ever since the 1980s, when the Chinese government began to foster the development of science and technology, venture capital has been seen in China as a means of supporting the development of high-tech companies financially. The aim, as can be seen from the name of the 1996 Law of the People's Republic of China on Promoting the Conversion of Scientific and Technological Findings into Productivity ,was to support the commercialization of scientific and technological developments. Venture capital funds developed gradually in the late 1990s, and between then and 2000 it looked increasingly likely that a Second Board would be established. When the CSRC published a draft plan for this in September 2000, the stage was set. However, when the dotcom bubble (and especially the NASDAQ bubble) burst, this plan was shelved. Also, Chinese investors and venture capitalists were probably not quite ready for such a move.As a result, Chinese venture businesses sought to list on overseas markets (a so-called "red chip listing") from the late 1990s. However, as these listings increased, so did the criticism that valuable Chinese assets were being siphoned overseas.On thepolicy front, in 2004 the State Council published Some Opinions on Reform, Opening and Steady Growth of Capital Markets ("the Nine Opinions"), in which the concept of a "multi-tier capital market" was presented for the first time. A first step in this direction was made in the same year, when an SME Board was established as part of the Main Board. Although there appear to have been plans to eventually relax the SME Board's listing requirements, which were the same as those for companies listed on the Main Board, and to make it a market especially for venture businesses, it was decided to establish a separate market (the Second Board) for this purpose and to learn from the experience of the SME Board.As well as being part of the process of creating a multi-tier capital market, the establishment of the Second Board was one of the measures included in the policy document Several Opinions of the General Office of the State Council on Providing Financing Support for Economic Development ("the 30 Financial Measures"), published in December 2008 in response to the global financial crisis and intended as a way of making it easier for SMEs to raise capital.It goes without saying that the creation of the Second Board was also an important development in that it gives private equity funds the opportunity to exit their investments. The absence of such an exit had been a disincentive to such investment, with most funds looking for a red chip listing as a way of exiting their investments. However, with surplus savings at home, the Chinese authorities began to encourage companies to raise capital on the domestic market rather than overseas. This led, in September 2006, to a rule making it more difficult for Chinese venture businesses to list their shares on overseas markets. The corollary of this was that it increased the need for a means whereby Chinese private equity funds could exit their investments at an early opportunity and on their own market. The creation of the Second Board was therefore a belated response to this need.II. Rules and regulations governing the establishment of the Second BoardWe now take a closer look at some of the rules and regulations governing the establishment of the Second Board.First , the Interim Measures on the Administration of Initial Public Offerings andListings of Shares on the ChiNext, issued by the CSRC on 31 March 2009 with effect from 1 May 2009. The Interim Measures consist of six chapters and 58 articles, stipulating issue terms and procedures, disclosure requirements, regulatory procedures, and legal responsibilities.First, the General Provisions chapter. The first thing this says (Article 1) is: "These Measures are formulated for the purposes of promoting the development of innovative enterprises and other growing start-ups" This shows that one of the main listing criteria is a company's technological innovativeness and growth potential. The Chinese authorities have actually made it clear that, although the Second Board and the SME Board are both intended for SMEs of similar sizes, the Second Board is specifically intended for SMEs at the initial (rather than the growth or mature) stage of their development with a high degree of technological innovativeness and an innovative business model while the SME Board is specifically intended for companies with relatively stable earnings at the mature stage of their development. They have also made it clear that the Second Board is not simply a "small SME Board." This suggests to us that the authorities want to see technologically innovative companies listing on the Second Board and SMEs in traditional sectors listing on the SME Board.Next, Article 7 says: "A market access system that is commensurate with the risk tolerance of investors shall be established for investors on the ChiNext and investment risk shall be fully disclosed to investors." One noteworthy feature is the adoption of the concept of the "qualified investor" in an attempt to improve risk control.Furthermore, Article 8 says: "China Securities Regulatory Commission (hereinafter, CSRC) shall, in accordance with law, examine and approve the issuer’s IPO application and supervise the issuer’s IPO activities. The stock exchange shall formulate rules in accordance with law, provide an open, fair and equitable market environment and ensure the normal operation of the ChiNext." Until the Second Board was established, it was thought by some that the stock exchange had the right to approve new issues. Under the Interim Measures, however, it is the CSRC that examines and approves applications.First, offering conditions. Article 10 stipulates four numerical conditions for companies applying for IPOs.Second, offering procedures. The Interim Measures seek to make sponsoring securities companies more responsible by requiring them to conduct due diligence investigations and make prudential judgment on the issuer’s growth and render special opinions thereon.Third, information disclosure. Article 39 of the Interim Measures stipulates that the issuer shall make a statement in its prospectus pointing out the risks of investing in Second Board companies: namely, inconsistent performance, high operational risk, and the risk of delisting. Similarly,Fourth, supervision. Articles 51 and 52 stipulate that the stock exchange (namely, the Shenzhen Stock Exchange) shall establish systems for listing, trading and delisting Second Board stocks, urge sponsors to fulfill their ongoing supervisory obligations, and establish a market risk warning system and an investor education system.1. Amendments to the Interim Measures on Securities Issuance and Listing Sponsor System and the Provisional Measures of the Public Offering Review Committee of the China Securities Regulatory Commission2. Rules Governing the Listing of Shares on the ChiNext of Shenzhen Stock Exchange Next, the Shenzhen Stock Exchange published Rules Governing the Listing of Shares on the ChiNext of Shenzhen Stock Exchange on 6 June (with effect from 1 July).3. Checking investor eligibility As the companies listed on the Second Board are more risky than those listed on the Main Board and are subject to more rigorous delisting rules (see above), investor protection requires that checks be made on whether Second Board shares are suitable for all those wishing to invest in them.4. Rules governing (1) application documents for listings on the ChiNext and (2) prospectuses of ChiNext companies On 20 July the CSRC published rules governing Application Documents for Initial Public Offerings and Listings of Shares on the ChiNext and Prospectuses of ChiNext Companies, and announced that it would begin processing listing applications on 26 July.III. Future developmentsAs Its purpose is to "promote the development of innovative enterprises and other growing start-ups"，the Second Board enables such companies to raise capital by issuing shares. That is why its listing requirements are less demanding than those of the Main Board but also why it has various provisions to mitigate risk. For one thing, the Second Board has its own public offering review committee to check how technologically specialized applicant companies are, reflecting the importance attached to this. For another, issuers and their controlling shareholders, de facto controllers, and sponsoring securities companies are subject to more demanding accountability requirements. The key factor here is, not surprisingly, disclosure. Also, the qualified investor system is designed to mitigate the risks to retail investors.Once the rules and regulations governing the Second Board were published, the CSRC began to process listing applications from 26 July 2009. It has been reported that 108 companies initially applied. As of mid-October, 28 of these had been approved and on 30 October they were listed on the Second Board.As of 15 December, there are 46 companies whose listing application has been approved by CSRC (including the above-mentioned 28 companies). They come from a wide range of sectors, especially information technology, services, and biopharmacy. Thus far, few companies in which foreign private equity funds have a stake have applied. This is because these funds have tended to go for red-chip listings.Another point is movement between the various tiers of China's multi-tier capital market. As of early September, four companies that are traded on the new Third Board had successfully applied to list on the Second Board. As 22 new Third Board companies meet the listing requirements of the Second Board on the basis of their interim reports for the first half of fiscal 2009, a growing number of companies may transfer their listing from the new Third Board to the Second Board. We think this is likely to make the new Third Board a more attractive market for private equity investors.The applicants include companies that were in the process of applying for a listing on the SME Board. The CSRC has also made it clear that it does not see theSecond Board simply as a "small SME Board" and attaches great importance to the companies' innovativeness and growth potential. Ultimately, whether or not such risks can be mitigated will depend on whether the quality of the companies that list on the Second Board improves and disclosure requirements are strictly complied with. For example, according to the rules governing Prospectuses of ChiNext Companies, companies are required to disclose the above-mentioned supplementary agreements as a control right risk. The point is whether such requirements will be complied with.Since there is a potentially large number of high-tech companies in China in the long term, whether or not the Second Board becomes one of the world's few successful venture capital markets will depend on whether all these rules and regulations succeed in shaping its development and the way in which it is run.The authorities clearly want to avoid a situation where the Second Board attracts a large number of second-rate companies and becomes a vehicle for market abuse as it would then run the risk of becoming an illiquid market shunned by investors who have lost trust in it. Indeed, such has been the number of companies applying to list on the Second Board that some observers have expressed concern about their quality.There has also been some concern about investor protection. For example, supplementary agreements between private equity funds and issuers pose a risk to retail investors in that they may suddenly be faced with a change in the controlling shareholder. This is because such agreements can result in a transfer of shares from the founder or controlling shareholder to a private equity fund if the company fails to meet certain agreed targets or in a shareholding structure that is different from the apparent one, for example. The problem of low liquidity, which has long faced the new Third Board market, where small-cap high-tech stocks are also traded, also needs to be addressed.Meanwhile, the Second Board's Public Offering Review Committee was officially established on 14 August. It has 35 members. A breakdown reveals that the number of representatives of the CSRC and the Shenzhen Stock Exchange has been limited to three and two, respectively, to ensure that the committee has the necessary number of technology specialists. Of the remainder, 14 are accountants, six lawyers,three from the Ministry of Science and Technology, three from the China Academy of Sciences, two from investment trust companies, one from an asset evaluation agency, and one from the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC). It has been reported that the members include specialists in the six industry fields the CSRC considers particularly important for Second Board companies (namely, new energy, new materials, biotechnology and pharmaceuticals, energy conservation and environmental protection, services and IT).Source: Takeshi Jingu.2009.“China's Second Board”. Nomura Journal of Capital Markets Winter 2009 V ol.1 No.4.pp.1-15.二、翻译文章译文：中国创业板市场一、建立创业板市场及其意义2009年3月31日中国证券监督管理委员会(以下简称“中国证监会”)发行《中国证监会管理暂行办法》，首次在创业板市场上[即,第二个板,也叫创业板市场](“暂行办法”) 公开募股，从 2009年的5月1日开始生效，这标志着深圳证券交易所市场这个人们期待已久的合资企业即将诞生。

外文原文(一)Savigny and his Anglo-American Disciple s*M. H. HoeflichFriedrich Carl von Savigny, nobleman, law reformer, champion of the revived German professoriate, and founder of the Historical School of jurisprudence, not only helped to revolutionize the study of law and legal institutions in Germany and in other civil law countries, but also exercised a profound influence on many of the most creative jurists and legal scholars in England and the United States. Nevertheless, tracing the influence of an individual is always a difficult task. It is especially difficult as regards Savigny and the approach to law and legal sources propounded by the Historical School. This difficulty arises, in part, because Savigny was not alone in adopting this approach. Hugo, for instance, espoused quite similar ideas in Germany; George Long echoed many of these concepts in England during the 1850s, and, of course, Sir Henry Sumner Maine also espoused many of these same concepts central to historical jurisprudence in England in the 1860s and 1870s. Thus, when one looks at the doctrinal writings of British and American jurists and legal scholars in the period before 1875, it is often impossible to say with any certainty that a particular idea which sounds very much the sort of thing that might, indeed, have been derived from Savigny's works, was, in fact, so derived. It is possible, nevertheless, to trace much of the influence of Savigny and his legal writings in the United States and in Great Britain during this period with some certainty because so great was his fame and so great was the respect accorded to his published work that explicit references to him and to his work abound in the doctrinal writing of this period, as well as in actual law cases in the courts. Thus, Max Gutzwiller, in his classic study Der einfluss Savignys auf die Entwicklung des International privatrechts, was able to show how Savigny's ideas on conflict of laws influenced such English and American scholars as Story, Phillimore, Burge, and Dicey. Similarly, Andreas Schwarz, in his "Einflusse Deutscher Zivilistik im Auslande," briefly sketched Savigny's influence upon John Austin, Frederick Pollock, and James Bryce. In this article I wish to examine Savigny's influence over a broader spectrum and to draw a picture of his general fame and reputation both in Britain and in the United States as the leading Romanist, legal historian, and German legal academic of his day. The picture of this Anglo-American respect accorded to Savigny and the historical school of jurisprudence which emerges from these sources is fascinating. It sheds light not only upon Savigny’s trans-channel, trans-Atlantic fame, but also upon the extraordinarily*M.H.Hoeflich, Savigny and his Anglo-American Disciples, American Journal of Comparative Law, vol.37, No.1, 1989.cosmopolitan outlook of many of the leading American and English jurists of the time. Of course, when one sets out to trace the influence of a particular individual and his work, it is necessary to demonstrate, if possible, precisely how knowledge of the man and his work was transmitted. In the case of Savigny and his work on Roman law and ideas of historical jurisprudence, there were three principal modes of transmission. First, there was the direct influence he exercised through his contacts with American lawyers and scholars. Second, there was the influence he exercised through his books. Third, there was the influence he exerted indirectly through intermediate scholars and their works. Let us examine each mode separately.I.INFLUENCE OF THE TRANSLATED WORKSWhile American and British interest in German legal scholarship was high in the antebellum period, the number of American and English jurists who could read German fluently was relatively low. Even those who borrowed from the Germans, for instance, Joseph Story, most often had to depend upon translations. It is thus quite important that Savigny’s works were amongst the most frequently translated into English, both in the United States and in Great Britain. His most influential early work, the Vom Beruf unserer Zeitfur Rechtsgeschichte und Gestzgebung, was translated into English by Abraham Hayward and published in London in 1831. Two years earlier the first volume of his History of Roman Law in the Middle Ages was translated by Cathcart and published in Edinburgh. In 1830, as well, a French translation was published at Paris. Sir Erskine Perry's translation of Savigny's Treatise on Possession was published in London in 1848. This was followed by Archibald Brown's epitome of the treatise on possession in 1872 and Rattigan's translation of the second volume of the System as Jural Relations or the Law of Persons in 1884. Guthrie published a translation of the seventh volume of the System as Private International Law at Edinburgh in 1869. Indeed, two English translations were even published in the far flung corners of the British Raj. A translation of the first volume of the System was published by William Holloway at Madras in 1867 and the volume on possession was translated by Kelleher and published at Calcutta in 1888. Thus, the determined English-speaking scholar had ample access to Savigny's works throughout the nineteenth century.Equally important for the dissemination of Savigny's ideas were those books and articles published in English that explained and analyzed his works. A number of these must have played an important role in this process. One of the earliest of these is John Reddie's Historical Notices of the Roman law and of the Progress of its Study in Germany, published at Edinburgh in 1826. Reddie was a noted Scots jurist and held the Gottingen J.U.D. The book, significantly, is dedicated to Gustav Hugo. It is of that genre known as an external history of Roman law-not so much a history of substantive Roman legal doctrine but rather a historyof Roman legal institutions and of the study of Roman law from antiquity through the nineteenth century. It is very much a polemic for the study of Roman law and for the Historical School. It imparts to the reader the excitement of Savigny and his followers about the study of law historically and it is clear that no reader of the work could possibly be left unmoved. It is, in short, the first work of public relations in English on behalf of Savigny and his ideas.Having mentioned Reddie's promotion of Savigny and the Historical School, it is important to understand the level of excitement with which things Roman and especially Roman law were greeted during this period. Many of the finest American jurists were attracted-to use Peter Stein's term-to Roman and Civil law, but attracted in a way that, at times, seems to have been more enthusiastic than intellectual. Similarly, Roman and Civil law excited much interest in Great Britain, as illustrated by the distinctly Roman influence to be found in the work of John Austin. The attraction of Roman and Civil law can be illustrated and best understood, perhaps, in the context of the publicity and excitement in the English-speaking world surrounding the discovery of the only complete manuscript of the classical Roman jurist Gaius' Institutes in Italy in 1816 by the ancient historian and German consul at Rome, B.G. Niebuhr. Niebuhr, the greatest ancient historian of his time, turned to Savigny for help with the Gaius manuscript (indeed, it was Savigny who recognized the manuscript for what it was) and, almost immediately, the books and journals-not just law journals by any means-were filled with accounts of the discovery, its importance to legal historical studies, and, of course, what it said. For instance, the second volume of the American Jurist contains a long article on the civil law by the scholarly Boston lawyer and classicist, John Pickering. The first quarter of the article is a gushing account of the discovery and first publication of the Gaius manuscript and a paean to Niebuhr and Savigny for their role in this. Similarly, in an article published in the London Law Magazine in 1829 on the civil law, the author contemptuously refers to a certain professor who continued to tell his students that the text of Gaius' Institutes was lost for all time. What could better show his ignorance of all things legal and literary than to be unaware of Niebuhr's great discovery?Another example of this reaction to the discovery of the Gaius palimpsest is to be found in David Irving's Introduction to the Study of the Civil Law. This volume is also more a history of Roman legal scholarship and sources than a study of substantive Roman law. Its pages are filled with references to Savigny's Geschichte and its approach clearly reflects the influence of the Historical School. Indeed, Irving speaks of Savigny's work as "one of the most remarkable productions of the age." He must have been truly impressed with German scholarship and must also have been able to convince the Faculty of Advocates, forwhom he was librarian, of the worth of German scholarship, for in 1820 the Faculty sent him to Gottingen so that he might study their law libraries. Irving devotes several pages of his elementary textbook on Roman law to the praise of the "remarkable" discovery of the Gaius palimpsest. He traces the discovery of the text by Niebuhr and Savigny in language that would have befitted an adventure tale. He elaborates on the various labors required to produce a new edition of the text and was particularly impressed by the use of a then new chemical process to make the under text of the palimpsest visible. He speaks of the reception of the new text as being greeted with "ardor and exultation" strong words for those who spend their lives amidst the "musty tomes" of the Roman law.This excitement over the Verona Gaius is really rather strange. Much of the substance of the Gaius text was already known to legal historians and civil lawyers from its incorporation into Justinian's Institutes and so, from a substantive legal perspective, the find was not crucial. The Gaius did provide new information on Roman procedural rules and it did also provide additional information for those scholars attempting to reconstruct pre-Justinianic Roman law. Nevertheless, these contributions alone seem hardly able to justify the excitement the discovery caused. Instead, I think that the Verona Gaius discovery simply hit a chord in the literary and legal community much the same as did the discovery of the Rosetta Stone or of Schliemann’s Troy. Here was a monument of a great civilization brought newly to light and able to be read for the first time in millenia. And just as the Rosetta Stone helped to establish the modern discipline of Egyptology and Schliemann's discoveries assured the development of classical archaeology as a modern academic discipline, the discovery of the Verona Gaius added to the attraction Roman law held for scholars and for lawyers, even amongst those who were not Romanists by profession. Ancillary to this, the discovery and publication of the Gaius manuscript also added to the fame of the two principals involved in the discovery, Niebuhr and Savigny. What this meant in the English-speaking world is that even those who could not or did not wish to read Savigny's technical works knew of him as one of the discoverers of the Gaius text. This fame itself may well have helped in spreading Savigny's legal and philosophical ideas, for, I would suggest, the Gaius "connection" may well have disposed people to read other of Savigny's writings, unconnected to the Gaius, because they were already familiar with his name.Another example of an English-speaking promoter of Savigny is Luther Stearns Cushing, a noted Boston lawyer who lectured on Roman law at the Harvard Law School in 1848-49 and again in 1851- 1852.Cushing published his lectures at Boston in 1854 under the title An Introduction to the Study of Roman Law. He devoted a full chapter to a description of the historical school and to the controversy betweenSavigny and Thibaut over codification. While Cushing attempted to portray fairly the arguments of both sides, he left no doubt as to his preference for Savigny's approach:The labors of the historical school have established an entirely new and distinct era in the study of the Roman jurisprudence; and though these writers cannot be said to have thrown their predecessors into the shade, it seems to be generally admitted, that almost every branch of the Roman law has received some important modification at their hands, and that a knowledge of their writings, to some extent, at least, is essentially necessary to its acquisition.译文(一)萨维尼和他的英美信徒们*M·H·豪弗里奇弗雷德里奇·卡尔·冯·萨维尼出身贵族，是一位出色的法律改革家，也是一位倡导重建德国教授协会的拥护者，还是历史法学派的创建人之一。

第1页 共19页中文3572字毕业论文（设计）外文翻译标题：危机管理-预防，诊断和干预一、外文原文标题：标题：Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis and Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis andintervention 原文：原文：The Thepremise of this paper is that crises can be managed much more effectively if the company prepares for them. Therefore, the paper shall review some recent crises, theway they were dealt with, and what can be learned from them. Later, we shall deal with the anatomy of a crisis by looking at some symptoms, and lastly discuss the stages of a crisis andrecommend methods for prevention and intervention. Crisis acknowledgmentAlthough many business leaders will acknowledge thatcrises are a given for virtually every business firm, many of these firms do not take productive steps to address crisis situations. As one survey of Chief Executive officers of Fortune 500 companies discovered, 85 percent said that a crisisin business is inevitable, but only 50 percent of these had taken any productive action in preparing a crisis plan(Augustine, 1995). Companies generally go to great lengths to plan their financial growth and success. But when it comes to crisis management, they often fail to think and prepare for those eventualities that may lead to a company’s total failure.Safety violations, plants in need of repairs, union contracts, management succession, and choosing a brand name, etc. can become crises for which many companies fail to be prepared untilit is too late.The tendency, in general, is to look at the company as a perpetual entity that requires plans for growth. Ignoring the probabilities of disaster is not going to eliminate or delay their occurrences. Strategic planning without inclusion ofcrisis management is like sustaining life without guaranteeinglife. One reason so many companies fail to take steps to proactively plan for crisis events, is that they fail to acknowledge the possibility of a disaster occurring. Like an ostrich with its head in the sand, they simply choose to ignorethe situation, with the hope that by not talking about it, it will not come to pass. Hal Walker, a management consultant, points out “that decisions will be more rational and better received, and the crisis will be of shorter duration, forcompanies who prepare a proactive crisis plan” (Maynard, 1993) .It is said that “there are two kinds of crises: those that thatyou manage, and those that manage you” (Augustine, 1995). Proactive planning helps managers to control and resolve a crisis. Ignoring the possibility of a crisis, on the other hand,could lead to the crisis taking a life of its own. In 1979, theThree-Mile Island nuclear power plant experienced a crisis whenwarning signals indicated nuclear reactors were at risk of a meltdown. The system was equipped with a hundred or more different alarms and they all went off. But for those who shouldhave taken the necessary steps to resolve the situation, therewere no planned instructions as to what should be done first. Hence, the crisis was not acknowledged in the beginning and itbecame a chronic event.In June 1997, Nike faced a crisis for which they had no existi existing frame of reference. A new design on the company’s ng frame of reference. A new design on the company’s Summer Hoop line of basketball shoes - with the word air writtenin flaming letters - had sparked a protest by Muslims, who complained the logo resembled the Arabic word for Allah, or God.The council of American-Islamic Relations threatened aa globalNike boycott. Nike apologized, recalled 38,000 pairs of shoes,and discontinued the line (Brindley, 1997). To create the brand,Nike had spent a considerable amount of time and money, but hadnever put together a general framework or policy to deal with such controversies. To their dismay, and financial loss, Nike officials had no choice but to react to the crisis. This incident has definitely signaled to the company that spending a little more time would have prevented the crisis. Nonetheless,it has taught the company a lesson in strategic crisis management planning.In a business organization, symptoms or signals can alert the strategic planners or executives of an eminent crisis. Slipping market share, losing strategic synergy anddiminishing productivity per man hour, as well as trends, issues and developments in the socio-economic, political and competitive environments, can signal crises, the effects of which can be very detrimental. After all, business failures and bankruptcies are not intended. They do not usually happen overnight. They occur more because of the lack of attention to symptoms than any other factor.Stages of a crisisMost crises do not occur suddenly. The signals can usuallybe picked up and the symptoms checked as they emerge. A company determined to address these issues realizes that the real challenge is not just to recognize crises, but to recognize themin a timely fashion (Darling et al., 1996). A crisis can consistof four different and distinct stages (Fink, 1986). The phasesare: prodromal crisis stage, acute crisis stage, chronic crisisstage and crisis resolution stage.Modern organizations are often called “organic” due tothe fact that they are not immune from the elements of their surrounding environments. Very much like a living organism, organizations can be affected by environmental factors both positively and negatively. But today’s successfulorganizations are characterized by the ability to adapt by recognizing important environmental factors, analyzing them, evaluating the impacts and reacting to them. The art of strategic planning (as it relates to crisis management)involves all of the above activities. The right strategy, in general, provides for preventive measures, and treatment or resolution efforts both proactively and reactively. It wouldbe quite appropriate to examine the first three stages of acrisis before taking up the treatment, resolution or intervention stage.Prodromal crisis stageIn the field of medicine, a prodrome is a symptom of the onset of a disease. It gives a warning signal. In business organizations, the warning lights are always blinking. No matter how successful the organization, a number of issues andtrends may concern the business if proper and timely attentionis paid to them. For example, in 1995, Baring Bank, a UK financial institution which had been in existence since 1763,ample opportunitysuddenly and unexpectedly failed. There wasfor the bank to catch the signals that something bad was on thehorizon, but the company’s efforts to detect that were thwarted by an internal structure that allowed a single employee both to conduct and to oversee his own investment trades, and the breakdown of management oversight and internalcontrol systems (Mitroff et al., 1996). Likewise, looking in retrospect, McDonald’s fast food chain was given the prodromalsymptoms before the elderly lady sued them for the spilling ofa very hot cup of coffee on her lap - an event that resulted in a substantial financial loss and tarnished image of thecompany. Numerous consumers had complained about thetemperature of the coffee. The warning light was on, but the company did not pay attention. It would have been much simplerto pick up the signal, or to check the symptom, than facing the consequences.In another case, Jack in the Box, a fast food chain, had several customers suffer intestinal distress after eating at their restaurants. The prodromal symptom was there, but the company took evasive action. Their initial approach was to lookaround for someone to blame. The lack of attention, the evasiveness and the carelessness angered all the constituent groups, including their customers. The unfortunate deaths thatptoms,occurred as a result of the company’s ignoring thesymand the financial losses that followed, caused the company to realize that it would have been easier to manage the crisis directly in the prodromal stage rather than trying to shift theblame.Acute crisis stageA prodromal stage may be oblique and hard to detect. The examples given above, are obvious prodromal, but no action wasWebster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, an acute stage occursacutewhen a symptom “demands urgent attention.” Whether the acutesymptom emerges suddenly or is a transformation of a prodromalstage, an immediate action is required. Diverting funds and other resources to this emerging situation may cause disequilibrium and disturbance in the whole system. It is onlythose organizations that have already prepared a framework forthese crises that can sustain their normal operations. For example, the US public roads and bridges have for a long time reflected a prodromal stage of crisis awareness by showing cracks and occasionally a collapse. It is perhaps in light of the obsessive decision to balance the Federal budget that reacting to the problem has been delayed and ignored. This situation has entered an acute stage and at the time of this writing, it was reported that a bridge in Maryland had just collapsed.The reason why prodromes are so important to catch is thatit is much easier to manage a crisis in this stage. In the caseof most crises, it is much easier and more reliable to take careof the problem before it becomes acute, before it erupts and causes possible complications (Darling et al., 1996). In andamage. However, the losses are incurred. Intel, the largest producer of computer chips in the USA, had to pay an expensiveprice for initially refusing to recall computer chips that proved unreliable o n on certain calculations. The f irmfirm attempted to play the issue down and later learned its lesson. At an acutestage, when accusations were made that the Pentium Chips were not as fast as they claimed, Intel quickly admitted the problem,apologized for it, and set about fixing it (Mitroff et al., 1996). Chronic crisis stageDuring this stage, the symptoms are quite evident and always present. I t isIt is a period of “make or break.” Being the third stage, chronic problems may prompt the company’s management to once and for all do something about the situation. It may be the beginning of recovery for some firms, and a deathknell for others. For example, the Chrysler Corporation was only marginallysuccessful throughout the 1970s. It was not, however, until the company was nearly bankrupt that amanagement shake-out occurred. The drawback at the chronic stage is that, like in a human patient, the company may get used to “quick fixes” and “band “band--aid”approaches. After all, the ailment, the problem and the crisis have become an integral partoverwhelmed by prodromal and acute problems that no time or attention is paid to the chronic problems, or the managers perceive the situation to be tolerable, thus putting the crisison a back burner.Crisis resolutionCrises could be detected at various stages of their development. Since the existing symptoms may be related todifferent problems or crises, there is a great possibility thatthey may be misinterpreted. Therefore, the people in charge maybelieve they have resolved the problem. However, in practicethe symptom is often neglected. In such situations, the symptomwill offer another chance for resolution when it becomes acute,thereby demanding urgent care. Studies indicate that today anincreasing number of companies are issue-oriented and searchfor symptoms. Nevertheless, the lack of experience in resolvinga situation and/or inappropriate handling of a crisis can leadto a chronic stage. Of course, there is this last opportunityto resolve the crisis at the chronic stage. No attempt to resolve the crisis, or improper resolution, can lead to grim consequences that will ultimately plague the organization or even destroy it.It must be noted that an unsolved crisis may not destroy the company. But, its weakening effects can ripple through the organization and create a host of other complications.Preventive effortsThe heart of the resolution of a crisis is in the preventiveefforts the company has initiated. This step, similar to a humanbody, is actually the least expensive, but quite often the mostoverlooked. Preventive measures deal with sensing potential problems (Gonzales-Herrero and Pratt, 1995). Major internalfunctions of a company such as finance, production, procurement, operations, marketing and human resources are sensitive to thesocio-economic, political-legal, competitive, technological, demographic, global and ethical factors of the external environment. What is imminently more sensible and much more manageable, is to identify the processes necessary forassessing and dealing with future crises as they arise (Jacksonand Schantz, 1993). At the core of this process are appropriate information systems, planning procedures, anddecision-making techniques. A soundly-based information system will scan the environment, gather appropriate data, interpret this data into opportunities and challenges, and provide a concretefoundation for strategies that could function as much to avoid crises as to intervene and resolve them.Preventive efforts, as stated before, require preparations before any crisis symptoms set in. Generally strategic forecasting, contingency planning, issues analysis, and scenario analysis help to provide a framework that could be used in avoiding and encountering crises.出处：出处：Toby TobyJ. Kash and John R. Darling . Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis 179-186二、翻译文章标题：危机管理：预防，诊断和干预译文：本文的前提是，如果该公司做好准备得话，危机可以更有效地进行管理。

本科毕业设计(论文) 外文翻译（附外文原文）系 ( 院 )：资源与环境工程系课题名称：英文翻译专业(方向)：环境工程班级：2004-1班学生：3040106119指导教师：刘辉利副教授日期：2008年4月20使用褐煤（一种低成本吸附剂）从酸性矿物废水中去除和回收金属离子a. 美国, 大学公园, PA 16802, 宾夕法尼亚州立大学, 能源部和Geo 环境工程学.b. 印度第80号邮箱, Mahatma Gandhi ・Marg, Lucknow 226001, 工业毒素学研究中心, 环境化学分部,于2006 年5月6 日网上获得，2006 年4月24 日接受，2006 年3月19 日;校正，2006 年2月15 日接收。

摘要酸性矿物废水(AMD), 是一个长期的重大环境问题，起因于钢硫铁矿的微生物在水和空气氧化作用, 买得起包含毒性金属离子的一种酸性解答。

这项研究的主要宗旨是通过使用褐煤（一种低成本吸附剂）从酸性矿水(AMD)中去除和回收金属离子。

褐煤已被用于酸性矿水排水AMD 的处理。

经研究其能吸附亚铁, 铁, 锰、锌和钙在multi-component 含水系统中。

研究通过在不同的酸碱度里进行以找出最适宜的酸碱度。

模拟工业条件进行酸性矿物废水处理, 所有研究被进行通过单一的并且设定多专栏流动模式。

空的床接触时间(EBCT) 模型被使用为了使吸附剂用量减到最小。

金属离子的回收并且吸附剂的再生成功地达到了使用0.1 M 硝酸不用分解塔器。

关键词:吸附; 重金属; 吸附; 褐煤; 酸性矿物废水处理; 固体废料再利用; 亚铁; 铁; 锰。

文章概述1. 介绍2. 材料和方法2.1. 化学制品、材料和设备3. 吸附步骤3.1. 酸碱度最佳化3.2. 固定床研究3.2.1 单一栏3.2.2 多栏4. 结果和讨论4.1. ZPC 和渗析特征4.2 酸碱度的影响4.3. Multi-component 固定吸附床4.3.1 褐煤使用率4.4. 吸附机制4.5. 解吸附作用研究5. 结论1. 介绍酸性矿物废水(AMD) 是一个严重的环境问题起因于硫化物矿物风化, 譬如硫铁矿(FeS2) 和它的同素异形体矿物(α-FeS) 。

外文文献翻译（附原文）外文译文一：产业集群的竞争优势——以中国大连软件工业园为例Weilin Zhao,Chihiro Watanabe，Charla-Griffy-Brown[J]. Marketing Science,2009(2):123-125.摘要：本文本着为促进工业的发展的初衷探讨了中国软件公园的竞争优势。

产业集群深植于当地的制度系统，因此拥有特殊的竞争优势。

根据波特的“钻石”模型、SWOT模型的测试结果对中国大连软件园的案例进行了定性的分析。

产业集群是包括一系列在指定地理上集聚的公司，它扎根于当地政府、行业和学术的当地制度系统，以此获得大量的资源，从而获得产业经济发展的竞争优势。

为了成功驾驭中国经济范式从批量生产到开发新产品的转换，持续加强产业集群的竞争优势,促进工业和区域的经济发展是非常有必要的。

关键词：竞争优势；产业集群；当地制度系统；大连软件工业园；中国；科技园区；创新；区域发展产业集群产业集群是波特[1]也推而广之的一个经济发展的前沿概念。

作为一个在全球经济战略公认的专家,他指出了产业集群在促进区域经济发展中的作用。

他写道：集群的概念,“或出现在特定的地理位置与产业相关联的公司、供应商和机构，已成为了公司和政府思考和评估当地竞争优势和制定公共决策的一种新的要素。

但是，他至今也没有对产业集群做出准确的定义。

最近根据德瑞克、泰克拉[2]和李维[3]检查的关于产业集群和识别为“地理浓度的行业优势的文献取得了进展”。

“地理集中”定义了产业集群的一个关键而鲜明的基本性质。

产业由地区上特定的众多公司集聚而成,他们通常有共同市场、,有着共同的供应商,交易对象,教育机构和其它像知识及信息一样无形的东西，同样地,他们也面临相似的机会和威胁。

在全球产业集群有许多种发展模式。

比如美国加州的硅谷和马萨诸塞州的128鲁特都是知名的产业集群。

前者以微电子、生物技术、和风险资本市场而闻名,而后者则是以软件、计算机和通讯硬件享誉天下[4]。

e c o l o g i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g 28(2006124–130a v a i l ab l e a t w w w.sc i e n c ed i re c t.c omj o u r n a l h o m e p a g e :w w w.e l s e v i e r.c o m /l o c a t e /e c o l e n gPlant-biofilm oxidation ditch for in situ treatm ent of polluted watersQi-Tang Wu a ,∗,Ting Gao a ,Shucai Zeng a ,Hong Chua ba College of Natural Resources and Environment,South China Agricultural University,Guangzhou 510642,ChinabDepartment of Civil and Structural Engineering,Hong Kong Polytechnic University,Hung Hom,Kowloon,Hong Kong SAR,Chinaa r t i c l ei n f o Article history:Received 17December 2005Received in revised form 16May 2006Accepted 18May 2006Keywords:Plant-biofilm oxidation ditch (PBFODIn situWastewater treatmenta b s t r a c tEutrophication of surface water bodies is a problem of increasing environmental and ecolog-ical concern worldwide and is particularly serious in China.In the present study,oxidation ditches were connected to a lake receiving municipal sewage sludges.T wo 24m 2(width 2m,length 12mparallel plastic oxidation ditches material were installed on a lake near the inlet of the municipal sewage.Zizania caduciflora and Canna generalis were grown in the ditches with plastic floating supporters for the removal of N and P from the sewage.The experiment was conducted firstly with municipal sewage in autumn–winter seasons for about 150daysunder the following conditions:2m 3/h influent flow,0.75kW jet-flow aerator(air/water of 5,18h HRT (hydrological retention timeand a return ratio of 10.Then it was run with the polluted lake water in summer–autumn for about 160days with an aerator of 1.25kW and an influent of 6m 3/h (air/water 3.3,HRT 6h.The performance was quite stable during the experimental period for the municipal sewage treatment.The average removal rates of COD (chemical oxygen demand,SS (suspended solids,TP (total phosphorus,NH 4+-N and inorganic-N were 70.6,75.8,72.6,52.1and50.3%,respectively.For the polluted lake water treatment,the average concentrations of COD,NH 4+-N and TP were 42.7,13.1and 1.09mg/L,respectively,in the influent and were 25.1,6.4and 0.38mg/L,respectively,in the effluent.The capacity of the plants to remove N and P by direct uptake was limited,but the indi-rect mechanisms also occurred.The proposed process,transforming the natural lake into a wastewater treatment plant,could evidently reduce the costs of the sewage collection,the land space requirement and the construction compared with conventional sewage treat-ment plants,and is especially suited to conditions in south China and south-east Asia.©2006Elsevier B.V .All rights reserved.1.IntroductionMany water bodies are subject to eutrophication due to eco-nomic constraints in reducing point sources of nutrients and/or to a high proportion of diffuse sources,and the prob-lem is particularly common in China because the proportion of treated municipal sewage is still low due to the relatively high capital investmentrequired.Accordingly,43.5%of 130investi-gated major lakes in China were found to be highly eutrophied∗Corresponding author .Tel.:+862085280296;fax:+862085288326.E-mail address:qitangwu@ (Q.-T.Wu.and 45%were of intermediate status (Li et al.,2000.These pol-luted lakes were mainly located in economically developed regions and especially around cities where large amounts of municipal sewage are discharged without appropriate treat-ment.Increasingly,natural or constructed wetlands,including buffer zones(Correll,2005,are being used for removal of pol-lutants from wastewater or for treatment of stormwater runoff from agricultural land and other non-point sources (Mitsch ete c o l o g i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g28(2006124–130125Table1–COD and BOD5of the study lake sampled at three points for5days inMay2003COD(mg/LBOD5(mg/LBOD5/COD13May89.5135.700.4083.3334.500.4189.5136.600.4114May55.5624.800.4589.5135.200.3949.3820.900.4227May105.1141.300.3981.0832.300.40111.1141.000.3728May60.0026.830.4563.3327.700.4463.3327.000.4329May90.0035.700.4093.3337.000.40117.9949.400.42al.,2000;Coveney et al.,2002;Belmont et al.,2004.However, this method requires a large land area in addition to the lake in question.For in situ treatment of hypereutrophic water bodies where the transparency of the water does not allow regrowth of submerged macrophytes,phosphorus precipitation in eutrophic lakes by iron application(Deppe and Benndorf, 2002or by additions of lime(Walpersdorf et al.,2004has been reported.Aeration of river water has been employed to remediate polluted rivers since the1970s(Wang et al.,1999. Increasing oxygen transfer inflow by stones placed in rivers was studied by Cokgor and Kucukali(2004.Growingfloating aquatic macrophytes(Sooknah and Wilkie,2004or terrestrial green plants usingfloating supports(Li and Wu,1997,physical ecological engineering(PEEN(Pu et al.,1998,and biotic addi-tives have also been applied(Chen,2003.However,these sim-ple designs do not constitute a real water treatment system and the efficiencies of these treatments are unsatisfactory.Activated sludge systems have been proved efficient treat-ing municipal sewage since the1960s(Ray,1995.However, this type of system has not been used for in situ remediation of polluted lakes or rivers.In the present study,the oxidation ditch technique was adopted on a lake receiving municipal sewage sludge.Floating green plants and the biofilms com-prisingfloating materials and plant roots were also added to enhance N and P removal.A pilot scale experiment was set up to test the feasibility and performance of the plant-enhanced oxidation ditch for in situ treatment ofboth the municipal sewage and the polluted lake water.2.Experimental2.1.Site descriptionThe study lake was situated at South China Agricultural Uni-versity,Guangzhou,China.The area of the lake was about 10000m2and the depth0.5–3m.This lake received the munic-ipal sewage from the residential area around the university.Fig.1–Surface arrangement of the plant-biofilm oxidation ditch and the waterflows.(1Wall of nylon tissue;(2nets of5mm;(3nets of0.25mm;(4oxidation ditch;(5jet-flow aerator;(6water pump;(7floating green plants;(8sewage entry.2.2.Establishment of the plant-biofilm oxidationditchesT wo24m2(width2m,length12mparallel oxidation ditches made of plastic materials were installed along the lake bank near the sewage inlet.The inner ditch was made of cement and the outer ditch was isolated with nylon tissues andfix-ing PVC(polyvinyl chloridetubes.Fig.1showsthe surface arrangement and the waterflow path.The coarse suspended solids in the influent werefiltered by two pl astic nets,one with a pore size of5mm and the other with a pore size of0.25mm,whereas the suspended solids in the effluent werefiltered by a plastic net with a pore size of 0.25mm.Zizania caduciflora and Canna generalis were grown in the ditch with theplast icfloating supporters which held the plants in position.Thefloating supporters were made of closed126e c o l o g i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g28(2006124–130PVC tubes and nylon nets and each was3.6m2.Zizania caduci-flora was grown on twofloating supporters an d Canna gener-alis on another two supporters.The plants were planted in four columns andfive lines.The twofloating supporters with Canna generalis were near the influent and the two with Zizania caduciflora were near the effluent.The entire disposal system is shown in Photo1.2.3.Conduct of the experimentsAn experiment was conductedfirstly on municipal sewage in autumn–winter seasons of2003–2004for about150days. The aeration of the oxidation ditch was achieved using a jet-flow aerator of0.75kW(Aqua Co.,Italy;air generation10m3/h, water jet rate22–28m3/h.The water sampling started on18 September2003and endedon12February2004.The influent was2m3/h created by a water pump of0.37kW.With the jet-flow aerator of0.75kW the theoretical air/water ratio was5, HRT was18h and the return ratio was10–13.The system was then run with the polluted lake water in summer and autumn2004for about160days with an aerator of1.25kW and with an influent of6m3/h(air/water3.3,HRT 6h.The influent was not created by water pump but by the driving fo rce of the jet-flow aerator.The water sampling for the second run started on15May2004and endedon15October 2004.2.4.Sampling and analysisThe influent and effluent were sampled every3–5days at 08:00–09:00a.m.andat17:00–18:00p.m.,each with three sam-pling re plicates for thefirst run.For the second run,the influ-ent and effluent were sampled1day a week.The water sam-pler took0–30cm surface water.The samples were analyzed for COD Cr,BOD5,SS,TP,NO3−-N,NH4+-N and pH according to standard methods(APHA,1995.The plant s were transplanted ontofloating supporters two weeks before water sampling and thefirst harvest was carried out60days later and at the termination of thefirst run for the municipal sewage.The plant biomass and N and P con-tents were measured according to the methods proposed by the Soil and Agro-Chemical Analysis Committee of China(Lu, 2000.The total uptakes of N and P were calculated and com-pared with the total removal of these elements calculated by the cumulative removal each day following measurement of a water sample.Total N removal=(average N in influent−average N in effluent×48×D iwhere48was the treated water volume per day in m3/day;D i was the number of days following the water sampling and before the next sampling.3.Results and discussionTable2shows the removal of COD Cr and SS by plant-biofilm oxidation ditch for the treatment of the municipal sewage in autumn–winter seasons of2003–2004.The removal of COD Cr varied from60to79%with an average of70%for the influent COD Cr ranging from100to200mg/L,a nd resulted in effluent COD Cr valuesfrom30to55mg/L(Table2,Fig.2.The average removal percentage was about75%for SS and variedfrom68to82%(Table2.The effluent SS was about 30mg/L which is the effluent limit value of the second grade for the sewage treatment plants in China(GB18918,2002 (Fig.3,for the influents varying from60to240mg/L.The average NH4+-N removal from influent was52%,which was lower in winter than in autumn(Table3.This may be due to lower bacterial activity in winter,but theinfluent NH4+-NTable2–Removal of COD and SS by the plant-biofilm oxidation ditch for the in situ treatment of municipal sewage each month in autumn–winter seasons of2003–2004Period Sampled days Water temperature(◦CInfluent(mg/LEffluent(mg/LRemoval(%COD Cr18–30September528.0118.54(3.01a34.34(7.8367.74 3–28October826.1123.91(4.0333.51(4.2672.661–7November326.0153.94(2.7337.60(3.8175.4918–28November423.1170.22(4.2835.45(5.3778.711–15December419.3180.36(8.2039.24(7.0677.6511–31January314.5128.46(3.6652.04(5.2359.504–12February216.8178.35(4.1662.86(5.8362.47Average150.54(4.3042.15(5.6370.60SS18–30September528.0160.4041.6074.18 3–28October826.1144.3826.2581.171–7November326.0116.0033.3370.7918–28November423.1111.7521.5080.981–15December419.390.5028.5068.4211–31January314.5104.0017.3382.384–12February216.8120.5033.0072.57Average121.0828.7975.78e c o l o g i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g28(2006124–130127Fig.2–COD in the influent and effluent of the plant-biofilm oxidation ditch for the in situ treatment of municipal sewage in autumn–winter seasons of2003–2004.was also higher in winter(Fig.4probably because of lower water consumption in the cold season.The total inorganic-N removal was similar to that for NH4+-N(Table3.NO3−-N concentrations were rather similar in the influent and the effluent.The total P removal varied from63to78%and was higher and more regular than N removal(Table3.The P concentra-tion in treated effluent was about1mg/L(Fig.5and conformed to the Chinese municipal sewage treatment standard which is set to3mg/L for second grade regions and1.5forfirst grade regions(GB18918,2002.Fig.6shows typical changes in the water quality param-eters for the sampling points from inlet to outlet.Thisindi-Fig.3–Suspended solids concentration in the influent and effluent of the p lant-biofilm oxidation ditch for the in situ treatment of municipal sewage in autumn–winter seasons of2003–2004.cates that COD and SS decreased gradually,but NH4+-N and TP dropped substantially following the mixing with the return water by the aerator and then decreased slowly,while NO3−-N and pH of the water remained virtually unchanged.The water DO increased dramatically following the aeration,decreased slowly thereafter and remained rather high even in the efflu-ent(about5.5mg/L.For the second run treating the polluted lake water on-site,the average influent COD Cr was42.7mg/L and the effluent 25.1mg/L for about160days during summer–autumn seasons (Fig.7.The removal of NH4+-N was about50%from about13.1 to6.4mg/L.Total-P in the effluents was rather stable,bei ngTable3–The removal of N and P by the plant-biofilm oxidation ditch for the in situ treatment of municipal sewage for each month in autumn–winter seasons of2003–2004Period Sampled days Water temperature(◦CInfluent(mg/LEffluent(mg/LRemoval(%NH4+-N18–30September528.020.60(0.30a7.16(0.2264.72 3–28October826.126.55(0.2310.15(0.2061.671–7November326.030.00(0.4113.67(0.2254.5118–28November423.135.15(0.7915.95(0.2653.991–15December419.335.89(0.3515.93(0.2755.1511–31January314.530.57(0.6918.59(0.2236.634–12February216.835.23(0.0521.61(0.0637.72Average30.57(0.4014.72(0.2152.06NH4+-N+NO3−-N18–30September528.023.06(0.159.24(0.1159.94 3–28October826.128.31(0.1212.01(0.1457.571–7November326.031.42(0.2114.58(0.1153.5918–28November423.136.32(0.4016.81(0.1353.721–15December419.337.41(0.1917.54(0.1453.1111–31January314.531.96(0.3720.07(0.1337.204–12February216.837.11(0.0323.35(0.0337.08Average32.23(0.2116.23(0.1150.32TP18–30September528.0 3.56(0.070.81(0.0475.56 3–28October826.1 4.01(0.140.87(0.0478.241–7November326.0 4.37(0.13 1.20(0.0472.5618–28November423.1 4.89(0.16 1.13(0.0776.661–15December319.5 4.86(0.80 1.38(0.2371.07 11–31January314.5 3.75(0.45 1.35(0.0363.32 4–12February216.8 4.75(0.10 1.51(0.0566.20 Average 4.31(0.16 1.16(0.0471.89128e c o l o g i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g 28(2006 124–130Fig.4–NH 4+-N concentration in the influent and effluent of the plant-biofilm oxidation ditch for the in situ treatment of municipal sewage in autumn–winter seasons of2003–2004.Fig.5–Total-P concentration in the influent and effluent of the plant-biofilm oxidation ditch for the in situ treatment of municipal sewage in autumn–winter seasons of2003–2004.Fig.6–T ypical changes in the pollutants in theplant-biofilm oxidation ditch during the in situ treatment ofFig.7–The influent and effluent concentrations of COD (up,NH 4+-N (medianand total-P (bottomin theplant-biofilm oxidation ditch treating polluted lake water.about 0.38mg/L from an average of 1.09mg/L in the influents.The removal of COD Cr ,NH 4+-N and Total-P was then quite sat-isfactory both for the municipal sewage and the polluted lake water.The removal of N and P was somewhat higher than con-ventional oxidation ditches,perhaps due to the existence of the plant-biofilm in the studiedsystem.However,the direct uptake rates of N and P by green plants were almost negligi-ble compared to the total removal of these elements by the whole system (Table4.However,the plants may have cre-ated localized anaerobic conditions by their root exudates and dead biomass and enhance the denitrification of N by micro-organisms as occurs in constructed wetlands (Hone,2000.Besides the green plants,the proposed system also con-tains biofilm coated to the plastic materials.The high velocity of return-fluent was different to the conventional oxidation ditch.Kugaprasatham et al.(1982showed that the increase of the fluent velocity could increase the density of the biofilm if the nutrient conditions were suitable for bacteria growth.Simultaneous nitrification/denitrification (SND(Van Mun ch etal.,1996may also occur in the system.Concerning the P removal of the system,biological phos-phate removal processes may occur but were not significant because there was no sludge removal and very little sludge precipitation after the run for treatment of municipal sewage.This may partly due to the existence of some ferric chains which were added to precipitate and fix the nylon tissue to the lake bottom,with formation of precipitates of ferric phos-e c o l o g i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g 2 8 ( 2 0 0 6 124–130 129 Table 4 – Proportions of N and P uptake by plants and total removal in the plant-biofilm oxidation ditch treating municipal sewage Date Days ZCa Harvested fresh biomass (g CG ZC 5 September–4 November 5 November–6 January Total or average a Plant uptake (g N CG 5.30 13.03 System removal (kg N CG P Percent of plant uptake N (% P (% P ZC 0.88 0.24 2.79 60 63 123 2200 625 9725 2750 4150 4.85 1.20 24.38 0.72 0.95 37.63 65.45 103.1 7.13 12.78 19.91 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 ZC: Zizania caduciflo ra; CG: Canna generalis. tained for at least 1 year. The actual mechanisms still remain to be identified. The oxidation ditch has been used for many years worldwide as an economical and efficient wastewater treatment technology that can remove COD, nitrogen and a fraction of the phosphorusefficiently. Anaerobic tanks (Liu et al., 2002 and phased isolation ditch systems with intra-channel clarifier (Hong et al., 2003 were added to the system to increase the TP removal efficiency. The proposed process takes an artificial process in combination with natural purification, transforming the natural lake into the wastewater treatment plant, and could evidently reduce the costs of sewage collection, the landspace requirement and the construction costs compared with the conventional sewage treatment plants. This process could be especially suitable to subtropical regions and to many water bodies in south China and southeast Asia where sewage treatment facilities are not well established. China. The authors are grateful to Dr. P. Christie, Department of Agricultural and Environmental Science, Queen’s University Belfast, UK, and Dr. Y. Ouyang, Department of Water Resources, St. Johns River Water Management District, Palatka, FL, USA, for their valuable suggestions and language corrections. references 4. Conclusions The present study adapted the oxidation ditch on the lake surface for in situ treatment of municipal sewage or polluted lake water in combination with plant biofilms for performing N and P removal, and running experiments at pilot scale for about 1.5 years resulted in the following observations: (1 The system was quite satisfactory and stable for treatment of municipal sewage and polluted lake water in removing COD, NH4 + -N and P. (2 The direct uptake of N and P by plants was negligible in comparison with the totalremoval by the system, but indirect mechanisms via plant root exudates and biofilms merit further studies. (3 The proposed process could dramatically reduce the costs of sewage collection, the land-space requirement and the construction costs compared with conventional sewage treatment plants; might be suitable for treatment of both municipal sewage and polluted lake water; and could lead to the promotion of wastewater treatment in many developing countries. Acknowledgements This study was funded by Department of Science and Technology of Guangdong Province (Grant no. 2004B33301007, American Public Health Association (APHA, 1995. Standards Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th ed. American Public Health Association, Washington, DC. Belmont, M.A., Cantellano, E., Thompson, S., Williamson, M.,S’anchez, A., Metcalfe, C.D., 2004. Treatment of domestic wastewater in a pilot-scale natural treatment system in central Mexico. Ecol. Eng. 23, 299–311. Chen, Y.C., 2003. Bioremediation Engineering of Polluted Environment. Chemical Industry Press, Beijing, p. 304 (in Chinese. Cokgor, S., Kucukali, S., 2004. Oxygen transfer in flow around and over stones placed in a laboratory flume. Ecol. Eng. 23, 205–219. Correll, D.L., 2005. Principles of planning and establishment of buffer zones. Ecol. Eng. 24, 433–439. Coveney, M.F., Stites, D.L., Lowe, E.F., Battoe, L.E., Conrow, R., 2002. Nutrient removal from eutrophic lake water by wetland filtration. Ecol. Eng. 19, 141–159. Deppe, T., Benndorf, J., 2002. Phosphorus reduction in a shallow hypereutrophic reservoir by in-lake dosage of ferrous iron. Water Res. 36, 4525–4534. Hone, A.J., 2000. Phytoremediation by constructed wetlands. In: Terry, N., Banuelos, G. (Eds., Phytoremediation of Contaminated Soil and Water. Lewis Publishers, pp. 13–40. Hong, K.H., Chang, D., Hur, J.M., Han, S.B., 2003. Novel phased isolation ditch system for enhanced nutrient removal and its optimal operating strategy. J. Environ. Sci. Health Part A 38, 2179–2189. Kugaprasatham, S., Nagaoka, H., Ohgaki, S., 1982. Effect of turbulence on nitrifying biofilms at non-limiting substrate conditions. Water Res. 26, 1629–1638. Li, F.X., Xin, Y., Chen, W., 2000. Assessment of eutrophication level of lakes. Chongqing Environ. Sci. 22, 10–11 (in Chinese. Li, F.B., Wu, Q.T., 1997.Domestic wastewater treatment with means of soilless cultivated plants. Chin. J. Appl. Ecol. 8, 88–92 (in Chinese. Liu, J.X., Wang, B.Z., van Groenestijn, J.W., Doddema, H.J., 2002. Addition of anaerobic tanks to an oxidation ditch system to enhance removal of phosphorus from wastewater. J. Environ. Sci. 14, 245–249.130 e c o l o g i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g 2 8 ( 2 0 0 6 124–130 Lu, R.K., 2000. Soil and Agricultural Chemistry Analysis. China Agriculture Press, Beijing (in Chinese. Mitsch, W.J., Horne, A.J., Nairn, R.W., 2000. Nitrogen and phosphorus retention in wetlands—ecological approaches to solving excess nutrient problems. Ecol. Eng. 14, 1–7. Pu, P., Hu, W., Yan, J., Wang, G., Hu, C., 1998. A physico-ecological engineering experiment for water treatment in a hypertrophic lake in China. Ecol. Eng. 10, 179–190. Ray, B.T., 1995. Environmental Engineering. PWS Publishing Company, New York, pp. 299–341. Sooknah, R.D., Wilkie, A.C., 2004. Nutrient removal by floating aquatic macrophytes cultured in anaerobically digested flushed dairy manure wastewater. Ecol. Eng. 22, 27–42. Van Munch, E.P., Land, P., Keller, J., 1996. Simultaneous nitrification and denitrification in bench-scale sequencing batch reactors. Water Sci. Technol. 20,277–284. Wang, C.X., Lin, H., Shi, K.H., 1999. Restoration of polluted river by pure oxygen aeration. Shanghai Environ. Sci. 18, 411–413 (in Chinese. Walpersdorf, E., Neumann, T., Stuben, D., 2004. Efficiency of natural calcite precipitation compared to lake marl application used for water quality improvement in an eutrophic lake. Appl. Geochem. 19, 1687–1698.。

外文翻译--外文原文MCU DescriptionSCM is also known as micro-controller (Microcontroller Unit), commonly used letters of the acronym MCU MCU that it was first used in industrial control. Only a single chip by the CPU chip developed from a dedicated processor. The first design is by a large number of peripherals and CPU on a chip in the computer system, smaller, more easily integrated into a complex and demanding on the volume control device which. INTEL's Z80 is the first designed in accordance with this idea processor, then on the development of microcontroller and dedicated processors have parted ways.Are 8-bit microcontroller early or 4 bits. One of the most successful is the INTEL 8031, for a simple, reliable and good performance was a lot of praise. Then developed in 8031 out of MCS51 MCU Systems. SCM systems based on this system until now is still widely used. With the increased requirements of industrial control field, began a 16-bit microcontroller, because the cost is not satisfactory but have not been very widely used. After 90 years with the great development of consumer electronics, microcontroller technology has been a huge increase. With INTEL i960 series, especially the later series of widely used ARM, 32-bit microcontroller quickly replace high-end 16-bit MCU status and enter the mainstream market. The traditional 8-bit microcontroller performance have been the rapid increase capacity increase compared to 80 the number of times. Currently, high-end 32-bit microcontroller clocked over 300MHz, the performance catching the mid-90's dedicated processor, while the average model prices fall to one U.S. dollars, the most high-end [1] model only 10 dollars. Modern SCM systems are no longer only in the development and use of bare metal environment, a large number of proprietary embedded operating system is widely used in the full range of SCM. The handheld computers and cell phones as the core processing of high-end microcontroller can even use a dedicated Windows and Linux operating systems.SCM is more suitable than the specific processor used in embedded systems, so it was up to the application. In fact the number of SCM is the world's largest computer. Modern human life used in almost every piece of electronic and mechanical products will be integrated single chip. Phone, telephone, calculator, home appliances, electronic toys, handheld computers and computer accessories such as a mouse with a 1-2 in both the Department of SCM. Personal computer will have a large number ofSCM in the work. General car with more than 40 SCM, complex industrial control systems may even have hundreds of SCM in the same time work! SCM is not only far exceeds the number of PC and other computing the sum, or even more than the number of human beingsSingle chip, also known as single-chip microcontroller, it is not complete a certain logic chips, but to a computer system integrated into a chip. Equivalent to a micro-computer, and computer than just the lack of a microcontroller I / O devices. General talk: a chip becomes a computer. Its small size, light weight, cheap, for the study, application and development of facilities provided. At the same time, learning to use the MCU is to understand the principle and structure of the computer the best choice.SCM and the computer functions internally with similar modules, such as CPU, memory, parallel bus, the same effect as well, and hard disk memory devices, and different is its performance of these components were relatively weak many of our home computer, but the price is low , usually not more than 10 yuan you can do with it ...... some control for a class is not very complicated electrical work is enough of. We are using automatic drum washing machine, smoke hood, VCD and so on appliances which could see its shadow! ...... It is primarily as a control section of the core componentsIt is an online real-time control computer, control-line is that the scene is needed is a stronger anti-jamming ability, low cost, and this is, and off-line computer (such as home PC), the main difference.Single chipMCU is through running, and can be modified. Through different procedures to achieve different functions, in particular special unique features, this is another device much effort needs to be done, some great efforts are very difficult to do. A not very complex functions if the 50's with the United States developed 74 series, or the 60's CD4000 series of these pure hardware buttoned, then the circuit must be a large PCB board! But if the United States if the 70's with a series of successful SCM market, the result will be a drastic change! Just because you are prepared by microcomputer programs can achieve high intelligence, high efficiency and high reliability!As the microcontroller on the cost-sensitive, so now the dominant software or the lowest level assembly language, which is the lowest level in addition to more than binary machine code language, and as so low why is the use? Many high-levellanguage has reached the level of visual programming Why is not it? The reason is simply that there is no home computer as a single chip CPU, not as hard as a mass storage device. A visualization of small high-level language program which even if only one button, will reach tens of K of size! For the home PC's hard drive in terms of nothing, but in terms of the MCU is not acceptable. SCM in the utilization of hardware resources to be very high for the job so although the original is still in the compilation of a lot of use. The same token, if the giant computer operating system and applications run up to get home PC, home PC, also can not afford to.Can be said that the twentieth century across the three "power" era, that is, the age of electricity, the electronic age and has entered into the computer age. However, this computer, usually refers to the personal computer, referred to as PC. It consists of the host, keyboard, monitor and other components. Another type of computer, most people do not know how. This computer is to give all kinds of intelligent machines single chip (also known as micro-controller). As the name suggests, this computer system took only a minimal integrated circuit, can be a simple operation and control. Because it is small, usually hidden in the charged mechanical "stomach" in. It is in the device, like the human brain plays a role, it goes wrong, the whole plant was paralyzed. Now, this microcontroller has a very broad field of use, such as smart meters, real-time industrial control, communications equipment, navigation systems, and household appliances. Once all kinds of products were using SCM, can serve to upgrade the effectiveness of products, often in the product name preceded by the adjective - "intelligent," such as intelligent washing machines. Now some technical personnel of factories or other amateur electronics developers to engage in out of certain products, not the circuit is too complicated, that function is too simple and can easily be copied. The reason may be stuck in the product did not use a microcontroller or other programmable logic device.SCM historySCM was born in the late 20th century, 70, experienced SCM, MCU, SoC three stages.First model1.SCM the single chip microcomputer (Single Chip Microcomputer) stage, mainly seeking the best of the best single form of embedded systems architecture. "Innovation model" success, laying the SCM and general computer completely different path of development. In the open road of independent development ofembedded systems, Intel Corporation contributed.2.MCU the micro-controller (Micro Controller Unit) stage, the main direction of technology development: expanding to meet the embedded applications, the target system requirements for the various peripheral circuits and interface circuits, highlight the object of intelligent control. It involves the areas associated with the object system, therefore, the development of MCU's responsibility inevitably falls on electrical, electronics manufacturers. From this point of view, Intel faded MCU development has its objective factors. In the development of MCU, the most famous manufacturers as the number of Philips Corporation.Philips company in embedded applications, its great advantage, the MCS-51 single-chip micro-computer from the rapid development of the micro-controller. Therefore, when we look back at the path of development of embedded systems, do not forget Intel and Philips in History.Embedded SystemsEmbedded system microcontroller is an independent development path, the MCU important factor in the development stage, is seeking applications to maximize the solution on the chip; Therefore, the development of dedicated single chip SoC trend of the natural form. As the microelectronics, IC design, EDA tools development, application system based on MCU SoC design have greater development. Therefore, the understanding of the microcontroller chip microcomputer can be, extended to the single-chip micro-controller applications.MCU applicationsSCM now permeate all areas of our lives, which is almost difficult to find traces of the field without SCM. Missile navigation equipment, aircraft, all types of instrument control, computer network communications and data transmission, industrial automation, real-time process control and data processing, extensive use of various smart IC card, civilian luxury car security system, video recorder, camera, fully automatic washing machine control, and program-controlled toys, electronic pet, etc., which are inseparable from the microcontroller. Not to mention the area of robot control, intelligent instruments, medical equipment was. Therefore, the MCU learning, development and application of the large number of computer applications and intelligent control of the scientists, engineers.SCM is widely used in instruments and meters, household appliances, medical equipment, aerospace, specialized equipment, intelligent management and processcontrol fields, roughly divided into the following several areas:1. In the application of Intelligent InstrumentsSCM has a small size, low power consumption, controlling function, expansion flexibility, the advantages of miniaturization and ease of use, widely used instrument, combining different types of sensors can be realized Zhuru voltage, power, frequency, humidity, temperature, flow, speed, thickness, angle, length, hardness, elemental, physical pressure measurement. SCM makes use of digital instruments, intelligence, miniaturization, and functionality than electronic or digital circuits more powerful. Such as precision measuring equipment (power meter, oscilloscope, various analytical instrument).2. In the industrial control applicationWith the MCU can constitute a variety of control systems, data acquisition system. Such as factory assembly line of intelligent control3. In Household AppliancesCan be said that the appliances are basically using SCM, praise from the electric rice, washing machines, refrigerators, air conditioners, color TV, and other audio video equipment, to the electronic weighing equipment, varied, and omnipresent.4. In the field of computer networks and communications applicationsMCU general with modern communication interface, can be easy with the computer data communication, networking and communications in computer applications between devices had excellent material conditions, are basically all communication equipment to achieve a controlled by MCU from mobile phone, telephone, mini-program-controlled switchboards, building automated communications call system, train radio communication, to the daily work can be seen everywhere in the mobile phones, trunked mobile radio, walkie-talkies, etc.5. Microcomputer in the field of medical device applicationsSCM in the use of medical devices is also quite extensive, such as medical respirator, the various analyzers, monitors, ultrasound diagnostic equipment and hospital beds, etc. call system.6. In a variety of major appliances in the modular applicationsDesigned to achieve some special single specific function to be modular in a variety of circuit applications, without requiring the use of personnel to understand its internal structure. If music integrated single chip, seemingly simple function, miniature electronic chip in the net (the principle is different from the tape machine),you need a computer similar to the principle of the complex. Such as: music signal to digital form stored in memory (like ROM), read by the microcontroller, analog music into electrical signals (similar to the sound card).In large circuits, modular applications that greatly reduce the volume, simplifies the circuit and reduce the damage, error rate, but also easy to replace.7. Microcontroller in the application field of automotive equipmentSCM in automotive electronics is widely used, such as a vehicle engine controller, CAN bus-based Intelligent Electronic Control Engine, GPS navigation system, abs anti-lock braking system, brake system, etc..In addition, the MCU in business, finance, research, education, national defense, aerospace and other fields has a very wide range of applications.Application of six important part of learningMCU learning an important part of the six applications1, Bus:We know that a circuit is always made by the devices connected by wires, in analog circuits, the connection does not become a problem because the device is a serial relationship between the general, the device is not much connection between the , but the computer is not the same circuit, it is a microprocessor core, the device must be connected with the microprocessor, the device must be coordination between, so they need to connect on a lot, as if still analog circuit like the microprocessor and devices in the connection between the individual, the number of lines will be a little more surprising, therefore the introduction of the microprocessor bus Zhong Each device Gongtong access connections, all devices 8 Shuju line all received eight public online, that is the equivalent of all devices together in parallel, but only this does not work, if there are two devices send data at the same time, a 0, a 1, then, whether the receiver received what is it? This situation is not allowed, so to be controlled by controlling the line, time-sharing the device to work at any time only one device to send data (which can have multiple devices to receive both). Device's data connection is known as the data bus, the device is called line of control all the control bus. Internal or external memory in the microcontroller and other devices have memory cells, the memory cell to be assigned addresses, you can use, distribution, of course, to address given in the form of electrical signals, and as more memory cells, so, for the address allocation The line is also more of these lines is called the address bus.Second, data, address, command:The reason why these three together because of the nature of these three are the same - the number, or are a string of '0 'and '1' form the sequence. In other words, addresses, instructions are also data. Instruction: from single chip designer provides a number of commonly used instructions with mnemonic we have a strict correspondence between the developer can not be changed by the MCU. Address: the search for MCU internal, external storage units, input and output port based on the address of the internal unit value provided by the chip designer is good, can not be changed, the external unit can be single chip developers to decide, but there are a number of address units is a must (see procedures for the implementation of the process).Third, P0 port, P2 and P3 of the second function I use:Beginners often on the P0 port, P2 and P3 port I use the second function puzzled that the second function and have a switch between the original function of the process, or have a directive, in fact, the port The second feature is automatic, do not need instructions to convert. Such as P3.6, P3.7 respectively WR, RD signal, when the microchip processing machines external RAM or external I / O port, they are used as a second function, not as a general-purpose I / O port used, so long as a A microprocessor implementation of the MOVX instruction, there will be a corresponding signal sent from the P3.6 or P3.7, no prior use of commands. In fact 'not as a general-purpose I / O port use' is also not a 'no' but (user) 'not' as a general-purpose I / O port to use. You can arrange the order of a SETB P3.7's instructions, and when the MCU execution to the instruction, the also make P3.7 into a high, but users will not do so because this is usually will cause the system to collapse.Fourth, the program's implementation:Reduction in power after the 8051 microcontroller within the program counter (PC) in the value of 0000 ', the process is always from the 0000' units started, that is: the system must exist in ROM 0000 'this unit , and in 0000 'unit must be stored in a single instruction.5, the stack:Stack is a region, is used to store data, there is no special about the region itself is a part of internal RAM, special access to its data storage and the way that the so-called 'advanced post out backward first out ', and the stack has a special data transmission instructions that' PUSH 'and' POP ', has a special expertise in its servicesunit, that is, the stack pointer SP, whenever a PUSH instruction execution, SP on (in the Based on the original value) automatically add 1, whenever the implementation of a POP instruction, SP will (on the basis of the original value) automatically by 1. As the SP values can be changed with the instructions, so long as the beginning of the process to change the value of the SP, you can set the stack memory unit required, such as the program begins, with an MOV SP, # 5FH instructions When set on the stack starting from the memory unit 60H unit. There is always the beginning of the general procedure with such a directive to set the stack pointer, because boot, SP initial value of 07H, 08H This unit from the beginning to stack next, and 08H to 1FH 8031 is the second in the region, three or four working register area, often used, this will lead to confusion of data. Different authors when writing programs, initialize the stack is not exactly the same directive, which is the author's habit. When set up the stack zone, does not mean that the region become a special memory, it can still use the same memory region as normal, but generally the programmer does not regard it as an ordinary memory used.From the world of radio in the world to a single chipModern computer technology, industrial revolution, the world economy from the capital into the economy to knowledge economy. Field in the electronic world, from the 20th century into the era of radio to computer technology in the 21st century as the center of the intelligent modern era of electronic systems. The basic core of modern electronic systems are embedded computer systems (referred to as embedded systems), while the microcontroller is the most typical and most extensive and most popular embedded systems.First, radio has created generations of excellence in the worldFifties and sixties in the 20th century, the most representative of the advanced electronic technology is wireless technology, including radio broadcasting, radio, wireless communications (telegraph), Amateur Radio, radio positioning, navigation and other telemetry, remote control, remote technology. Early that these electronic technology led many young people into the wonderful digital world, radio show was a wonderful life, the prospects for science and technology. Electronics began to form a new discipline. Radio electronics, wireless communications began e-world journey. Radio technology not only as a representative of advanced science and technology at that time, but also from popular to professional fields of science, attracting the young people and enable them to find a lot of fun. Ore from the bedside to thesuperheterodyne radio radio; report issued from the radio amateur radio stations; from the telephone, electric bell to the radio control model. Became popular youth radio technology, science and technology education is the most popular and most extensive content. So far, many of the older generation of engineers, experts, Professor of the year are radio enthusiasts. Fun radio technology, radio technology, comprehensive training, from basic principles of electronics, electronic components to the radio-based remote control, telemetry, remote electronic systems, has trained several generations of technological excellence.Second, from the popularity of the radio era to era of electronic technologyThe early radio technology to promote the development of electronic technology, most notably electronic vacuum tube technology to semiconductor electronic technology. Semiconductor technology to realize the active device miniaturization and low cost, so more popular with radio technology and innovation, and to greatly broaden the number of non-radio-control areas.The development of semiconductor technology lead to the production of integrated circuit, forming the modern electronic technology leap from discrete electronics into the era of era of integrated circuits. Electronic design engineers no longer use the discrete electronic components designed circuit modules, and direct selection of integrated circuit components constitute a single system. They freed the design of the circuit unit dedicated to system design, greatly liberating the productive forces of science and technology, promote the wider spread of electronic systems.Semiconductor integrated circuits in the basic digital logic circuits first breakthrough.A large number of digital logic circuits, such as gates, counters, timers, shift registers, and analog switches, comparators, etc., for the electronic digital control provides excellent conditions for the traditional mechanical control to electronic control. Power electronic devices and sensor technology to make the original to the radio as the center of electronic technology turned to mechanical engineering in the field of digital control systems, testing in the field of information collection, movement of electrical mechanical servo drive control object.Semiconductor and integrated circuit technology will bring us a universal age of electronic technology, wireless technology as the field of electronic technology a part of.70 years into the 20th century, large scale integrated circuit appeared to promotethe conventional electronic circuit unit-specific electronic systems development. Many electronic systems unit into a dedicated integrated devices such as radios, electronic clocks, calculators, electronic engineers in these areas from the circuit, the system designed to debug into the device selection, peripheral device adapter work. Electronic technology, and electronic products enriched, electronic engineers to reduce the difficulty, but at the same time, radio technology, electronic technology has weakened the charm. The development of semiconductor integrated circuits classical electronic systems are maturing, remain in the large scale integrated circuit other than the shrinking of electronic technology, electronic technology is not the old days of radio fun times and comprehensive engineering training.Third, from the classic era of electronic technology to modern electronic technology of the times80 years into the 20th century, the century of economic change is the most important revolution in the computer. The computer revolution in the most important sign is the birth of the computer embedded applications. Modern computer numerical requirements should be born. A long period of time, is to develop the massive computer numerical duty. But the computer shows the logic operation, processing, control, attracting experts in the field of electronic control, they want development to meet the control object requirements of embedded applications, computer systems. If you meet the massive data-processing computer system known as general-purpose computer system, then the system can be the embedded object (such as ships, aircraft, motorcycles, etc.) in a computer system called the embedded computer. Clearly, both the direction of technology development are different. The former requires massive data storage, handling, processing and analysis of high-speed data transmission; while the latter requires reliable operation in the target environment, the external physical parameters on high-speed acquisition, analysis and processing logic and the rapid control of external objects. It will add an early general-purpose computer data acquisition unit, the output driver circuit reluctance to form a heat treatment furnace temperature control system. This general-purpose computer system is not possible for most of the electronic system used, and to make general-purpose computer system meets the requirements of embedded applications, will inevitably affect the development of high-speed numeric processing. In order to solve the contradiction between the development of computer technology, in the 20th century 70s, semiconductor experts another way, in full accordance with the electronic systemembedded computer application requirements, a micro-computer's basic system on a chip, the formation of the early SCM (Single Chip Microcomputer). After the advent of single chip in the computer industry began to appear in the general-purpose computer systems and embedded systems the two branches. Since then, both the embedded system, or general-purpose computer systems have been developed rapidly.Although the early general-purpose computer converted the embedded computer systems, and real embedded system began in the emergence of SCM. Because the microcontroller is designed specifically for embedded applications, the MCU can only achieve embedded applications. MCU embedded applications that best meet environmental requirements, for example, chip-level physical space, large-scale integrated circuits low-cost, good peripheral interface bus and outstanding control of instruction.A computer system microcontroller core, embedded electronic systems, intelligent electronic systems for the foundation. Therefore, the current single chip electronic system in widespread use of electronic systems to enable rapid transition to the classical modern intelligent electronic systems.4, single chip to create the modern era of electronic systemsA microcontroller and embedded systemsEmbedded computer systems from embedded applications, embedded systems for early general-purpose computer adapted to the object system embedded in a variety of electronic systems, such as the ship's autopilot, engine monitoring systems. Embedded system is primarily a computer system, followed by it being embedded into the object system, objects in the object system to achieve required data collection, processing, status display, the output control functions, as embedded in the object system, embedded system computer does not have an independent form and function of the computer. SCM is entirely in accordance with the requirements of embedded system design, so SCM is the most typical embedded systems. SCM is the early application of technical requirements in accordance with the design of embedded computer chip integration, hence the name single chip. Subsequently, the MCU embedded applications to meet the growing demands of its control functions and peripheral interface functions, in particular, highlight the control function, so has international name the single chip microcontroller (MCU, Microcontroller Unit).2 MCU modern electronic systems consisting of electronic systems will become mainstream。

外文翻译---铝加工附录A外文翻译—原文部分Aluminum alloy processingAluminum alloy market researchThe aluminum strap is our country national economy development important basis material, widely applies in professions and so on aviation, astronautics, building, printing, transportation, electron, chemical industry, food, medicine. In recent years, under the economical fast development's impetus, our country aluminum strap's investment elevated temperature unceasingly, the aluminum strap consumption quantity continued maintains the stable growth. Profession and so on outer wall construction and interior decoration, aluminum foil manufacture, printing, PS version, manufacturing industry, electrical appliances, food packing demands further enhance, become the prime motors which the aluminum strap consumption quantity grows, simultaneously, the transportation shipping industry is becoming the new expense point of growth.Along with the economical development and consumption level's enhancement, the aluminum sheet, the belt, the foil consumption quantity assumes the trend of escalation. Our country aluminum material expense peak after 2005 arrives, and achieves the peak in 2012, the year demand surpasses 10,000,000 tons. But the present our country aluminum sheet strip consumption quantity, average per person expends the world average level 1/2, the board strip expense is the developed country 1/10-1/34, high accuracy aluminum sheet strip dependence import solution. Moreover the import volume large scale is growing every year, expends the growth movement to be obvious, therefore the market prospect favors.The effects of alloying elementsThe properties and characteristics of aluminum, such as density, conductivity, corrosion resistance, finish, mechanical properties, and thermal expansion, are modified by the addition of alloying elements. The resulting effect depends upon the principal alloying elements used, as detailed in the table below.Wrought AlloyMajor Alloying Elements and Typical Alloy Characteristics Designation1xxx Series Minimum 99% aluminumHigh corrosion resistance. Excellent finishability. Easily joined byall methods. Low strength. Poor machinability. Excellentworkability. High electrical and thermal conductivity.2xxx Series CopperHigh strength. Relatively low corrosion resistance. Excellentmachinability. Heat treatable.3xxx Series ManganeseLow to medium strength. Good corrosion resistance. Poormachinability. Good workability.4xxx Series SiliconNot available as extruded products.5xxx Series MagnesiumLow to moderate strength. Excellent marine corrosion resistance.Very good weldability.6xxx Series Magnesium & SiliconMost popular extrusion alloy class. Good extrudability. Goodstrength. Good corrosion resistance. Good machinability. Goodweldability. Good formability. Heat treatable.7xxx Series ZincVery high strength. Good machinability. Heat treatable.ProcessingPlastic processing methods will billet aluminum ingot processing to become useful, the primary means of a rolling, extrusion, and forging such as stretching. Aluminum Fabrication in the early 20th century began to form industrial production, 30 years ago, basically used copper production equipment, products mainly used in aircraft manufacturing. After the 1960s, aluminum production has developed rapidly, the annual growth of about 4 to 8 percent, products widely used in aviation, construction, transport, electrical, chemical, packaging and industrial sectors such as daily necessities. Second only to iron and steel output, ranking second in the metal materials. China in the mid-1950s into the larger aluminum processing plants, formed a production system, products have been serialized, there are seven varieties of alloy, produces sheet, strip, foil materials, pipe, bar, sections, wire rod and Forging (free forgings, forging pieces of) eight categories of products.Aluminum and aluminum alloy plastic processing, and should ensure that products meet stability requirements for consistent dimensional accuracy, mechanical properties and good surface quality. We must pay attention to mechanical damage and corrosion prevention and control grain size and organizational structure. These requirements depend largely on the quality of production technology and equipment to ensure that. Aluminum alloy and plastic generally has a better, easier to plastic processing. Al hardware components of the more complex, there is a low melting and metal compounds and other intergovernmental organizations brittle, and its plastic processing of some of the features: a uniform treatment such as the elimination of billet spindle cooling, the internal stress within the crystal and segregation; blank tablet Milling to the surface to remove the low melting of the surface of segregation. Some aluminum to improve corrosion resistance and to carry out the processing of Baolv. Aluminum is overheating sensitivity, we must strictly control the temperature.Looking from the market demand what the amount used are most is the aluminum foil semifinished materials and the aluminum system pot material. Therefore the positive coal group plans product in the near future for hot rolling aluminum volume semifinished product, aluminum plate, decoration aluminum sheet, PS version base, forward for aluminum system pot material. The aluminum system pot material is this plan goal product. initially enters the aluminum processing according to the investigation and study situation and the expert opinion as well as the positive coal group the actual situation, plans to use casts rolls over + the cold rolling technology craft to produce the aluminum strap. casts rolls over + the cold rolling technology craft production aluminum strap is sends in unceasingly continually through the continuous casting rolling mill the aluminum liquid in the revolving roller, simultaneously completes the cooling coagulation and the rolling distorts two process production aluminum tube blank volume, again after working procedure production strap products and so on coldrolling, finishing, cutting. In domestic and foreign is one item very mature and the popular vanguard technology. The hot rolling + cold rolling craft way main technological process is the board spindle's casting, the hot rough rolling production aluminum tube blank volume adds the cold rolling.The plate, the strip production use the even roller rolling, essential working procedure for hot rolling, cold rolling, heat treatment and finishing. To duralumin alloy and so on chemical composition complex LY12, LC4, before hot rolling, should carry on uniformized processing. The processing temperature is lower than in generally the alloy the low melting point eutectic temperature 10~15℃, keeps warm for 12~24 hours. Duralumin alloy's alclad is wraps the aluminum sheet to place passes through the face milling semifinished product spindle both sides, with the aid in hot rolling welded together. Alclad level's thickness is generally plate thickness 4%. Hot rolling carries on generally above the recrystallization temperature. Hot rolling may carry in the single rack reversing mill, or implements the tandem rolling on the multi-racks. In order to raise the rate of finished products and the production efficiency develops the big ingot casting rolling, the spindle is above 10~15 tons. The annual output in 100,000 tons following factories, generally reversible hot rolling and uses in the heat with four rollers the volume craft, hot rolling strip thickness is about 6~8 millimeters. Output 100,000 tons above factories, many after four roller reversible hot-rolling mill cogging uses the single rack or two racks, three racks, five rack tandem rolling, implements the hot finish rolling, strip thickness may amount to 2.5~3.5 millimeters. After hot rolling strip coiling, takes the cold rolling semifinished materials. Has the best plasticity for the guarantee metal, should carry on under the single-phase organization condition hot rolling. Alloy and so on 2A12 hot rolling cogging temperatures are 400~455℃. The first several while going along strain rate in 10%, later gradually will increase generally. The pure aluminum and the soft aluminum alloy while going along strain rate may reach 50%, the duralumin alloy is about 40%. The hot rolling total strain rate may reach above 90%.The cold rolling often carries on under the room temperature, may obtain the size through the cold rolling to be precise, surface bright and clean and smooth thin plate and strip, and may obtain has the specific mechanical properties work hardening plate and the strip. The cold rolling mainly uses the belt law technique of production, applies four roller reversing mills or four roller irreversible rolling mill carries on the cold rolling, current develops the irreversible rolling mill to carry on the cold rolling. The rolling mill equipment has the hydraulic pressure to depress, the fluid to bend the roller, thickness automatic control system or measured that the roller seam thickness automatic control system and the shape of strip control meter, by the miniature electronic accounting machine control, the record, stores up each kind of parameter, obtains the size to be precise, shape of strip smooth board strip, if 0.18 millimeter strip common difference may amount to ±5 the micron. The small factory also has the type law production plate. After the annealing, the aluminum cold-workrate may reach above 90%. The heterogeneity duralumin alloy cold finishing hardening is obvious, needs the intermediate annealing. After intermediate annealing's cold-work rate is 60~70%. Hot rolling lubricates with the emulsion, the cold rolling already by the emulsion development was the entire oil lubrication. Uses the independent control spray nozzle's multistage cooling system, reduces the aluminum sheet and roller's friction, cools the roller, controls the roller, washes off the aluminite powder and other impurities, obtains the good surface quality and the shape of strip.附录B外文翻译—译文部分铝加工塑性加工方法将铝坯锭加工成材，主要方法有轧制、挤压、拉伸和锻造等。