Lecture 1 Sentence Structure1.1 The construction of “subject + predicate” and sentence analysisAs has been pointed out before, the clause or the simple sentence is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of "subject + predicate". That is to say, the clause or the simple sentence is not just an agglomeration of phrases; it is a group of phrases organized into a construction of "subject + predicate".1) Subject and predicateA full-fledged clause can generally be divided into two parts: the subject and the predicate. The subject is the topic or theme of the sentence, which tells of what the sentence is about. The predicate says something about the subject and bears the new information which the speaker wants to transmit to the listener. The subject is generally realized by a noun phrase or an equivalent of noun phrase, while the construction of the predicate, which is more complicated, generally consists of a verb phrase with or without complementation.The subject of a clause may be a compound noun phrase which is called a compound subject. For example: The boys and the girls are planning a dance.Fruit flies and ladybugs are insects.Joshua and Daniel got lost in the woods.Also the predicate of a clause may be a compound construction which is called a compound predicate. For example:Leah jumped on her bike and rode around the block.My friend lives in a green house and rides a red bicycle.I opened the magazine and began to read it quietly.Sometimes both subject and predicate are compound constructionsHer brother and her sister were very shy and were really hard persons to get to know.Cassandra and Jenny built a model airplane and painted it bright yellow.In English, there exists Double Predicate in grammar. This kind of predicate is usually transformed from more complicated deep-layer structure.For example:He left home a mere child and returned quite a different man.( the deep structure of this sentence is : He was a mere child when he left home, and he became quite a different man when he returned.)There are some similar structures:Everyone stood listening intently.The doctor sat reading a newspaper in the shade.A bird fell dead to the ground.He died beloved, revered, and mourned by millions of the working people.From the above examples, we can see that double predicate is different from compound predicate: double predicate is the fusion of two predicates, while compound predicate is the compound of two predicates.2) Two ways of sentence analysis:To facilitate description of how the English language works, sentences can be analysed in twoways. One way is to divide the predicate into predicate verb or predicator, object, complement and adverbial. These elements together with the subject make the five clause elements.Sentence│Clause││ │NP VP NP│ │ │Subject Predicate V erb Object││ │││ │ │ │ │All the men have done their best.The other way of sentence analysis is to divide the predicate into two parts: the operator and the predication. The operator is usually the auxiliary or the first auxiliary in a complex verb phrase, while the predication comprises the main verb with its complementation (object, complement or adverbial).Sentence│Clause│││Subject predicate│││││││ Operator Prediction│││││││││ All the men have done their best Operator usually refers to the auxiliary or the first auxiliary in a complex verb phrase.Do some exercises1.2 Basic clause type and their transformation and expansion :In terms of the different combinations of clause elements, English clauses can be classified into seven basic types. Innumerable authentic sentences are structured on the basis of these clause types. 1) Basic clause types :The seven basic clause types are SVC, SV, SV A, SVO, SVOA, SVOC, SV oO. These seven combinations of clause elements are wholly or largely determined by the main verb in the clause.The main verb in an SVC pattern is a linking or copula verb which must be followed by asubject complement.That car is mineThe main verb in an SV pattern is an intransitive verb which is not to be followed by any obligatory element except for a limited number of intransitive verbs which require an obligatory adverbial, thus constituting the pattern SV A.Everybody laughed.They stayed in a hotel.The main verb in an SVO pattern is a mono-transitive which must be followed by an object, and with some mono-transitives, the object must again be followed by an obligatory adverbial, thus constituting the pattern SVOAI want an English book.I put the book on the desk.The main verb in an SVOC pattern is a complex transitive verb which must be followed by an object + object complement.We made John our monitor.The main verb in a SV oO pattern is a di-transitive verb which is to be followed by two objects: indirect and direct object.I give him a letter.2) Transformation and expansion of basic clause types :The basic clause types are all affirmative statements with verbs in the active voice. An affirmative clause can be transformed into the negative; a statement into a question; and the active into the passive. All these add varieties to the basic clause types.The tourists have arrived.→Have the tourists arrived?→The tourists have not arrived.She give me some money.→Did she give him any money?→She didn’t give me any money.→He was given some money.→Some money was given to him.The basic clause types and their variants can also be expanded into larger grammatical units through adding modifiers at various levels, and these larger units can again be expanded through coordination and subordination into compound, complex and compound-complex sentences.Do some exercisesFIGURE: SENTENCE STRUCTUREIn contrast with the subject, there are few generalization that we can usefully make about the predicate since -- as our examples have illustrated –it tends to be a more complex and heterogeneous unit. We need to subdivide it into its elements or constituents. One division has already been suggested; this distinguishes AUXILIARY as OPERATOR and other parts as PREDICA TION. The distinctions may be illustrated as follows:sentencesubject predicate∶∶auxiliary predication∶and ∶∶operator ∶∶∶∶He had given the girl an apple.Had he given the girl an apple ?This particular division of the sentence helps us to understand, for example, how interrogative and negative sentences are formed, how certain adjuncts are positioned, and how certain types of emphasis are achieved.ILLUSTRATION : TYPES OF SETNENCE STRUCTUREBringing together the distinctions so far made, we can present some basic sentence-structure rules diagrammatically. Each line constitutes a pattern which is illustrated by means of a correspondingly numbered example having just those obligatory and optional (parenthesized) elements that are specified in the formula. The order in which the elements appear is common but by no means fixed. It is a principle of sentence organization that what is contextually familiar or ‘given’ comes to convey the greatest information is given the special prominence of ‘end-focus’.She is in London (now).She is a student (in London) (now).John heard the explosion (from his office) (when he waslocking the door). University (gradually) became famous (in Europe) (during the Middle Ages). They ate the meat (hungrily) (in their hut) (that night).He offered (her) some chocolates (politely) (outside the hall).They elected him chairman (without argument) (inWashington ) (thismorning).The train had arrived (quietly) (at the station) (before we noticed it). [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]Lecture 2 Subject-verb Concord ( I )Teaching Aims: Knowledge Aims：Subject-verb Concord (I)Skill Aims：Introduction: By subject-verb concord is meant agreementbetween subject and predicate verb in number.Emotion Aims：There are 3 principles guiding subject-verb concord: they areprinciples of grammatical concord, notional concord and proximity. Important points: Grammatical concord; Notional concord; ProximityDifficult points:Principle of ProximityLeading-in: Discussion1. What do you think you should learn in the 3 principles of concord?2. Why we have to study the 3 principles of concord ?3. What is the difference between English and Chinese?(i) In English there is subject-verb concord.(ii) In Chinese there is no.General information:There are 3 principles guiding subject-verb concord: they are principles ofgrammatical concord, notional concord and proximity-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Step 1 Subject-verb Concord ( I ) :By subject-verb concord is meant agreement between subject and predicate verb in number. Guiding principles: There are 3 principles guiding subject-verb concordStep II Guiding principles :There are 3 principles guiding subject-verb concord: they are principles of grammatical concord, notional concord and proximity.1)Grammatical concordThe principle of grammatical concord refers to the rule that the verb must match its subject in number. If the subject is plural, the verb should take the plural form; if on the other hand, the subject is singular or is a mass noun, the verb should take the singular form, e.g.:Both boys have their own merits.Every girl comes on time.Much effort is wasted.Difficulties arise when this principle comes into conflict with the other two principles: principle of notional concord and principle of proximity.2)Notional concordThe principle of notional concord refers to the rule that the verb can sometimes agree with the subject according to the notion of number rather than to the actual presence of the grammatical marker for that notion, e.g.:The government have asked the country to decide by vote.Fifteen miles seems like a long walk to me.3)ProximityThe principle of proximity denotes agreement of the verb with a closely preceding noun phrase in preference to agreement with the head of the noun phrase that functions as subject, e.g.:Either my brothers or my father is coming.No one except his own supporters agree with him.Neither Julia nor I am going.Note that grammatical concord is the basic principle, but when the subject is realized by a collective noun, a coordinate form or an expression of quantity, the other two principles will have to be considered.Step III Problems of concord with nouns ending in -s :There are quite a few nouns that end in –s but which are not countable. Some of these nouns are treated as singular, some as plural, and some either as singular or as plural. All this can be dealt with under the following headings.1)Disease and game names ending in –sNames of diseases ending in –s are mostly treated as singular, but there are a few such names (as measles and rickets) which can be used either as singular or as plural.Game names ending in –s are generally used as singular with the exception of cards which is usually treated as plural.2)Subject names ending in –icsNames of subjects ending in –ics are generally used as singular nouns, but some such nouns are treated as plural when used in other senses than subject names. Compare:Acoustics is the science of sound.The coustics in the new concert hall are faultless.Economics is a required course for all the students.The economics of the project are still being considered.3)Geographical names ending in –sGeographical names such as the names of archipelagos (islands), mountain ranges, straits and falls are generally used as plural, except for a few treated as singular when used as country names, e.g.:The Himalayas have a magnificent variety of plant and animal life.The Straits of Gibraltar have not lost their strategic importance.In earky January 1976, the Netherlands was hit by its worst storm since 1953.4)Other nouns ending in –sNames for things made of 2 parts such as scissors, pincers, etc., are usually used as plural. But when they are precede by such unit nouns as a pair of and two pairs of, the number form of the following verb is generally determined by the number marker of the unit noun.Step IV Problems of concord with collective nouns as subject :Collective nouns are singular in form but plural in meaning. The choice between grammatical and notional concord is mostly dictated by usage.1)Collective nouns usually used as pluralThese include people, police, cattle, militia, poultry, vermin, etc:The Chinese people are a great people.Domestic cattle provide us with milk, beef and hides.2)Collective nouns usually used as singularThese include foliage, machinery, equipment, furniture, merchandise, etc:All the merchandise has arrived undamaged.All the machinery in the factory is made in China.3)Collective nouns used either as plural or as singularThere are collective nouns that can be used either as plural or as singular. The choice of the verb form following such nouns depends on the exact meaning of the noun in a specific context. When the noun is used in the sense of a collective as a whole, the verb takes the singular form. If , on the other hand, the noun is used in the sense of the individuals that make the collective, the verb takes the plural form. Compare:The anti-crime committee is to make its report tomorrow.The committee are divided in opinion about this problem.That group of soldiers is a top-notch fighting unit.That group of soldiers have the best ratings of individual performance.4) A committee of, etc + plural nounWhen a plural noun is preceded by a committee of / a board of / a panel of, the verb usually takes the singular form, e.g.:A committee of five men and three women is to consider the matter.The committee of directors is responsible for the management of the company.Lecture 3Subject-verb Concord ( II )Teaching Aims: The students will know about the problems of concord with a coordinate construction, a quantitative expression, or a nominal clause as subject Important points:Problems of concord with a coordinate subject; Problems of concord with expressions of quantity as subject; Other problems of subject-verb concord Difficult points:Other problems of subject-verb concordLeading-in: Discussion:(1) What do you think you should learn in the subject-verb concord?(2) Why we have to study the subject-verb concord?(3) What is the difference between English and Chinese?(i) In English there is subject-verb concord.(ii) In Chinese there is no subject-verb concord--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Step 1 Subject-verb Concord ( II ) :This lecture deals with problems of concord with a coordinate construction, a quantitative expression, or a nominal clause as subject.Step II Problems of concord with a coordinate subject :The following rules are to be observed in the case of a coordinate subject.1)Coordinate with …and‟ or …both . . . and‟Coordination by ‘and’ or ‘both . . . and’ is usually treated as plural when it refers to two or more than two persons / things, but it is treated as singular when it refers to only one person or thing. Compare:Both Pauline and Bob have gone fishing on Miramar Lake.Rain, hail, and wind have caused an estimated $22,000,000 damage to crops and livestock.The secretary and treasurer was absent from the meeting.Ham and eggs is a good breakfast.2)Coordinate with …or‟ / …either . . . or‟, …nor‟ / …neither . . . nor‟, …not only . . . butalso‟Here the problem of concord is generally dealt with according to the principle of proximity. But in informal style, items coordinated by ‘neither . . . nor’or ‘not only . . . but also’can sometimes be regarded as plural, e.g.:My sisters or my brother is likely to be at home.Either my father or my brothers are coming.Neither the players nor the coach was / (were) overconfident.Not only the switches but also the old writing has /( have) been changed.Step III Problems of concord with expressions of quality as subject :Quantitative expressions fall into two categories; definite and indefinite.1)Concord with expression of definite quantity as subject (P43)When a definite quantity is regarded as a single unit, the verb takes the singular form andwhen used in the sense of the individuals that constitute the quantity, the verb takes plural form. Compare:He thought that 65 dollars was not too much to ask.There were s silver dollars in each of the stockings.If the subject is ‘a fraction / percentage + of-phrase’, the form of the verb is determined by the noun in the of-phrase. A plural noun in the of-phrase is to be followed by a singular verb, e.g.:Over 60% of the city was destroyed in the war.Two-thirds of the swampland has been reclaimed for farming.Nearly 50% of the doctors are women.If the subject is an expression of ‘A plus / and B’ or A multiplied by B’, the verb can either take the singular or the plural form. If, on the other hand, the subject is one of ‘A minus B’ or A divided by B’, the verb can only be singular, e.g.:Seven plus / and five (7 + 5) makes / make twelve.Forty minus fifteen (40 – 15 ) leaves twenty-five.Five times eight (5×8) is / are forty.Forty divided by eight (40÷8) is five.If the subject is a noun phrase composed of ‘one in / out of + plural noun’, the verb takes the singular form in formal style, but in informal style it can be plural, e.g.:One in ten students has / have failed the exam.One out of twenty was / were badly damaged.2)Concord with expression of indefinite quantity as subject (P44)When the subject is a noun phrase composed of ‘all of . . . , some of . . . , none of . . . , half of . . . , most of . . . , etc’, the number of the verb is determined by the noun in the of-phrase. This is also true of ‘lots of, heaps of, loads of, scads of, plenty of + noun’, e.g.:All of the cargo was lost.All of the crew were saved.Lots of food is going to waste.Lots of people are waiting outside.When the subject is a noun preceded by ‘a portion of, a series of, a pile of, a panel of,’ the verb invariably takes the singular form, whatever the forms of the noun. Likewise, when the subject is a noun, singular or plural, preceded by ‘a kind / sort / type of’ is preceded by these / those and followed by a plural noun, the verb should be plural, e.g.:A substantial portion of the reports is missing.A series of accidents has been reported.This kind of man annoys me.That type of car is old-fashioned.These sort of machines are up to date.If the subject is a noun phrase composed of ‘many a + noun’ or ‘more than one + noun’, this kind of noun phrase, though notionally plural, is treated as singular.Many a man has done his duty.More than one game was lost.If the subject is a plural noun preceded by ‘an average of / a majority of’, the verb form is determined by the notion of the noun phrase; if the noun head is the word ‘average / majority’, the verb should be singular; if the head is the plural noun, the verb should be plural. Compare:An average of 25 applications a month is not unusual.An average of 25 persons apply each month.Step IV Other problems of sublect-verb concord :There are other problems of subject-verb concord that are worth mentioning.1)Problems of concord with a nominal clause as subjectWhen the subject is a nominal clause introduced by what, who, which, how, why, whether, etc, the verb usually takes the singular form. But when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and or both . . . and, a plural verb is required, e.g.:What caused the accident is complete mystery.What caused the accident and who was responsible for it remain a mystery to us.In SVC constructions with a what-clause as subject, the verb usually takes the singular form. But when the subject complement is plural, or when the what-clause is plural in meaning, the verb of the main clause can be plural, e.g.:What was real to him were the details of his life.What are often regarded as poisonous fungi are sometimes safely edible.2)Subject-verb concord with a non-finite clause as subjectWhen the subject is a noun-finite clause, the verb of the main clause usually takes the singular form. But when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and, the verb of the main clause tales the singular form when the subject refers to one thing, and the plural form when the subject refers to separate things, e.g.:To climb mountains requires courage.Playing tennis is a very good exercise.Compare:Reading Ibsen and solving a quadratic equation are entirely different assignments.3)Subject-verb concord in relative clausesIn the construction of ‘one of+ plural noun + relative clause’, the principle of grammatical concord is generally observed. Sometimes, especially in British English, in order to lay emphasis on ‘one’, the verb also take the singular form. When ‘one’ is preceded by ‘the’ or ‘the only’, theverb can only be singular. Compare:Joan is one of those people who go out of their way to be helpful.Jasper White is one of those rare people who believes in ancient myths.He is the only one of those boys who is willing to take on another assignment.4)Subject-verb concord in cleft-sentencesIn cleft-sentences, subject-verb concord in that / who-clause is generally determined by the number of the focal element functioning as subject in the clause. There is one point that should be noted: when the focal element is ‘I’, the verb TO BE in the following who- / that-clause usually agrees with ‘I’ in both person and number; if, on the other hand, the focal element is ‘me’ instead of ‘I’, the verb TO BE in the following who- / that-clause should take the third person singular number, e.g.:It is I who am to blame.It is me that is to blame.5)Subject-verb concord in existential sentences(P51)In existential sentences, subject-verb concord is generally determined by the number of the ‘notional subject’, but in informal style, especially in spoken language, the verb often agrees with the ‘formal subject’ and takes the singular form, even though the notional subject is plural. When the notional subject is a coordinate construction, the verb form goes with the first coordinate element of the notional subject, singular or plural, e.g.:There is a note left on the desk.There are three routes you can take.There’s more grace and less carelessness.There’s a long springboard, and rafts at varying distances from the shore。
