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大规模研究发现：地球的“健康”每况愈下有史以来对地球进行的最大规模的科学分析表明，地球上的许多生态系统都达不到标准。
由联合国主持的《千年生态系统评估综合报告》指出，由于不可持续的使用，地球上将近三分之二的用来维持生命的生态系统已经遭到破坏，其中包括干净的水源、纯净的空气，以及稳定的气候。
以上大部分的破坏都是人类在过去的半个世纪里造成的。
据报告分析，随着人类对食物、淡水、木材、纤维以及燃料等资源的需求日趋激增，环境发生了极大的变化，引发了诸如滥伐森林、化学污染等问题。
因此，该报告的作者警告说，照此下去，本已岌岌可危的生态环境将会在21世纪的上半叶急剧恶化。
这项历史性的研究由来自世界95个国家的政府部门以及民间组织的1,300多位科学家共同完成。
四年来，他们考察了地球上许多生物的生长环境、物种以及将他们联系起来的生态体系。
联合国环境规划署对该报告进行了编辑整理并于昨天在中国北京公布了研究结果。
在公布该报告的新闻发布会上，联合国秘书长科菲·安南指出：“只有了解环境及其运作过程，我们才能制定出必要的决策加以保护。
”他还说，“只有珍惜所有宝贵的自然资源和人类资源，我们才有希望去建设一个可持续发展的未来。
”对社会经济的影响该报告对自然界的大部分生物多样性持悲观态度，地球上可能有10%—30%的哺乳动物，鸟类以及两栖动物濒临灭绝。
这次大规模生态调查是根据安南的《千年发展目标》展开的，该发展目标是由联合国发起的，旨在2015年之前大幅度缓解饥饿与极度贫困等社会经济问题。
总部位于内罗毕的联合国环境规划署执行主席克劳斯·托普弗说：“从某些方面来说，《千年生态系统评估综合报告》让我们首次认识到生态系统服务功能的经济价值，并使我们对尊重和保护地球生命维护系统有了新的见解。
”目前由于人类社会对地球环境的开发利用，食物供应不断增加，然而增长的速度仍然太慢，难以完成联合国制定的在2015年前消除全球一半饥饿的目标。
Unit 1 General Description of Literature Reading and Translation (4hrs)1. Definition of LiteratureWhat is literature? There seems no substantial difference among its definitions in different dictionaries:Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English: a set of works on a particular subject; printed material, esp. giving information. (p. 639)The Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary of Current English: the writing or the study of books, etc. (technical books and journalism); books dealing with a special subject. (p. 573)Webster‟s New Collegiate Dictionary: the body of writings on a particular subject (scientific literature). (p. 672)《英汉案头大字典》: literature——文献(P. 1038) 。
《新英汉词典》: literature——(关于某一不科或专题的)文献(p. 744)。
《新华词典》: 文献——有历史价值的、或同某一学科有关的图书资料(p.880)。
From the above interpretations, we can arrive at an identical definition of literature: a general term for professional writings in the form of books, papers, and other documentations.As an important means for preserving knowledge, literatures have become precious resources or treasures for the mankind, which have greatly contributed to the social progress of the human race.Professional literatures have been regarded as “intangible assets” of the whole world because they are, on the one hand, the summary, generalization, and development of the achievements obtained on the basis of previous experiences or studies; and on the other hand, they have been accumulated and handed down from generation to generation. In this sense, therefore, all kinds of literature are records of precious research findings and academic achievements, and the crystallization of human civilization.The word literature used in this textbook does not mean “文学”, but “文献” or “文献资料”, specifically referring to various documentations in the field of international industrial business and academic exchanges. Since literature is the general term for printed materials, it should be further classified according to what a specific documentary work is.2. Classification of LiteratureAs is known to all, we are now in an information era marked with the rapid development of science and technology. According to statistics, within the recent decade alone, the achievements in science and technology have amounted to the totality of inventions and discoveries of mankind since ancient times. Facing such a vast ocean of professional literature, how should we conduct our literature search, reading and translation? Here, we just put various literatures under the following headings:1) TextbooksIn general, a textbook is a kind of professional writing specially designed for the students in a given branch of learning. Textbooks are compiled in a rigidly scientific,systematic and logical way. Comparatively, the content of a textbook is mature and well established, because it has been compiled through the writer‟s careful selection, verification, discrimination, integration and comprehensive study of the subject. If you intend to acquire a general knowledge of a certain subject over a larger area, or if you want to have a preliminary understanding of a certain issue, you‟d better go over the relevant textbooks, which proves the best policy.2) MonographsA monograph is “an arti cle or short book on one particular subject or branch of a subject that the writer has studied deeply” (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, p. 704). It is also a “detailed scientific account, esp. a published report on some item of research” (The Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary of Current English, p. 632). The content of a monograph usually includes the history and present status of a particular subject, observed data, experimental methods and results, existing problems and the developing trend, various viewpoints and discussions of different schools of thought, research achievements and further exploration, and so on. A monograph usually functions as an important guide for the reader to understand the particular study comprehensively and deeply.3) PapersPapers are the most important and reliable sources for textbooks, monographs, and all the other documentary works. A complete paper is usually composed of the following elements: title, author, affiliation, abstract, keywords, introduction, theoretical analysis and/or experimental description, results and discussion or conclusion, acknowledgments, references, etc. (detailed description and exemplification of these elements in a professional paper are given in a separate textbook entitled Paper Writing and Publication, by Hu Gengshen, et al., Beijing: Higher Education Press, 2000.) A paper usually deals with a relatively specific topic, and with a comparatively narrow subject.4) EncyclopediasAn encyclopedia is “a book or set of books dealing with every branch of knowledge, or with one particular branch, in alphabetical order.” The difference between a dictionary and an encyclopedia is that “A dictionary explains words and an encyclopedia explains facts.” (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, p.361) As a basic reference book of generalized and summarized knowledge, an encyclopedia is usually compiled by many experts of many branches through many years. The contents of an encyclopedia, therefore, are comparatively mature and correct. It virtually serves as an important information retriever, providing comprehensive and systematic information about everything.The information retriever as such also includes yearbooks, dictionaries, guides, handbooks, and the like.5) PeriodicalsA periodical is a series of publications that appear at regular intervals. Periodicals are of various categories. From the perspective of names, for example, they are journals, acta, magazines, bulletins, rapid communications, letters, proceedings, records, abstracting services, reviews, indexes, etc., which constitute themain body of literature.Periodicals are characterized by being large in number and in variety, extensivein content and in circulation, mixed in language and in form, etc.Along with the rapid development of science and technology, periodicals have been rapidly increasing and have‟ been gradually professionalized, integrated and computerized.6) Special DocumentationThe so-called special documentation refers to all the printed materials that are non-books or non-periodicals. This special documentation mainly includes: standards, patent documents, trademarks, copyrights, contracts/agreements, reports, conference papers, dissertations (or theses), Product specifications, government publications, proposals, technical archives, electronic hypertexts, etc. Though neither books nor periodicals published regularly or publicly, the special documentation proves to be most effective resources for information retrieval. Insofar as literature search and reading are concerned, this kind of special documentation should not be overlooked. On the contrary, it calls for our special attention--that is why we have placed special emphasis on special documentation in the present textbook.Notes:1. journals, Acta, magazines, bulletins, rapid communications, letters, proceedings, records, abstracting services, reviews, indexes, etc. 会刊，学报，杂志，通报，快讯，通信稿，会议录，文献记录，世界文摘服务，评论，索引等2. hypertext 超级文本(指信息高速公路上的文件)3. Linguistic Features of Scientific LiteratureStylistically, literature is a kind of formal writing. Compared with an informal writing which usually utilizes an informal tone and colloquial language, a formal writing is a more serious approach to a subject of great importance and it avoids all colloquial expressions. Since the functions of scientific literature are to reveal creative research achievements, facilitate professional information retrieval, and help improve the development of science and technology, it deals objectively with the study of facts or problems; analyses on literature are based on relevant data, not on personal feelings, and discussions or conclusions are made on the basis of specific experiments or investigations.Syntactically, scientific literature has rigorous grammatical structures, and in most cases is rather unitary. Frequently used are indicative sentences, imperative sentences, complex sentences, and “It be + adj. (participle) + that ...” sentence patterns, etc.Morphologically, scientific literature is featured by high specialization, the use of technical terms and jargons, unambiguous implication and the fixed sense of the word. There are more compound words, Latin and Greek words, contracted words, noun clusters and so on in scientific literature than in other informational writing.Besides, non-verbal language is also very popular in various literatures such as signs, formulas, charts, tables, photos, etc. for the sake of accuracy, brevity, and clarity.Different literatures may have different linguistic features although they do havesimilar characteristics in common. The linguistic features of an individual literature will be discussed together with the specific category of documentation in the corresponding Unit of this textbook. To learn the linguistic features of various literatures will be beneficial not only to documentation reading but also to the translation and writing of such documentary works.4. Search for Relevant LiteratureThe search for relevant literature needed for professional study and research has become a practical skill for professionals. This is important because an effective way of literature search and reading will facilitate our information retrieval within a shorter period of time. In fact, everyone may have his/her own way of literature search and reading. And the following are some usual approaches:1) Global SearchBy “global search” we mean to search for materials around the subject in a larger dimension or within a wider range, i.e., conducting the extensive reading. For example:(1) Search for relevant books through the Classified and Specified Catalogues.(2) Search for periodicals through the Newspapers and Journals Indexing.(3) Search for domestic literature through the Domestic Sci-tech Data Catalogues.(4) Search for current foreign literature through the Sci-Tech Translation Bulletin.(5) Search for literature at home and abroad through INTERNET, WWW (World Wide Web), and other electronic retrieval means.2) Specific SearchBy “specific search” we mean to search for literature about a certain topic withina specific area or in a narrower scope. For example:(1) Select some most-related papers for intensive reading.(2) Expand the scope of the reading only on the basis of the references of the selected papers.(3) Try to find out relevant “reviews” on the topic so as to know the authoritative comments, the experts‟ views, the global developing trend and the general on-goings, etc.3) Processed SearchBy “processed search” we mean to accumulate and absorb essential information in the course of literature search and reading. For example:(1) Store the searched literature by careful note-taking and self-abstracting.(2) Sort out the searched documentation by timely putting them into different categories.(3) Digest/Absorb the searched information by creatively analyzing and synthesizing.It is very important to identify and then make generalization of the essential parts of the research papers, because the author of a paper should and must present his/her achievements or research findings through these parts. For this purpose, as a researcher, one has to be good at doing retrieval reading. By retrieval reading wemean retrospect reading of the manuscript in a very careful way so as to identify, register and generalize the gist or the main parts of work, or contributions we have made in a given paper. Literally, we mean reading the manuscript in a thorough manner and making notes: (1) as to the subjects dealt with, particularly subjects concerning with new information given incidentally; and (2) as to the new result and conclusive ideas reported. Material relating to each subject should then be gathered together in a logical way; and (3) all the sentences generalizing the main ideas of all the original materials should be put together so as to be well-versed, abstract-brief, condensed, complete, yet easily readable.In the final analysis, to digest and absorb useful information is the ultimate purpose of literature search and reading. This is a process of discarding the dross and selecting the essential, eliminating the false and retaining the true, proceeding from the easy to the difficult and from the outer to the inner. It is also a process of reading, selecting, sorting, synthesizing, commenting, rationalizing, systematizing, reprocessing, etc.One thing that needs to be mentioned is that an awareness of information discrimination is highly necessary, for the collection and absorption of erroneous knowledge and information is harmful. Just as a western scientist says: “The fool collects data and the wise man selects them.” This remark, th ough drastic, is indeed philosophical.Notes1. through the Classified and Specified Catalogues 通过《分类目录或专题目录》2. through the Newspapers and Journals Indexing 通过《全国报刊索引》3. through the Domestic Sci-Tech Data Catalogues 通过《国内资料科技目录》4. Sci-Tech Translation Bulletin 《科技译文通报》5. the fool collects data and the wise man selects them 愚者采集资料，智者选择资料5. Review of this chapterDefinition of Literature: a set of works on a particular subject; printed material, esp. giving information; the body of writings on a particular subject (scientific literature)Classification of Literature: textbooks, monographs, papers, encyclopedias, periodicals, special documentation, etc.Linguistic Features of Scientific Literature: stylistically, a kind of formal writing, with rigorous and unitary grammatical structure, highly specialized and unambiguous wording for semantic accuracy, etc.Search for Relevant Literature: global search, specific search, and processed search Supplementary Readings on Informational Retrieval: retrieval system, microfilm, internet. database, reformat, on, e-mail, information infrastructure, information superhighwayTranslation Skills (1): Translation in General and Translation of Special LiteratureTranslation is a rendering of ideas or concepts from one language into another,i.e., the faithful representation in the target language of what is written or said in the original language.As a means of communication, translation plays an important role in human civilization. In the West, literary translation can be traced back to 300 BC; while in China, recorded translation activities are even earlier, dating from Zhou Dynasty (1100 BC). However, not until the recent centuries, especially by the end of the 19th century did systematic study of translation get under way. The recent decades have seen rapid development in translation theories and translation activities both at home and abroad.A modern society sees an extensive use of translation on various occasions. Proper and dexterous translation helps promote mutual understanding between peoples of different cultural and social backgrounds, whereas improper rendering of words or expressions leads to confusion. Take the ordinary word “menu” for example. Its original meaning is “a list of dishes in a meal or to be ordered as separated meals, esp. in a restaurant”, and the Chinese equivalent seems to be clear: 菜单. However, when it is used in computer science, its meaning shifts to “a list shown on the display of a computer from which a user can select the operation the computer is to perform.”Evidently the Chinese counterpart should be something like “选项、项目单” It is a pity that the initial translator neglected this definition, and as a result, this very popular term of computer science fails to convey its true meaning in Chinese--the translated term”菜单” sounds incongruous with its actual content. So is the rendering of “Renaissance”--commonly known as “文艺复兴” in Chinese. Although we know today that the movement extended far beyond the literature and art circle, and the connotation of “Renaissance” is much more profound than that of the Chinese term “文艺复兴”, yet it is generally accepted through common practice. Such improper rendering is not uncommon in Chines-English translation. A sweet and melodious trademark in Chinese, by improper translation, may cause uneasiness or even create a loathsome image in the mind of people of different social and cultural backgrounds. For example, a popular Chinese lipstick with the trademark “芳芳”, when transliterated into English as “Fangfang”, assumes a hideous image--the English word “fang” happens to have two disagreeable definitions: a, a long, sharp tooth of a dog; b.a snake‟s poisonous tooth. Consequently, this awkward transliteration has resulted in a complete failure in marketing. Similar translation blunders are not unusual in social or economic activities in our country. To name a few, translating “五讲四美、三热爱”into “five stresses, four beauties and three loves”, “抓紧施肥” into “grasp manure”, “街道妇女” into “street women”, “白酒”into “white wine”, etc. Had the translators had sufficient translation knowledge, such blunders would have been avoided.1. Nature and Scope of TranslationWhat is translation? Some people believe it is a science, others take it as an art; and yet many consider it a craft, or rather, a skill.Of these varied definitions, which one holds true for our purpose? The answer depends on how w e understand or interpret the word “translation”, for the very word “translation” itself is ambiguous. And the Chinese equivalent fanyi sounds even fuzzier. Fanyi, in Chinese, may either stand for a subject in the curriculum, a jobpeople engage in, a piece of literary work, or the translating or interpreting work itself. Sometimes, fanyi may even refer to the translator or interpreter himself/herself.If the word “translation” refers to a subject, namely, the study of translation theory and skills, it is no doubt a science, just as any subject is, with its own rules, laws and principles for the translators to observe; however, if it refers to some specific pieces of translation, then it is more like an art, with each piece of them manifesting its own charms and style in the creative hands of the translator; whereas, if it refers to a process, in which something is translated, then we may regard it as a craft or skill. For unlike any branch of natural science, the process of translation has its own nature, and none of its rules and principles are universally applicable. Therefore, it entails a lot of practice, and particular craftsmanship and skills are reflected by the touches of different translators.Translation covers a very broad range. In terms of languages, it can be divided into two categories: from native languages into foreign languages and vice versa; in terms of the mode, it can be divided into oral interpretation and written translation; in terms of materials to be translated, there are translation of scientific materials, translation of literary works such as novels, stories, prose, poetry, drama, etc., translation of political essays such as treatises on social problems, repons, speeches, etc., and translation of practical writing (as official documents, contracts and agreements, notices, receipts, etc.); in terms of disposal, it can be either full-text translation, abridged translation or adapted translation.2. Principles or Criteria of TranslationThe so-called principles and criteria of translation are actually the two sides of the same coin. That is, on the part of the translator, he or she should follow them while translating; whereas on the part of the reader or critic, he or she may use the principles and criteria to evaluate translation works. Whenever principles or criteria of translation are under discussion in China, Yan Fu‟s “three-character guide”--xin, da, ya, namely, “faithfulness (信), expressiveness (达), and elegance (雅)”, which was first proposed in 1898, would evoke controversy.In the past decades, Mr. Yan‟s principle has always been regarded as aplumb-line for measuring the professional level of translation and a goal for translators to strive after. However, in the application of this principle, people come to find some unsatisfactory aspects of the three-character guide and have put foreword a variety of new standards or criteria of translation.Despite a variety of opinions, two criteria are almost unanimously accepted by all, namely, the criterion of faithfulness/accuracy (忠实/准确) and that of smoothness (流畅). We may also take these two criteria as the principles of scientific literature translation. By faithfulness/accuracy, we mean to be faithful not only to the original contents, to the original meaning and views, but also to the original form and style. By smoothness, we mean not only easy and readable rendering, but also idiomatic expression in the target language, free from stiff formula and mechanical copying from dictionaries.3. Literal Translation and Free TranslationThe process of translation consists of two phases: comprehension and expression.Generally speaking, comprehension is of foremost importance, and expression is the natural consequence of thorough comprehension. However, in the practice we may find that now and then some words or phrases in their usual senses are very difficultto deal with because of the disparity between English and Chinese. In this case, we have to resort to some special means of translation. Literal translation (直译) and free translation (意译) are two dynamic approaches in dealing with such awkward situations.The so-called literal translation, superficially speaking, means “not to alter the original words and sentences”; strictly speaking, it strives “to keep the s entiments and style of the original.” It takes sentences as its basic units and takes the whole text (discourse) into consideration at the same time in the course of translation. Furthermore, it strives to reproduce both the ideological content and the style of the original works and retains as much as possible the figures of speech. There are quite a lot of examples of successful literal translation that have been adopted as idiomatic Chinese expressions. For example, crocodile‟s tears (鳄鱼的眼泪), armed to the teeth (武装到牙齿), chain reaction (连锁反应), gentlemen‟s agreement (君子协定), and so on. Similarly, some Chinese idioms also find their English counterparts through literal translation. For example, 纸老虎(paper tiger),一国两制(one country, two systems ), and so on.Free translation is an alternative approach which is used mainly to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without trying to reproduce its sentence patterns or figures of speech. This approach is most frequently adopted when it is really impossible for the translator to do literal translation. For example:Adam‟s Apple 喉结at sixes and sevens 乱七八槽It rains cats and dogs. 大雨滂沱Don‟t cross the bridge till you get to it. 不必担心过早。
Unit1 Text A 石油1油，和煤一样，存在于沉积岩中，而且可能由死去很长时间的生物有机体形成。
含有石油的岩石几乎都来源于海洋，所以形成石油的有机物一定是海洋生物，而不是树木。
2 石油，并不是来自于逐渐积聚的木质物质，而可能是来自于逐渐积聚的海洋生物的脂肪物质。
比如浮游生物：大量浮游在海水表层的单细胞生物。
3 有机物的脂肪物质主要由碳氢原子组成，因此并不需要太多的化学变化就可以形成石油。
生物有机体只需在缺氧的条件下沉积到海湾浅水处的淤泥里。
其脂肪不是分解腐烂，而是逐渐积聚，并在深层的淤泥里圈闭起来，进而经过细微的原子重组，最终形成石油。
4 油比水轻，呈液态，会经由上方覆盖的孔隙性岩石向上渗透，在地球上有些地区到达表层，古人将这些表层石油称为沥青、柏油或异庚烷。
在古代和中世纪，这些石油油苗常被看作药品而不是燃料。
5 当然，表层的油苗数量很少。
而石油油藏上方有时覆盖的是非孔隙性岩石。
石油向上渗透抵达该岩石，然后在岩石下方逐渐积聚形成油层。
若在上方的岩石上钻个孔，石油就可以通过该孔向上迁移。
有时压力过大，石油会向高空喷出。
1859年在宾夕法尼亚州，由埃德温·德雷克成功打出第一口井。
6 如果可以发现一个合适的地点（勘探人员已经识别出地下可能圈闭有石油的地层结构），那么就很容易抽取这一液体燃料，这要比派人到地下把大块的固体煤炭砍成小块要容易得多。
而且一旦获得石油，可以通过地上管道运输，而不必像煤一样，由运货车经过繁重的装卸任务来运输。
7 石油便于抽取，易于运输，促进了石油的应用。
石油可以蒸馏成不同的馏分，每种馏分均由特定大小的分子组成，分子越小，该馏分就越容易蒸发。
8 到19世纪下半叶，最重要的石油馏分是由中等大小的分子构成的煤油，它不易蒸发，被用于照明。
9 然而，到19世纪末人们研制出了内燃机。
内燃机是通过在汽缸里将空气与可燃气体混合，产生爆炸来提供动力的。
最便利的可燃气体是汽油——石油的又一馏分，由小分子构成，容易蒸发。
1all elements are composed of scattered units called atoms,which are the smallest particles than show the characteristics of the element. atoms are tiny units of matter composed of positively charged protons, negatively charged elements ,and electrically neutral neutrons. protons and neutrons, which have almost the same mass,are clustered in the nucleus in the middle of the atom. electrons,which are tiny in comparison to the other units, move around the nucleus at high speed. atoms that have the same number of electrons and protons are electrically neutral. those that have got or lost electrons,and therefor are positively or negatively charged, are called ions.所有的元素都称为原子的散射单元，这是比显示的元件的特性的最小的颗粒组成。
原子是微小单位的物质组成的带正电的质子，带负电荷的元件和电中性的中子。
质子和中子，它们具有几乎相同的质量，聚集在细胞核内的原子在中间。
的电子，这在其他单位相比是微小的，围绕原子核高速移动。
具有相同的电子和质子数的原子是电中性的。
1-2 美国政府计划推出一个重大机构间主动培育，纳米技术称为爆炸性增长的科学兴趣的行为的材料在纳米尺度。
国家科学基金会（基金会），它支持大多数大学的研究，在纳米科学和有可能导致倡议，报告说，它可以基金只有13%的拨款申请，它接收到的领域，而40%的成功率在许多学科在办事处。
3 资金竞争领域中是“绝对凶残，”斯坦说，威廉姆斯，头的基础研究在惠普和积极支持的倡议。
威廉姆斯喜欢的纳米技术纳米技术因为后者已成为柏油的幻想的索赔代表它。
4 “问题是，纳米技术已经过头了，”他说，“我们没有恐惧与厌恶，有些人认为，联想长期愿景的一个厂安置在一个火柴盒。
5 相反，越来越多的认识材料在纳米尺度，在尺寸可比的长度个别分子，可能是把大型产品和过程。
”这是不需要的小东西，它可能是在汽车，”解释克罗可的国家科学基金会的工程，谁主持一个机构间工作组，正在规划的倡议。
”利用纳米技术是非常广泛的，但所有领域，它使用相同的工具和方法。
”6 也许最壮观的应用迄今使用巨磁电阻在1988发现。
在读取头的计算机磁盘驱动器。
相关现象的隧道磁阻不久将允许生产的快速和紧凑的随机存取存储器计算机。
7 但是，正如威廉姆斯指出的，迫在眉睫的纳米技术的应用远远超出了计算机行业。
柯达，他说，发展纳米颗粒称为“染色精”-一个跨之间的粉末颜料和染料分子在印刷图像使用。
轮胎制造商计划和纳米粘土与橡胶轮胎，收尾的聚合物分子和大大延长轮胎的使用寿命。
而五分之四的可能的药物疗法，不可测试的患者因为它们是不溶于水，能产生纳米粒子在水中悬浮，并可能因此成为可行的治疗候选人。
8 所有这种潜力是吸引注意在华盛顿，在支持研究倡议越来越多。
在年度预算准则分发给机构可能，杰克卢主任，管理和预算办公室在白宫，尼尔巷，主任办公室的科学和技术政策，确定纳米技术作为一种成熟的特殊机构间关注。
上月，听证会在众议院和参议院概述了潜在的领域。
9 这一切指向重大加入纳米技术倡议的预算提案的2001财年，，克林顿总统向国会明年二月。
科技英语阅读与翻译全文Humanitarian Aid in SpaceSpace exploration technology will benefit developing countries in a variety of ways. Whether it's information about climate change or communication technologies that give remote areas access to the world outside, space science can come to the aid of vulnerable people in many countries.For the past two decades, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) has been sending humanitarian aid dispatched from its space platform. This ambitious project has proved successful, and it’s been praised for its achievements in various aspects.The two strategic areas set forth for JAXA’s humanitarian aid effort are science and education. JAXA’s donations of books and puzzle sets are enabling elementary and junior high school kids in India to study science and math. There are plans to utilize remote sensing data to map out natural resources in Nepalese countryside and expand education related to environmental issues in Vietnam. In addition the agency is sending educational videos to the island nation of Palau tobetter understand their own local wildlife.JAXA is considered to be a pioneer in this area since the launch of their humanitarian aid initiative in 1997. The organization strives to make use of space applications for social welfare and reduce disparities in the world through a number of practical endeavors. The effort currently has a global reach, with projects taking place in seven continent, from Latin America to Africa.JAXA’s humanitarian aid programs will continue to grow with better technology and increased resources. The ongoing work reinforces the concept that space science and technology have the potential to contribute to enhancing the lives of people on Earth.人道主义援助在太空太空探索技术将在各个方面受益于发展中国家。
第一单元自动化第二部分阅读A自动化的含义“自动化”已经是，而且现在仍然是，一个被大量滥用的词。
但是，人们对其确切的意义以及所包括的内容，正在逐渐地有了较为正确的了解。
如果不是下一个定义的话，我也许可以尝试作些解释，把自动化说成是一个概念。
运用这个概念，人们通过对机器装置的性能进行充分的测量、观察和控制，从而使其以最高的效率运转。
这需要对这种装置的功能有一个详细而连贯性的了解，以便需要时便能运用最佳的矫正操作。
自动化按其确切的意义，只有全面运用通信、计算和控制三个主要组成部分（“三C" )才能完全实现。
我认为，确保人们对合为一体的三个组成部分对我们的社会所蕴含着的某些意义有所认识和了解，是很有必要的。
首先，我们不妨考虑工业部门之一的炼钢工业。
在炼钢工业中，自动化已经开始成型。
到过钢厂的人都会知道从高炉开始的各种工艺流程的一些情况，成品条钢或板钢生产出来之后，再准备送往制造工艺车间或汽车厂，这些工艺流程是相互链接的。
为了使工厂中各个车间充分发挥效率，可以使用计算机来控制每个车间。
在此之前，计算机工作所需要的一切资料均输入机内。
就高炉来说，需要给计算机提供装人高炉的原料的信息、高炉工作温度的信息和处理各种各样配料的最好方法等方面的资料。
钢厂的高炉操作是一项复杂而要求技术熟练的作业，需要大量的知识和大量的综合信息，并迅速地做出判定选择，以便确保高炉工艺流程中的下一阶段的有效工作。
计算机对所有这一切都了解得很透彻，能够做出非常大量的中间判定，并且能够把全部信息立刻和不间断地提供给管理人员，以使他们做出高效管理这个工厂所需要的最后决定。
由此产生的信息数据和判定要进行处理，然后转送到下一个工序。
在这里，对操作的一些专门细节再次进行整理，提出最佳和最终的判定，然后对这些信息再一次进行处理并输送给下一道工序。
同时，当信息数据从生产单元的一道工序输送到下一工序并完全结合成为一项新的操作时，每次变化的结果反馈到最初阶段，而且，不断地做进一步的调整，结果是整个工厂的工艺流程便能够高效率地进行下去。
Unit 1 general description of literature reading and translation1.Definition of LiteratureLiterature is a general term for professional writings in the form of books, papers, and other documentations.As an important means for preserving knowledge, literatures have become precious resources or treasures for the mankind, which have greatly contributed to the social progress of the human race.2.Classification of Literature1) Textbooks（课本） a kind of professional writing（一种专业的写作）2) Monographs（专著） various viewpoints and discussions3) Papers（论文） the theoretical analysis and experimental descriptiontitle, author, affiliation, abstract, keywords, introduction, theoretical analysis and/or experimental description, results and discussion or conclusion, acknowledgments, references4) Encyclopedias(百科全书) every branch of knowledge5) Periodicals （期刊） a series of publications6)Special Documentation（特殊文档） all the printed materials3.Linguistic Features of Scientific Literaturestylistically (文体上) scientific literature is a kind of form writing;syntactically（结构上）scientific literature has rigorous grammatical structures and in most cases is rather unitary;Morphologically（语法上）scientific literaure is featured by high specialization,the use of technical terms and jargons ,unambiguous implication and the fixed sense of the wordPrinciples or Criteria of TranslationWhenever principles or criteria of translation are under discussion in China, Yan Fu’s three- character guide”-----xin, da, ya, namely, faithfulness (信), expressiveness (达), and elegance (雅). These three principle has always been regarded as a plumb-line for measuring the professional level of translation and a goal for translators to strive after. However, in the application of this principle, people come to find some unsatisfactory aspects of the three-character guide and have put foreword a variety of new standards or criteria of translation. Despite a variety of opinions, two criteria are almost unanimously accepted by all, namely, the criterion of faithfulness/accuracy (忠实/准确) and that of smoothness (流畅). We may also take these two criteria as the principle scientific literature translation. By faithful/accuracy, we mean to be faithful not only to the original contents, to the original meaning and views, but also to the original form and style. By smoothness, we mean not only easy and readable rendering, but also idiomatic expression in the target language, free form stiff formula and mechanical copying form dictionaries.Unit 2 professional papers2.1.Definition of professional papersA professional paper is a typewritten paper in which professionals present their views and research findings on a chosen topic. It is variously known as the “research paper”, “course paper”, “thesis paper” or “library paper”. The task of the author of a paper is essentially the same: to read on a particular topic, gather information about it, and report the findings in it.2.2.Classification of professional papers1)Report PaperThe report paper summarizes and reports the findings of another on a particular subject. The writer neither judges nor evaluates the findings, but merely catalogs them in a sensible sequence2) Research paperA research paper can be intelligent, well informed, interesting, and original in its conclusions.3) Course Papercourse papers are written after a specific course is learned or are designed at the end of a term. This type of paper is, therefore, also called “term paper”.4) Thesis Paperthe thesis paper takes a definite stand on an issue. A thesis is a proposition or point of view that a writer or speaker is willing to argue against or defend. A paper that argued for ratification of a certain event would therefore be a thesis paper. Writing a thesis paper requires a writer to exercise judgment, evaluate evidence, and construct a logical argument, whereas writing a report paper does not2.3. Linguistic Features of Professional PapersFormal Style: A professional paper deals with the study of some objective facts or problems, and the conclusion that is drawn should be based on relevant data, not on personal likes and dislikes. Specialized Terms:The terms in professional papers are typically specialized. Even in the same field, the meanings of the same word may vary slightly due to its different collections.Take the word “normal” as an example. Generally, it means “iEee”; but in mathematics, it represents “法线”; and in the field of chemistry, “当量” Again the word “power.” In electronics, it is rendered as “电力” or “电源”; in mechanics, “动力”; whereas in mathematics, “幂”Rigid Sentence Structure:The arguments in professional papers will be convincing if they are presented concisely and concretely. A rigid sentence structure is therefore reflected to meet this requirement.Formatted Elements:Though there are no set rules, a complete professional paper in its finished form usually has a regular format composed of the following elements: the title, author(s), affiliation(s), abstract, keywords, introduction, body of the paper (theoretical description including calculation, inference, reasoning, conclusion, etc. or experimental description including techniques, methods, materials, results and analysis, etc.), acknowledgments, appendices, references or bibliography, etc.Different meaning of story(1)This war is becoming the most important story of this generation. Event这场战争将成为这一代人经历的最重大的事件。
第一单元什么是罗素悖论？约翰·T·鲍德温，奥利弗·莱斯曼撰胡志国译罗素悖论是建立在这样的实例基础之上的：想象有一群理发师，他们（给所有，而且）只给不给自己刮胡子的人刮胡子。
假设这个集体中有一个理发师，他不给自己刮胡子，那么，按照这个集体的定义，他就必须给自己刮胡子。
但这个集体中的任何理发师都不能给自己刮胡子。
（否则，他就是在给自己刮胡子的人刮胡子了。
）伯特兰·罗素1901年发现的这个悖论是对他的一位数学同行的打击。
十九世纪晚期，戈特洛布·弗雷格试图通过符号逻辑为所有的数学建立一个基础。
他在形式表达式（如x=2）和数学特征（如偶数）之间建立了一种对应关系。
在他的推导中，人们可以随意使用任何特征为后来的特征定义。
罗素在他1903年出版的《数学原理》中公布了自己的悖论，证明了弗雷格系统存在根本缺陷。
在今天看来，这类系统最好通过所谓的集的结构式用集合的概念来描述。
例如，对于由数字4、5、6组成的集体，我们可以描述为：x是一个整数的集体，若用字母n表示这些整数，则n大于3小于7。
对这一集合的描述，在形式上我们写作x={n: n为整数，3<n<7}。
集合的对象不一定是数字。
我们可以设y={x：x为美国男性居民}。
很明显，对x的任何描述都可以填入冒号后的区域。
但罗素（恩斯特·策梅洛也独立地）发现，x={a: a不属于a}会导致矛盾的结论，就像对理发师集体的描述一样。
x自身是否属于x？无论是与否，结论都是矛盾的。
罗素发现这一悖论之后，弗雷格马上认识到他的系统被全盘推翻了。
即便如此，他无法解决这个悖论，而为了绕开这个悖论，人们在二十世纪做了许多尝试。
罗素本人对这一悖论的回答是他的“类型论”。
他分析道，之所以会产生悖论，是因为我们混淆了对数的集合的描述与对数的集合的集合的描述。
于是罗素引入了对象的分级系统：数，数的集合，数的集合的集合，等等。
这个系统曾被作为手段用于对数学基础的第一次形式化，并且在今天的某些哲学研究和计算机分支学科中仍有运用。
科技英语阅读李健版翻译UIMB standardization office【IMB 5AB- IMBK 08- IMB 2C】人类基因疗法——代价沉重，但充满希望住在克利夫兰郊区的4岁女孩阿珊蒂·德西尔维娅正躺在医院洁白的床单上接受静脉滴注。
对此，她并不在意，因为这样的情况在她长期受病痛困扰的童年里是家常便饭。
在静脉滴注管的另一端悬挂着装有特殊的透明塑料袋，那是她自己的白血球，通过基因修正来治疗她与生俱来的遗传性疾病。
一个瘦削的中年医生焦虑地凝视着这个娇小的身躯。
这是医学博士弗伦奇·安德森，当时他和他的同事迈克尔·布利斯（医学博士）、肯尼斯·卡尔沃（医学博士）都在美国国家卫生研究所工作。
那一天，他们和阿珊蒂·德西尔维娅一起跨过了一个标志性的里程碑，成为第一个在医学前沿—人类基因疗法—进行临床试验的团队。
这个消息之所以如此令人兴奋，原因很简单：多数病变都有自己的基因构成，基因疗法为治愈诸多疾病而不仅仅是缓解病痛带来了希望，其中包括诸如囊肿性纤维化等遗传性疾病，甚至是癌症这一类的慢性疾病和艾滋病等传染性疾病。
至少在理论上是这样的。
1990年9月14日进行的第一次基因治疗距今已有10年，这10年中，对事实的夸大超过了实际效果。
在世界范围内，研究者们进行了400多次临床试验来测试基因疗法治疗多种疾病的效果。
令人惊讶的是，癌症成为研究的重点，而且更让人惊奇的是，成效甚微。
洛杉矶南加利福尼亚大学的安德森说：“最初三四年大家都充满了热情，在全世界范围内进行了两三百个试验。
后来我们开始意识到在临床方面并没有真正的突破。
”全国罕见疾病组织（这是一个由患者团体组成的联合组织）主席艾比·麦尔斯更为坦率，他说：“自最初进行的临床试验，我们没有取得什么进步。
几乎没有任何结果。
在过去的十年里，我一直很失望。
”接下来，情况变得更糟。
1999年9月，在费城宾夕法尼亚大学人类基因疗法研究所，一名患者死于基因疗法引起的反应。
科技英语阅读1-9单元译文：Unit 1罗素悖论的提出是基于这样的一个事例：设想有这样一群理发师，他们只给不给自己理发的人理发。
假设其中一个理发师符合上述的条件，不给自己理发；然而按照要求，他必须要给自己理发。
但是在这个集合中没有人会给自己理发。
（如果这样的话，这个理发师必定是给别人理发还要给自己理发）1901年，伯特兰·罗素悖论的发现打击了他其中的一个数学家同事。
在19世纪后期，弗雷格尝试发展一个基本原理以便数学上能使用符号逻辑。
他确立了形式表达式（如：x =2）和数学特性（如偶数）之间的联系。
按照弗雷格理论的发展，我们能自由的用一个特性去定义更多更深远的特性。
1903年，发表在《数学原理》上的罗素悖论从根本上揭示了弗雷格这种集合系统的局限性。
就现在而言，这种类型的集合系统能很好的用俗称集的结构式来描述。
例如，我们可以用 x代表整数，通过n 来表示并且n大于3小于7，来表示4，5,6这样一个集合。
这种集合的书写形势就是：x={n：n是整数，3<n<7}。
集合中的对象并不一定是数字。
我们也可让y={x：x是美国的一个男性居民}。
表面上看，似乎任何一个关于x的描述都有一个符合要求的空间。
但是，罗素（和策梅洛一起）发现x={a：a不再a中}导致一个矛盾，就像对一群理发师的描述一样。
x它本身是在x的集合中吗？否定的答案导致了矛盾的出现。
当罗素发现了悖论，弗雷格立即就发现悖论对他的理论有致命的打击。
尽管这样，他还不能解决这个问题,并且上世纪有很多的尝试，去解决这个问题（但没有成功）。
罗素自己对这个悖论的回答促进了类型理论的形成。
他解释说，悖论的问题在于我们混淆了数集和数集的集合。
所以，罗素介绍了对象的分级系统：数、数集、数集的集合等等。
这个系统为形式化数学的形成奠定了基础，至今它还应用于哲学研究和计算机科学分支。
策梅洛对于罗素悖论的解决方法用新的公理：对于任意公式A（x）和任意集合b，都会有一个集合满足y={x：x既在b中又满足A（x）}取代了以前的公理：对于任意公式A（x），都会有一个集合满足y={x：x满足A（x）}。
Unit1A因此，可以将计算机定义为一种高速运行的电子设备，该设备以称为程序的指令和称为数据的字符形式接收信息，并对信息进行算术和/或逻辑运算，继而提供运算结果。
For this reason,computers can be defined as very-high-speed electronic device which accept information in the form of instructions called a program and characters called data,perform mathematical and/or logical operations on the information,and then supply results of these operations.计算机解决问题只需用人工所需时间的一小部分时间。
It can find the solution to a problem in a fraction of the time it takes a human being to da the job.对计算机发出指令的程序或部分程序，以及为其提供解决问题所需信息的数据均存储在计算机存储器内。
The program,or part of it,which tells the computers what to do and the data,which provide the information needed to solve the problem,are kept inside the computer in place called memory.计算机能够代替人类做单调、常规的工作，但没有独创性；计算机可以根据指令工作，但不能做任何价值判断。
A computer can replace people in dull,routine tasks,but it has no originality;it works according to the instructions given to it and cannot exercise any value judgments.如果操作者不给予指示，也不提供适当信息，计算机就什么也做不了；但由于电脉冲能以光速运行，因此计算机几乎瞬间便能处理大量算术逻辑运算。
科技英语阅读翻译第一篇：科技英语阅读翻译Before any evidence can be introduced in support of the topic at hand, the definition of invention must be established.Legally, an invention is a new, useful, and non-obvious process, machine, or product.Maurice Fabre, author of A History of LandTransportation(1963), offered an interesting take on the automobile and its inventor.“who, for that matter ,can say who invented the automobile? Was it Cugnot with his lumbering 'fardier' of 1769? Was it Trevithick with his steam carriage of 1801, or Benz or Daimler with their first successful internal combustion gasoline engine cars of 1886?It depends what you mean by an automobile.” in the year 2001, what do we consider th e automobile to be ? I invite the reader to take a minute to look out the window.I see a street lined with cars.Many of these cars possess similar shapes and sizes.In fact, some of them are the same make and model, only different colors.What does this tell us about the modern automobile? The modern automobile is not a single vehicle;it is a collection of millions of cars designed for utilization by a mass market.In fact, we could argue that the modern automobile is a giant technological system that entails a way of life.Entire economies depend on this automobile.Engineers design the components, machinists manufacture the components, assemblers assemble the components into complete systems, truck drivers deliver the assembled product, and salesmen sell the product to the masses.This brief description does not even account for the office workers who handle logistics and maintain financial accounts,or the separate companies that mine raw materials or design and manufacture the needed machine tools.What would the economy of the United States be like without the modern automobile?Obviously, the modern automobile and self propelled vehicle are necessarily the same.翻译：在任何证据被介绍来支持这个主题以前，必须建立发明的定义。
Unit 1 EnvironmentEarth’s Health in Sharp Decline, Massive Study Finds大规模研究发现：地球的“健康”每况愈下The report card has arrived from the largest ever scientific Earth analysis, and many of the planet’s ecosystems are simply not making the grade.有史以来对地球进行的最大规模的科学分析结果表明，地球上的许多生态系统都达不到标准。
The UN-backed Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Synthesis Report found that nearly two-thirds of Earth’s life-supporting ecosystems, including clean water, pure air, and stable climate, are being degraded by unsustainable use.由联合国主持的《千年生态系统评估综合报告》指出，由于不可持续的使用，地球上将近三分之二的用来维持生命的生态系统（包括干净的水源、纯净的空气以及稳定的气候）正遭受破坏。
Human has caused much of this damage during the past half century. Soaring demand for food, fresh water, timber, fiber and fuel have led to dramatic environmental changes, from deforestation to chemical pollution, the report says. The already grim situation may worsen dramatically during the first half of the 21st century, the report’s authors warn.以上大部分的破坏都是人类在过去的半个世纪里造成的。
科技文献阅读与翻译原文红色字体为参考答案，自己酌情修改一下，以免雷同。
Section AI Read the text carefully, and try to sum up (in one sentence if possible) the two or three main points, which the writer is makingGun controlA student of the gun control issue will readily perceive the arena is indeed a broad one, in which we must struggle to preserve the right to keep and bear arms. It is a struggle which will test whatever there might be of genius in any of us and it is one which will merit the devoted efforts of every citizen who in the broadest sense can perceive the relationships which our Bill of Rights liberties bear one to another.I suggest we begin our affirmative role immediately in the area of crime control. The truth is that gun control does not equate with crime control. We have an advantage in this fact which we have neither exploited nor advanced convincingly. It is demonstrable that in those sections of the country where gun possession is most prevalent, crime is least. Encouragingly, many moderate and reasonable men among our opponents are beginning to see that our problem is crime control and that gun control is not going to have much, if any, effect upon it. Of course,for reasons-of their own, some of them still say gun control is desirable. For these people we can only wonder, as would any good citizen, what it is they have in mind for us that our possession of guns makes them so nervous.As long as we concur that any measure of gun control equates with some measure of crime control we are in agreement with those who would eliminate our rights. We would then again be backed into defensive position, held for forty years, always losing a little here and a little there unfit finally nothing would be left us.No group of good citizens has ever struggled more conscientiously along the narrow pathway, between hope and moderation on one hand, and the cold facts of efforts to abolish our rights on the other, than the leaders of the National Rifle Association. Every gun owner in America should applaud the action taken by the Executive Committee of the NRA in Washington, D.C. on July 12, 1974: ‘...the NRA opposes any proposed legislation, at any level of government, which is directed against the inanimate firearm rather than against the criminal misuse of firearms.A reasonable degree of order in society must prevail first. Criminals must be controlled first. we are the decent people. We try to be reasonable and we are not fools even though we have so often made mistakes in the past 40 years.many people turn to England as an example for crime control. The fact isthat in England, for hundreds of years, a man found guilty of any one of number of crimes was promptly hanged. Now that a more humanistic generation of Englishmen has lately abolished these stern but effective methods, crime-including armed crime - is sky-rocketing. Recently armed Englishmen, amid a hail of their own bullets, attempted to kidnap the eldest daughter of the reigning Queen of England! Unbelievable! (From an article in Guns and Ammo by Harlan Carter)Suggested answer.The writer believes that gun-owners are good citizens, and everyone should be free to own guns. If we wish to reduce crime, we should not ban guns, but impose harsher punishments for criminals.II In a paragraph of not more than 100 words, say simply what the witnesses thought happened, and what really happened.A séanceA good example of this technique of investigating the reliability of reports is an experiment reported by S·J Davey. He was interested in the kind of phenomena reported during séances and, using quite simple trickery, which he had planned in advance, he reproduced some of the effects popular among the mediums of the day. His audiences were asked to write down accounts of what they had witnessed, and these observations were then compared with what actually happened. Here is a report written by one witness of such a séance. `On entering the dining-room where the séance was held’, so the report runs, every article of furniture was searched and Mr. Davey turned out his pockets.The door was locked and seated, the gas turned out, and they all sat round the table holding hands, including Mr Davey. A musical box on the table played and floated about. Knockings were heard and bright lights seen. The head of a woman appeared, came close and dematerialized. A half-figure of a man was seena few seconds later .He bowed and then disappeared through the ceiling with a scraping noise..’Another witness also described the searching of the room, the sealing of the door, and the disposition of the medium and sitters round the table. the medium and sitters round the table, She alleged that a female head appeared in a strong light and afterwards a bearded man reading a book, who disappeared through the ceiling.A11 the while Mr. Davey’s hands were held tightly by the sitters on either side, and when the gas was relit the door was still locked and the seal unbroken.A third witness’s account was even more sensational. He reported that ‘nothing was prepared beforehand, the séance was quite casual’. Having described the locking and sealing of the door, he went on to say that he was touched by a cold, clammy hand and heard various raps. After that he saw a bluish-white light which hovered over the heads of the sitters and gradually developed into an apparition that was ‘frightful in itsugliness, but so distinct that everyone could see it .... The features were distinct ... a kind of hood covered the head, and the whole resembled the head of a mummy’. After this an even more wonderful spirit appeared. It began with a streak of light and developed by degrees into a bearded man of Oriental appearance. His eyes were stony and fixed, with a vacant listless expression. At the end of the séance the door was still locked and the seal was intact.So much for some of the reports. Now for the reality. The séance was not a casual affair at all, but had been carefully rehearsed beforehand. At the beginning, Mr Davey went through the motion of apparently locking the door, but he turned the key back again so that the door was actually left unlocked. The ‘props’ for the materializations had been stowed away in a cupboard underneath a bookshelf; this was not looked into by the witnesses who searched the room because, just as they were about to do so, Mr Davey diverted their attention by emptying his pockets to show that he had nothing hidden on his person. The phenomena were produced by a confederate who came in by the unlocked door after the lights had been turned out, and while the musical box was playing loudly to drown the noise of his entry. The ‘apparition offrightful ugliness’ was a mask draped in muslin with a cardboard collar coated with luminous paint. The second spirit was the confederate himself, standing on the back of Mr Davey’s chair, his face faintly illuminated by phosphorescent light fromthe pages of a book he was holding. The rasping noise made when the spirits seemed to disappear through the ceiling was caused accidentally, but interpreted by the witnesses according to their conception of what was happening. When the light was turned on the gummed paper that had been used to seal the door had fallen off, but Mr Davey quickly pressed it back into position and then called the witnesses’ attention to the fact that it was ‘still intact.’ Mr Davey’s performances were so convincing that some leading investigators, including the biologist A. R. Wallace, F. R. S., refused to believe him when he said that he had no mediumistic powers and it had all been done by trickery. In effect the conjurer was challenged to prove that he was not a medium!(From Sense and Nonsense in Psychology by H. J. EysenckSuggested answer.The witnesses thought the room was locked, and that they were alone with Mr Davey. They believed that they saw various supernatural phenomena, such as the spirits of a man and a woman, accompanied by strange lights and noises. In fact, the door was not locked, and the effects were produced by a colleague of Mr Davey who came into the room under cover of darkness and the noise of the musical box. He used materials which had been hidden in a cupboard that was not searched because Mr Davey distracted people’s attention at a crucial moment.Read the following text and make notes.HOW CHILDREN FAILMost children in school fail.For a great many this failure is avowed and absolute. Close to forty per cent of those who begin high school drop out before they finish. For college the figure is one in three.Many others fail in fact if not in name. They complete their schooling only because we have agreed to push them up through the grades and out of the schools, whether they know anything or not. There are many more such children than we think. If we 'raise our standards' much higher, as some would have us do, we will find out very soon just how many there are. Our classrooms will bulge with kids who can't pass the test to get into the next class.But there is a more important sense in which almost all children fail: except for a handful, who may or may not be good students, they fail to develop more than a tiny part of the tremendous capacity for learning, understanding, and creating with which they were born and of which they made full use during the first two or three years of their lives.Why do they fail?They fail because they are afraid, bored, and confused.They are afraid, above all else, of failing, of disappointing or displeasing the many anxious adults around them, whose limitless hopes and expectations for them hang over their heads like a cloud.They are bored because the things they are given and told to do in school are so trivial, so dull, and make such limited and narrow demands on the wide spectrum of their intelligence, capabilities, and talents.They are confused because most of the torrent of words that pours over them in school makes little or no sense. It often flatly contradicts other things they have been told, and hardly ever has any relation to what they really know - to the rough model of reality that they carry around in their minds.How does this mass failure take place? What really goes on in the classroom? What are these children who fail doing? What goes on in their heads? Why don't they make use of more of their capacity?This book is the rough and partial record of a search for answers to these questions. It began as a series of memos written in the evenings to my colleague and friend Bill Hull, whose fifth-grade class I observed and taught in during the day. Later these memos were sent to other interested teachers and parents. A small number of these memos make up this book. They have not been much rewritten, but they have been edited and rearranged under four major topics: Strategy; Fear and Failure; Real Learning; and How Schools Fail. Strategy deals with the ways in whichchildren try to meet, or dodge, the demands that adults make on them in school. Fear and Failure deals with the interaction in children of fear and failure, and the effect of this on strategy and learning. RealLearning deals with the difference between what children appear to know or are expected to know, and what they really know. How SchoolsFail analyses the ways in which schools foster bad strategies, raise children's fears, produce learning which is usually fragmentary, distorted, and short-lived, and generally fail to meet the real needs of children. These four topics are clearly not exclusive. They tend to overlap and blend into each other. They are, at most, different ways of looking at and thinking about the thinking and behaviour of children.It must be made clear that the book is not about unusually bad schools or backward children. The schools in which the experiences described here took place are private schools of the highest standards and reputation. With very few exceptions, the children whose work is described are well above the average in intelligence and are, to all outward appearances, successful, and on their way to 'good' secondary schools and colleges. Friends and colleagues, who understand what I am trying to say about the harmful effect of today's schooling on the character and intellect of children, and who have visited many more schools than I have, tell me that the schools I have not seen are not a bit better than those I have, and very often are worse.How children fail by John Holt, Pitman, 1965Suggested answer.HOW CHILDREN FAILMost children in school fail.o High School - forty per cento College - thirty three per cent.o Others in fact if not name - complete becausepushed, know anythingo But, more importantly, fail to developfull capacity for learning.Why ? Fail because: afraid, bored, and confused.o afraid of failing, disappointing adultso bored because they given trivial, dull, thingsto doo confused because most of school makes littleor no sense, flatly contradicts other things ,no relation to what they really knowHow? Search for answers to questions:o Strategy - ways in which children try to meet, ordodge, the demands made on themo Fear and Failure - interaction in children of fearand failure, + effect on strategy and learning.o Real Learning - compares what childrenappear to know with what really know.o How Schools Fail - ways: schools foster badstrategies; raise children's fears; producefragmentary, distorted & short-lived learning;fail to meet real needsRead the following text quickly and answer the questions.1.When were X-rays discovered?2.Who discovered them?3.What are the four characteristics of X-rays?The Discovery of X-raysExcept for a brief description of the Compton effect, and a few other remarks, we have postponed the discussion of X-rays until the present chapter because it is particularly convenient to treat X-ray spectra after treating optical spectra. Although this ordering may have given the reader a distorted impression of the historical importance of X-rays, this impression will be corrected shortly as we describe the crucial role played by X-rays in the development of modern physics.X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Roentgen while studying the phenomena of gaseous discharge. Using a cathode ray tube with a high voltage of several tens of kilovolts, he noticed that salts of barium would fluoresce when brought near the tube, although nothing visible was emitted by the tube. This effect persisted when the tube was wrapped with a layer of black cardboard. Roentgen soon established that theagency responsible for the fluorescence originated at the point at which the stream of energetic electrons struck the glass wall of the tube. Because of its unknown nature, he gave this agency the name X-rays. He found that X-rays could manifest themselves by darkening wrapped photographic plates, discharging charged electroscopes, as well as by causing fluorescence in a number of different substances. He also found that X-rays can penetrate considerable thicknesses of materials of low atomic number, whereas substances of high atomic number are relatively opaque. Roentgen took the first steps in identifying the nature of X-rays by using a system of slits to show that (1) they travel in straight lines, and that (2) they are uncharged, because they are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields.The discovery of X-rays aroused the interest of all physicists, and many joined in the investigation of their properties. In 1899 Haga and Wind performed a single slit diffraction experiment with X-rays which showed that (3) X-rays are a wave motion phenomenon, and, from the size of the diffraction pattern, their wavelength could be estimated to be 10-8 cm. In 1906 Barkla proved that (4) the waves are transverse by showing that they can be polarized by scattering from many materials.There is, of course, no longer anything unknown about the nature of X-rays. They are electromagnetic radiation of exactly the same nature as visible light, except that their wavelength is several orders of magnitudeshorter. This conclusion follows from comparing properties 1 through 4 with the similar properties of visible light, but it was actually postulated by Thomson several years before all these properties were known. Thomson argued that X-rays are electromagnetic radiation because such radiation would be expected to be emitted from the point at which the electrons strike the wall of a cathode ray tube. At this point, the electrons suffer very violent accelerations in coming to a stop and, according to classical electromagnetic theory, all accelerated charged particles emit electromagnetic radiations. We shall see later that this explanation of the production of X-rays is at least partially correct.In common with other electromagnetic radiations, X-rays exhibit particle-like aspects as well as wave-like aspects. The reader will recall that the Compton effect, which is one of the most convincing demonstrations of the existence of quanta, was originally observed with electromagnetic radiation in the X-ray region of wavelengths.AnswersRead the following text quickly and answer the questions.1.When were X-rays discovered?2.Who discovered them?3.What are the four characteristics of X-rays?1.18952.Roentgen3.1. they travel in straight lines2. they are uncharged3. they are a wave motion phenomenon4. the waves are transverseSection DTranslate the following passage into Chinese:When you are researching, write down every idea, fact, quotation, or paraphrase on a separate index card. Small (5" by 3") cards are easiest to work with. When you've collected all your cards,reshuffle them into the best possible order, and you have an outline, though you will undoubtedly want to reduce this outline to the essential points should you transcribe it to paper.A useful alternative involves using both white and coloured cards. When you come up with a point that you think may be one of the main points in your outline, write it at the top of a coloured card.Put each supporting note on a separate white card, using as much of the card as necessary. When you feel ready, arrange the coloured cards into a workable plan. Some of the points may not fit in. If so, either modify the plan or leave these points out. You may need to fill gaps by creating new cards.You can shuffle your supporting material into the plan by placing each of the white cards behind the point it helps support.当你正在研究,写下每一个想法,事实上,报价,或意译在单独的索引卡。
Unit1 text A福岛的燕子我们对低剂量辐射对生物体和生态系统的影响知之甚少。
福岛核灾难四年后，科学家们开始得到一些答案。
By Steven Featherstone 直到1986年4月26日切洛贝利核电站的一个反应堆发生爆炸，在整个北半球扩散了相当于400枚广岛核弹的辐射尘，对于辐射对植被和野生动物的影响科学家几乎一无所知。
这场灾难创造了一个活生生的实验室，特别是在爆炸地点周围1100平方英里的地方，被称为禁区。
1994年，德克萨斯理工大学生物学教授罗纳德·切斯尔（Ronald Chesser）和罗伯特·贝克（Robert Baker）都是首批获准进入该区域的美国科学家。
我们抓到了一群田鼠，它们看起来像杂草一样健康。
贝克回忆说：“我们开始对它着迷。
当贝克和切斯对田鼠的DNA进行测序时，他们没有发现异常突变率。
他们还注意到，狼、猞猁和其他曾经稀有的物种在该区域游荡，仿佛它是一个原子野生动物保护区。
切洛贝利论坛由联合国一些机构于2003年成立，发表了一份关于切洛贝利利灾难20周年的报告，证实了这一观点，声称“环境改变对该地区的生物群产生了积极影响”，将其转变为“一个独特的生物多样性保护区”。
在Baker和Chesser对该地区进行田鼠研究的五年后，Timothy A.Mousseau 前往切洛贝利对鸟类进行了计数，发现了相互矛盾的证据。
南卡罗来纳大学生物学教授穆索和他的合作者现任巴黎南部大学生态，系统学与进化实验室的研究主任-- Anders Pape Moller，特别的研究了常见的乡村谷仓燕（Hirundo Rustica）。
他们发现该地区的燕子少得多，幸存下来的燕子寿命较短，生育力降低（男性），大脑较小，肿瘤，部分白化病（一种基因突变）和白内障发生率较高。
Mousseau 和Moller在过去13年发表的60多篇论文中表明，暴露于低水平辐射对该区域的整个生物圈（从微生物到哺乳动物，从虫子到鸟类）都有负面影响。
