环境工程专业英语unit1 华南理工大学钟理

环境工程专业英语翻译(1)Unit one Environmental Engineering环境工程What is this book about？这本书是关于什么的？The objective of this book is to introduce engineering and science students to the interdisciplinary study of environment problems；their cause，why they are of concern，and how we can control them. The book includes:这本书的目的是使理工科的学生了解跨学科间的研究环境问题;它们的起因，为什么它们受到关注，以及我们怎样控制它们。

这本书包括：●Description of what is meant by environment and environmental systems描述环境和环境系统意味着什么●Information on the basic causes of environmental disturbances关于引起环境干扰基础原因的基本信息●Basic scientific knowledge necessary to understand the nature of environmental problems and to be able to quantify them 理解环境问题本质，并能够定量计算它们所必要的基本科学知识●Current state of the technology of environmental control in its application to water，air and pollution problems目前适用于水，空气和环境污染问题的环境控制技术的现状●Considerable gaps in our current scientific knowledge of understanding and controlling many of the complex interactions between human activities and nature我们目前的科学知识在理解和控制人类活动和自然之间复杂的相互作用的科学知识上存在相当大的缺陷●Many environmental problems which could be eliminated or reduced by the application of current technology，but which are not dealt with because of society’s lack of will to do so，or in many instance because of a lack of resources to do so.许多环境问题可以应用现有技术消除或减少，但没有得到处理是因为社会缺乏这样做的意愿，或者像许多例子那样因为缺乏资源。

《环境工程专业英语》课程教学大纲一、课程基本信息课程代码：260445课程名称：专业英语英文名称：English on Environmental Engineering课程类别：专业选修课学时：36（讲授36学时）学分：2.0适用对象:环境工程、环境科学考核方式：考试，期评成绩中考试成绩占70%，平时成绩为30%。

先修课程：水污染控制工程、环境保护概论、环境监测二、课程简介中文简介当前，我国对环境保护工作日益重视，可持续发展的政策逐步深入人心，国家对环保投资力度不断加大，带动了环保产业和相关空间发展。

随着国内与国外的沟通交流，需要系统地了解国外环境工程方面的发展状况，为后期的毕业论文的选题、开展、撰写论文打下基础。

环境工程专业英语是高等学校环境工程专业的一门选修专业课，通过这门课程的学习，提供一个机会，较全面地了解环境工程学科的内容，发展趋势;另一方面督促学生在英文写作时尽可能地模仿和参考，对学生后面毕业论文的撰写打下基础。

课程分为4部分，先介绍我国环境保护政策与发展道路，国外特别是美国的环境保护政策和法律法规，第二部分是主要的环境问题，如酸雨等，第三部分是水、大气、固体废物、噪声污染的处理工艺与技术，最后一部分是英语科技论文的撰写，重点是英文文摘的撰写。

Brief introduction in EnglishAt present, our country increasingly attaches importance to the environmental protection with the policy of sustainable development gradually striking root in the hearts of the people. The country’s increasing investment on the environmental protection promotes the unprecedented development of the communication with inside and outside country, we are anxious for rather systemic English study. It is help for teaching and research-guiding of the undergraduates and postgraduates.English on environmental engineering is the specialty elective for the environmental engineering students. The main aim of the course is the to know the situation of environmental engineering field. On the other hand , the student must confer and imitate when writing.English on Environmental Engineering consists of four parts. The first part introduces the essential content of the environmental science and engineering; the environmental protection policies and development in China; the environmental protection policies and laws in other counties, especially in the United States. The second part enumerates some principal environmental problems the human beings are facing, including air pollution,water pollution ,sharp fall of forests and extinction of wildlife. The third part of this course select some techniques and technology of the disposal of contamination. The last part is about the writing article in English, especially the abstract in English.三、课程性质与教学目的环境工程专业英语是高等学校环境工程专业的一门选修专业课.通过这门课程的学习，提供一个机会,使学生较全面地了解环境工程学科的内容和发展趋势;另一方面督促学生在英文写作时尽可能地模仿和参考，对学生后面毕业论文的撰写打下基础。

Unit one Environmental Engineering环境工程What is this book about？这本书是关于什么的？The objective of this book is to introduce engineering and science students to the interdisciplinary study of environment problems；their cause，why they are of concern，and how we can control them. The book includes:这本书的目的是使理工科的学生了解跨学科间的研究环境问题;它们的起因，为什么它们受到关注，以及我们怎样控制它们。

这本书包括：Description of what is meant by environment and environmental systems描述环境和环境系统意味着什么Information on the basic causes of environmental disturbances关于引起环境干扰基础原因的基本信息Basic scientific knowledge necessary to understand the nature of environmental problems and to be able to quantify them理解环境问题本质，并能够定量计算它们所必要的基本科学知识Current state of the technology of environmental control in its application to water，air and pollution problems目前适用于水，空气和环境污染问题的环境控制技术的现状Considerable gaps in our current scientific knowledge of understanding and controlling many of the complex interactions between human activities and nature我们目前的科学知识在理解和控制人类活动和自然之间复杂的相互作用的科学知识上存在相当大的缺陷Many environmental problems which could be eliminated or reduced by the application of current technology，but which are not dealt with because of society’s lack of will to do so，or in many instance because of a lack of resources to do so.许多环境问题可以应用现有技术消除或减少，但没有得到处理是因为社会缺乏这样做的意愿，或者像许多例子那样因为缺乏资源。

Unit 13Text: Water Treatment ProcessesOne of the great achievements of modern technology has been to drastically reduce the incidence of waterborne of diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever. These diseases are no longer the great risks to pubic health that they once were. The key to this advance was the recognition that contamination of pubic water supplies by human wastes was the main source ci infection, and that it could be eliminated by more effective water treatment and better waste disposal.Tod ay’s water treatment plants are designed to provide water continuously that meets drinking water standards at the tap. There are four main considerations involved in accomplishing this1 source selection, protection of water quality, treatment methods to be used, and prevention of recontamination. Common precautions to prevent groundwater and surface water pollution include prohibiting the discharge of sanitary and storm sewers close to the water reservoir, installing fences to prevent pollution from recreational uses of water, and restrictions on the application of fertilizers and pesticides in areas that drain to the reservoir.Screening, coagulation/flocculation, sedimentation, filtration. and disinfection are the main unit operations involved in the treatment of surface water. Water treatment operationa fulfill one or more of three key tasks1 removal of particulate substances such aa sand and clay, organic matter, bacteria, and algae; removal of dissolved substances such as those causing color and hardness; and removal or destruction of pathogenic bacteria and viruses. The actual selection of treatment processes depends on the type of water source and the desired water quality.Occasionally, raw water with low turbidity can be treated by plain sedimentation (no chemicals) to remove larger particles and then filtration to remove the few particles that failed to settle out. Usually, however, particles in the raw water are too small to be removed in a reasonably short time through sedimentation and simple filtration alone. To remedy this, a chemical is added to coagulate/flocculate the small particles, called colloids, into large ones, which can then be settled out in sedimentation tanks or removed directly in filters.Removal of Particulate MatterThe unit operations employed for the removal of particulate matter from water include screening, sedimentation, coagulation/flocculation, and filtration.Screening to remove large solids such as logs, branches, rags, and small fish is the first stage in the treatment of water. Allowing such debris into the treatment plant could damage pumps and clog pipes and channels. For the same reasons, water intakes are located below the surface of the lake or river in order to exclude floating objects and minimize physical damage from ice.Sedimentation, the oldest and moat widely used form of water and wastewater treatment, uses gravity settling to remove particles from water. It is relatively simple and inexpensive and can be implemented in basins that are round, square, or rectangular. As noted earlier, sedimentation may follow coagulation and flocculation (for highly turbid water) or be omitted entirely (with moderately turbid water) .Particulates suspended in surface water can range in size from 10-1 to 10-7mm in diameter, the size of fine sand and small clay particles, respectively. Turbidity or cloudiness in water is caused by those particles larger than 10 mm, while particles smaller than 10 mm contribute to the color and taste.Coagulation/flocculation is a chemical-physical procedure whereby particles too small for practical removal by plain sedimentation are destabilized sod clustered together for faster settling©. A significant percentage of particulates suspended in water are so small that settling to the bottom of a tank would take days or weeks. These colloidal particles would never settle by plain sedimentation.Coagulation is s chemical process used to destabilize colloidal particles. The exact mechanism is not well understood, but the general ides is to add a chemical which has positively charged colloids to water containing negatively charged colloids. This will neutralize the negative change on the colloids and thus reduce the tendency for the colloids to repel each other. Rapid mixing for a few seconds is required to disperse the coagulant. Gentle mixing, called flocculation, of the suspension is then undertaken to promote particle contact. This is achieved by mechanical mixing through the use of slowly rotating paddles inside the coagulation/flocculation tank, or by hydraulic mixing which occurs when flow is directed over and around baffles in the tank. Detention time in the coagulation/flocculation tank is usually between 20—40 minutes in tanks 3—4m deep. Through the combined chemical/physical process of coagulation/flocculation, the colloidal particles which would not settle out by plain sedimentation are agglomerated to form larger solids called floe. These appear as fluffy growths of irregular shape that are able to entrap small noncoagulaed particles when settling downward. Aluminum sulfate is the most common coagulant but organic polymers may also be used alone or in combination with alum to improve flocculation. The floe suspension is gently transferred from the coagulation/flocculation tanks to settling tanks, or directly to filters where the floes are removed.DisinfectionTo ensure that water is free of harmful bacteria it is necessary to disinfect it. Chlorination® is the most common method of disinfecting public water supplies. Sufficient quantities of chlorine from chlorine gas or hypochlorites are added to treated water to kill pathogenic bacteria. Chlorination is a reliable, relatively inexpensive, and easy disinfection method to use. Other disinfectants include chloramines, chlorine dioxide, other halogens, ozone, ultraviolet light, and high temperature. Ozonation, which has been used extensively in France, is now gaining acceptance in North America, especially as an alternative to prechlorination where natural organics are present. Although effective, ozone does not leave a lasting residual for long-term disinfection.Ozoanation is the disinfection of water by adding ozone, which is a powerful oxidant of inorganic and organic impurities. Its advantages over chlorine are that it leaves no tastes or odors, and unlike chlorine, it apparently does not react with natural organics to form compounds hazardous to humans.Removal of Dissolved SubstancesAeration is used to remove excessive amounts of iron and manganese from groundwater. These substances cause taste and color problems, interfere with laundering, stain plumbing fixtures, and promote the growth of iron bacteria in water mains. By bubbling air through water, or by creating contact between air and water by spraying, dissolved iron or manganese (Fe2+ , Mn2+) is oxidized to a less soluble form (Fe3+ , Mn4+), which precipitates out and can be removed in s settling tank or filter. Aeration also removes odors caused by hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas.Softening of water is a process that removes hardness, caused by the presence of divalent metallic ions, principally Ca2+ and Mg2+. Hardness in water is the result of contact with soil and rock, particularly limestone, in the presence of CO2.Activated Carbon is an extremely adsorbent material used in water treatment to remove organic contaminants. Activated carbon is produced in a two-stage process. First, a suitable base material such as wood, pest, vegetable matter, or bone is carbonized by heating the material in the absence of air. Then the carbonized material is activated by heating it in the presence of air, CO2 , or steam to burn off any tars it has and to increase its pore size. Adsorption of gases, liquids, and solids by activated carbon is influenced by the temperature and pH of the water as well the complexity of the organics being removed.In reverse osmosis (RO), fresh water is forced through a semipermeable membrane in the direction opposite to that occurring in natural osmosis. Because the membrane removes dissolved salts, the main application for RO has been in desalination. However, the process also removes organic materials, bacteria, and viruses, and its application in water treatment is growing.。

（完整版）（整理）环境工程专业英语翻译（中英对照）Unit one Environmental Engineering环境工程What is this book about？这本书是关于什么的？The objective of this book is to introduce engineering and science students to the interdisciplinary study of environment problems；their cause，why they are of concern，and how we can control them. The book includes:这本书的目的是使理工科的学生了解跨学科间的研究环境问题;它们的起因，为什么它们受到关注，以及我们怎样控制它们。

这本书包括：●Description of what is meant by environment and environmental systems描述环境和环境系统意味着什么●Information on the basic causes of environmental disturbances关于引起环境干扰基础原因的基本信息●Basic scientific knowledge necessary to understand the nature of environmental problems and to be able toquantify them理解环境问题本质，并能够定量计算它们所必要的基本科学知识●Current state of the technology of environmental control in its application to water，air and pollution problems目前适用于水，空气和环境污染问题的环境控制技术的现状●Considerable gaps in our current scientific knowledge of understanding and controlling many of the complexinteractions between human activities and nature我们目前的科学知识在理解和控制人类活动和自然之间复杂的相互作用的科学知识上存在相当大的缺陷●Many environmental problems which could be eliminated or reduced by the application of current technology，but which are not dealt with because of society’s lack of will to do so，or in many instance because of a lack of resources to do so.许多环境问题可以应用现有技术消除或减少，但没有得到处理是因为社会缺乏这样做的意愿，或者像许多例子那样因为缺乏资源。

ContentsChapter 1 Environmental Issue 环境问题Chapter 2 Ecosystems 生态学Chapter 3 Cycling of Mineral Nutrients 矿物质循环Chapter 4 Environmental Engineering and Engineer 环境工程与工程师Chapter 5 Air Pollution 空气污染Chapter 6 Air Pollution Control——Particulate Controls 空气污染的控制——颗粒物控制Chapter 7 Air Pollution Control——Gaseous Pollutants Controls 空气污染的控制——气体污染物的控制Chapter 8 Integrated Solid Waste Management 综合固体废物处理Chapter 9 The Unit Operations and Processes Used for the Separation and Processing of Waste Materials废物分离和处理的单元操作与工艺Chapter 10 Hazardous Chemical Waste Management 有害化学废物的处理Chapter 11 Introduction to Environmental Impact Assessment 环境影响评价简介Chapter 12 Environmental Impact Assessment 环境影响评价Chapter 13 Noise and Noise Control 噪声与噪声控制Chapter 14 Environmental Law and Standards 环境法律与标准Chapter 15 Environmental Chemical Analysis 环境化学分析Chapter 16 Water, Water Cycle and Sustainable Management 水、水循环以及持续管理Chapter 17 Water Supply 供水Chapter 18 Wastewater Collection Systems 废水收集系统Chapter 19 Waste Water Engineering 废水工程Chapter 20 Wastewater Treatment Objectives, Methods, and Implementation 废水处理目标，方法和实施Chapter 21 Introduction to Wastewater Treatment Plant Design 污水处理厂设计简介Chapter 22 Wastewater Treatment 废水处理Chapter 23 Biological Nutrient Removal 生物营养物去除Chapter 24 Advanced Wastewater Treatment 高级废水处理Chapter 25 Sludge Treatment and Disposal 污泥处理与处置Chapter 5 Air Pollution 空气污染5.1 Definition of Air Pollution（空气污染的定义）Air pollution can be defined as the presence in the the outdoor atmosphere of one or more contaminants (pollutants)（空气污染可以定义为存在于室外大气中的一种或多种污染物）in such quantities and of such duration as may be (or may tend to be) injurious to human, plant, or animal life, or to property (materials), 其数量和持续时间已达到（或将会）危害人类、植物、动物生命以及财产的程度or which may unreasonably interfere with the comfortable enjoyment of life or property, or the conduct of business.（或妨碍人们对生活财产的舒适享受或影响商业活动。

环境工程专业英语Unit 1Caused by 由于stem from 产生stack of 一系列的a series of 一系列的generating station 炼油厂automobile exhausts 汽车尾气confine 限定environmental disturbance 环境破坏impact on；effect on；influence on 影响、mineral dressing 矿物加工hydrometallurgy 湿法冶金isolate 使隔离；使孤立separate 分开aggravate 加剧be of concern since 我们所关心的regeneration 再生dilute 稀释filtrate 过滤filter 滤纸filtration 滤液centrifugation 离心supernatant 上清液degrade降解retardant 阻滞的inhibit 阻滞的inhibitory adj. life expectancy 预期寿命poverty-stricken 极端贫困smog-laden air 充满烟雾的global conditions 全球境况haves and have-nots 穷人和富人underprivileged 被剥夺基本权利的savanna 天然热带草原predator 食肉动物environment disruption 环境破坏pesticide 农药fertilizer 化肥organic wastes 有机废物micro-organisms 微生物reduction decay 衰减block 阻滞的additive 添加剂synthetic plastic 合成塑料recycle 再生organic manure farmyard manure 农家肥swage 城市生活污水sewer 下水道sewage sludge 城市生活污泥junk 垃圾interaction 相互作用be related to be associated with 与……相关microbe 微生物bacterium 细菌Unit 2Result in 导致result from 由……引起incentive-encourage/motivation 激励Hazardous risky dangerous toxic 危险的in vicinity of 在……附近overview 总的看法，概要Occasionally=haphazardly 偶尔的lack of order 缺乏秩序的facility 设备runoff 地表径流Reference manuscript 草稿thesis 论文remediation 土壤修复leaching 速度较快Malnutrition 营养不良的soil erosion 土壤侵蚀photochemical smog 光化学烟雾Thermal inversion 逆温层exacerbate the pollution 污染加重household 家用品Pulp and paper 纸制品tanned products 皮革制品deforestation 森林退化Disablement 残疾heavy metal 重金属organic solvent 有机溶剂international business 国际贸易growth rate 增长率carbon monoxide 一氧化碳oxide of nitrogen 氮氧化物asbestos 石棉mercury 水银calcium 钙suspended particulates悬浮颗粒Unit 3Onshore 陆地offshore 海上blowout 井喷mortality 致命的pretreatment 预处理Hydrogen 氢sulfide 硫化物respiratory 呼吸作用acidification 酸化odorous substances 有气味的物质liquid effluents 液体排出物hydrocarbons 碳氢化合物evacuation 转移撤退excavation 挖掘drilling chemicals 钻井化学物质liquefaction 液化strip mining 露天采矿substantial 巨大的sulfur 硫metal solution 金属溶液phenols 酚slag 渣in the form of 以……形式aquatic 水生的radioactive 放射性强度hydroelectric 水电disruptive 引起混乱的hydrology 水文地理siltation 沉积作用supreme 首先得radionuclide 放射性核素mine tailing 尾矿mineral processing 矿物加工residual residue remaining 残余的radioactivity 放射性crude 原油toxic matter 有毒物质hydroelectric power 水力发电breakdown 有毒物质oxidize 氧化solute 溶解oxides of sulfur 硫氧化物cornerstone 基石subsidy 补助federal legal action 联邦法律行为publicly owned treatment works 公开处理工作espouse 支持aesthetic 美学massive concrete 混凝土zero discharge 零排放oxidation 氧化reduction 还原potential 电位precipitation 沉淀dissolution 解散终止Unit 4Environment analysis 环境分析environment monitory 环境监测Performance 运行结果quantitative analysis 定性分析speciation 形态manifest 显而易见Potential 潜在的statue 塑像deface 损毁……外貌sulfur dioxide 二氧化硫esthetic美学的depreciation 下降sophisticated 复杂的，精密的methodology方法论current status 现状capability 能力spot check 抽样调查authenticity 真实性discernible 可识别的homogeneity 同种heterogeneity 不均匀性concentration 浓度precision and accuracy 精密度和准确性designate 指派availability 可用性element 元素compound化合物distinction区别trace levels 痕量bulk collection 容积采样sampling 采样material 基质材料analytical sequence 分析顺序multivariate statistics 多元统计interactive effect 交互作用insofar 在……范围overall analytical scheme 综合分析框架sensitivity 灵敏度sample collection 采样real time 真实时间sample pretreatment 样品预处理adsorb 吸附stability 稳定性curve fitting 曲线拟合accumulation 累积analytical evaluation 分析评价physical separation 物理分离graphics of dimensional 因次图standard deviation 标准方差assessment 评价Unit 5Stagnation/motionless 停滞threshold level 临界水平synergy 协同作用Primary air pollutant 一次空气污染物secondary air pollutant 二次空气污染物Component 组成部分susceptible 易于biological magnification 生物放大作用Photochemical oxidants 光化学氧化物asbestos 石棉metallic particles 金属颗粒Inorganic compounds 无机化合物various alcohols 醇类radioactive substances 放射性物质tritium 氚radon 氡aerobic 需氧的wind erosion 风蚀particulates 颗粒物petroleum refining 石油精炼anaerobic 无氧的solvent 溶剂solution 溶液etching 蚀刻fireproof 防火primary pollutant 初级污染物secondary pollutant 二次污染物air stagnation 空气滞留nitrous oxide 二氧化氮nitric oxide 一氧化氮nitrous dioxide 二氧化氮soot 煤烟；煤灰dust 灰尘smog 烟雾ozone 臭氧herbicide 除草剂pesticide 杀虫剂normal concentration 正常浓度heavily polluted 严重污染的determining factors 决定因素liquid droplet 液体微滴incomplete combustion 不完全氧化sulfur-containing 含硫的wind erosion 风化soil erosion 土壤侵蚀chlorinated biphenyls 多氯联苯dichloro 二氯Unit 6Emissivity 发射率radiate long-wave 红外长波transparency 透明度characterize 表征Average annual 平均每年anthropogenically 人类活动的deleterious 有害的Council 领事会associated with 相关zone 领域expansion 扩展arid 干旱semiarid 半干旱latitude 纬度soybean 大豆pattern 模式northern hemisphere 北半球subsequent 后来的elevated 凸出的atmospheric 大气的predicted 预言empirically 经验的observe 评论观察fossil fuel 化石燃料expand 扩张confound 混合amplitude 幅度budget 平衡The most severe sequence of CO2 induced global warming would be melting of the最严重的二氧化碳引起的全球变暖的现象是两极冰冠的融化，随后引起的海平面的上升polareice caps and the subsequent rise of ocean and inundation of coastal plains.以及近海平原的洪水。

第一单元环境工程这本书主要关于什么？这本书的目标是使工程和科学的学生了解学科间的研究环境问题：它们的起因，为什么它们被关注，我们怎么控制它们。

这本书包括：● 描述环境和环境系统意味着什么● 关于环境破坏基础原因的信息● 理解环境问题本质和能够定量计算它们所必要的基本科学知识● 目前运用在水,空气,污染问题的环境控制技术的状况● 我们目前在很多关于理解和控制人类活动、自然之间复杂相互作用的科学知识上存在着相当大的空白●很多环境问题能运用目前的技术消除或减少，但因为社会缺少意愿这么做或在很多例子中因为缺乏资源去这样做，这些环境问题没有被处理一些重要的定义：在这本书中，它们第一次被使用，定义被以大写或印刷成黑体字的形式展示环境是围绕在我们周围的物质生命的栖息地，在这儿我们能看到,听到,触摸,闻到,和品尝到系统依据韦氏字典,被定义为“一组或一系列能形成一个整体或者有机整体的相互关联的事物”，例如，太阳系统，灌溉系统，供应系统，世界和宇宙。

污染被定义为“在大气，水或土地中的物质的，化学的或生物的特性的不合意的改变，这一改变有害地影响人类或其它生物的健康，生存，或活动”。

当改进环境质量的目标被用来改进人类福利，“环境”一词扩展成包括所有的社会，经济和文化方面的内容。

这一扩展在许多真实情况下是不可行的以及在一本被设计为一学期课程的教科书中也是不实际的。

我们对环境问题的考察因此限于我们对“环境”的定义。

系统的相互作用许多不同的环境问题都与水，空气或土地系统有关联。

许多这些问题都只适用于这些系统中的一个，这为这些种类中的细目分类提供了充分的理由。

这样的分类也更有用于及易于理解一个系统内的相关问题。

而且，这样做是明智的，这是因为由于管理上的和行政上的原因，这些有关空气污染，水供应，废水处理和固体废物处理的子域通常由政府机构分别处理。

很遗憾的是，很多重要的环境问题不仅仅限制于空气，水或土地系统，还包括系统间的相互作用。

环境工程专业英语第二版华南理工大学钟理主编纯手打，自己检查哈！Unit 33Reading Material:Pollution Control Strategies[Ⅱ]Legal Aspects and the Role of GovernmentLegislation to control the quality of water and air and the disposal of solid and hazardous wastes was introduced,with particular emphasis on the United States and Canada. It is the responsibility of government,at the national,state,provincial,or local level,to enact and update environmental control legislation. This legislation is generally written to provide the broad goals and objectives for environmental quality. It does not provide the means and methods by which these goals are to be achieved. Nor need it provide the details which are necessary to monitor and control the performance of pollution control facilities. It is,therefore,necessary for governments at all levels to establish regulatory strategies,in order to implement the broadly stated objectives of general legislation.The goal of environmental management strategies is to maintain or improve the quality of the ambient or surrounding environment. Ambient standards art determined for a number of different characteristics or pollutants within a medium suchas air or water. These standards are designed tominimize risks to the health of humans,animals,or theenvironment in general. The components for which these ambient standards are set must be quantifiable and scientifically measurable. In water and air,criteria are set for allowable concentrations of a variety of pollutants. Furthermore,the pollutants for which ambient standards are must be related to their sources. A regulatory agency can set ambient standards and monitor ambient conditions,but it cannot control or manage conditions except by controlling the sources of the pollutants which affect the ambient conditions. For example,in the air,it is desirable to maintain the concentration of particulates below a certain level. To do this,we must determine the possible sources of the particulates. Some of these sources may be identifiable,such as a smokestack or a burning garbage dump. But much of the particulate matte may come from unidentifiable or nonpoint sources,such as open fields, highways,or a forest fire many miles away. After the sources have been identified,it is necessary to relate the rate at which the pollutants are being released from the sources to the ambient concentrations. when this is done,it is possible to set allowable limits on the discharge of pollutants at the sources. This forms the basis for effluent standards.Effluent standards are ambient standards because they can be monitored and controlled in many cases. Even though the ambient quality is what we are interested in preserving,we normally try to achieve this by controlling effluent quality and quantity.Three main instruments are available to government for environmental control:direct regulation ,polluter subsidies,and they all work to internalize pollution costs to the polluter. They can be applied independently,but are usally applied in combination,Each of these instruments appears in a variety of forms,We shall consider some of the more common forms in which they are applied,as well as other interesting possibilities for controlling pollution,Direct regulation. The government can use its legislative powers to regulate the actions of individuals,corporations,and lower levels of government,Therefore,through direct legislative action,thequantity,quality,and location of discharges of pollutants can be regulated. The main forms of direct regulation are zoning;prohibition,or zero discharge;and effluent standards.Zoning. Zoning regulations are one of the simplest and oldest forms of pollution control and are still a part of almost every pollution control strategy. The objective is to separate the polluter form the rest of society by either space or time. Aresult of the so-called sanitary awakening in mid-nineteenth century Britain was the realization that open garbage dumps had to be removed from areas of dense population and kept away from public water supplies. Local bylaws were enacted to ensure that this was done so that the benefits to public health were realized. The prohibition on the burning of coal in nineteenth-century London whileparliament was in session is another example of this type of zoning. More recent examples of zoning to separate pollutions from the public are the location of airports, the use of curfews on airport operations,and the construction of tall chimneys or long marine sewage outfalls.Prohibition or Zero Discharge. Another form of direct regulation of pollution is prohibition,also known as zero discharge. The advantages of such a concept are obvious. First and foremost there would be no change in environmental quality. Moreover,all resources would have to be completely converted into useful products or stored indefiniteky. And the legislation would appear to be equitable,since the same regulation would apply to everyone. Such a concept,however,is normally impossible to realize,A simple materials balance shows that any resource taken from the environment,including energy,must be returned in some form. Even if it were conceivable to recycle all wastes into new products,there would still be a large energy requirement to achieve this. For most activities,zero discharge would be expensive if not impossible to achieve,At present,producers of extremely hazardous wastes,for which no treatment is available,are the only ones subjected to zero discharge requirements. They must store their wastes until a means of safe disposal is found.Effluent Standards. Effluent discharge standards are the most common and the most useful form of direct regulation. They can be in the form of across-the-board standards which require that effluents of allpolluters meet the same criteria,or thay may be individually developed for each polluter. The advantages of an across-the-board type of approach are that it is easy to administer,it appears fair to all polluters,and it provides the most rigid control over environmental quality. The disadvantages are that it may be uneconomical,and therefore impractical,to insist that all polluters meet the same effluent standards. Some polluters may easily meet standards that others will be unable to meet at all,or only at a very high cost. The different assimilative capacities of the environment in different locations can be taken into account only on a case-by-case basis. For example,a large,fast-moving river can accept a much larger amount of organic pollution than a small creek,and therefore pollutant concentrations from point-source discharges coule be much higher before river quality is seriously affected. Nevertheless,most jurisdictions prefer to set common effluent discharge guidelines,which must be met unless the contributor is specifically exempted.Subsidies. One method of encouraging polluters to comply with regulations is to provide money to help cover their costs. These subsidies may be in the form of direct payments or grants based on a percentage of the cost of pollution abatement or on a percentage reduction in effluent quantity or strength. They may also take the form of low-interest loans for the capital costs of improved treatment facilities.Alternatively,governments can reduce or defer taxes or relax other government requirements to encourage spending on pollution control.The main advantage of subsidies is that they reduce the costs of pollution abatement to the polluter and limit the associated increase in production costs. Governments grants can be used to cover capital costs,and tax incentives can be used to relieve operation and maintenance costs. Subsidies (the carrot) combined with regulations (the stick ) can be used by government to reduce stress on the environment and at the same time encourage research and development by industry in pollution abatement technology . The main disadvantage of polluter subsidies is that the government will have to increase taxes or direct money form other programs in order to pay the subsidies. This is partially offset by decreased expenditures needed to correct the effects of damage due to pollution(i.e. , expenditures on water treatment plants or public health care). However,these returns may be small compared to the costs involved. A general tax increase may seem fair when everyone benefits from an increase in environmental quality. In fact,however,people benefit to varying degrees,and some may balk at paying money for what appears to be someone else’s problem.Another serious drawback to the subsidy system is that it can be easily abused. The idea of paying someone to stop damaging the environment sounds suspiciously like a criminal protection racket . Allpotential polluters will want to be paid for not polluting. Companies may find that the subsidy available for waster reduction exceeds their actual costs of making the change. They may then increase their production above normal simply to receive a subsidy and go on to dump the extra goods at a lower price. In this situation,a polluting industry has been rewarded while its competitors who already treat their wastes adequately get no benefit.Service charges. Service or user charges are similar to subsidies in that monetary means are used to encourage a polluter to comply with effluent requirements. Charges are the most direct may of internalizing the costs of pollution to polluter. There are numerous types of service charges,but in general,money is paid to the local government or agency in proportion to the amount of pollution. The government or agency may then use the money to pay for and operate central pollution control facilities.The obvious advantage of a service charge is that it is the polluter who pays for the costs of polluting. The system rewards those industries that are clean and efficiently run and penalizes those that are dirty and wasteful. Also,it does not encourage increases in polluting activity ,as a subsidy system might. Finally,the administration of such a system is relatively easy ,requiring only the monitoring of discharges.The disadvantages are that production and operating costs for the industries connected may rise. If the service charges arenominal,industries may find it less expensive to simply continue polluting,If the charges are high enough force an industry to stop or severely restrict its effluent discharges,the industry may close down. In any event,the charges will be passed on in the form of increased prices for the industry’s products. Since each industry has different capabilities and costs related to controlling its wastes,a uniform service charge could upset the economic balance between competing industries. However,to customize effluent charges for each polluter would be an administrative burden and appear to be unfair.We are all familiar with charges for municipal services. In urban areas,we pay through property taxes or special levies to have refuse and sewage removed from our homes. In the same way ,industries may find it more convenient to pay to have their untreated wastes removed and disposed of at a central treatment facility. In some of the heavily industrialized areas of Europe, this has been found to be an attractive and efficient way to dispose of industrial wastes. In many cases,the extra cost of waste collection is offset by the economy of scale of large ,specialized treatment plants.In general,all wastes which do not harm the system or affect the operation of the treatment plant shoule be accepted without pretreatment.If the wastes are stronger than “normal” sewage,then a charge,or more correctly,a surcharge,should be assessed against the industry for the extra cost of sewage treatment . For this approach,a surcharge formula setting out the charges for accepting wastes stronger than normal would have to be included in the industrial waste bylaw. Ideally,charges for sewage treatment should be related to the cost of providing the facilities and the benefits received. The practical application of this method isdifficult,however,and various methods of charging for industrial wastes have evolved.。

Unit one Environmental Engineering环境工程What is this book about？这本书是关于什么的？The objective of this book is to introduce engineering and science students to the interdisciplinary study of environment problems；their cause，why they are of concern，and how we can control them. The book includes:这本书的目的是使理工科的学生了解跨学科间的研究环境问题;它们的起因，为什么它们受到关注，以及我们怎样控制它们。

这本书包括：●Description of what is meant by environment and environmental systems描述环境和环境系统意味着什么●Information on the basic causes of environmental disturbances关于引起环境干扰基础原因的基本信息●Basic scientific knowledge necessary to understand the nature of environmental problems and to be able toquantify them理解环境问题本质，并能够定量计算它们所必要的基本科学知识●Current state of the technology of environmental control in its application to water，air and pollution problems目前适用于水，空气和环境污染问题的环境控制技术的现状●Considerable gaps in our current scientific knowledge of understanding and controlling many of the complexinteractions between human activities and nature我们目前的科学知识在理解和控制人类活动和自然之间复杂的相互作用的科学知识上存在相当大的缺陷●Many environmental problems which could be eliminated or reduced by the application of current technology，butwhich are not dealt with because of society’s lack of will to do so，or in many instance because of a lack of resources to do so.许多环境问题可以应用现有技术消除或减少，但没有得到处理是因为社会缺乏这样做的意愿，或者像许多例子那样因为缺乏资源。