4 Calamities and Rescues

Unit 4Calamities and RescuesObjectives:★first listen, and then talk about traffic accidents★read about calamities and rescues★write to describe how an airplane crash takes place★practice the use of subject clauses★write to apply for holiday insurance★visit Culture Salon for an introduction to the Red CrossI Passage A Death of a Dream1.SummaryIn 1961 the 18 members of the US figure skating team boarded a plane to travel to Belgium on their way to the world championships in Czechoslovakia. As the plane approached Brussels, the weather was good, but something was wrong with the plane. Twice it descended as if to land but pulled up and ascended again. The second time it exploded and crashed to the ground. All 72 people on the plane were killed and there were ten families that had lost at least two dear members. The crash site was a scene of total destruction. Later three pairs of melted skates were found dangling from one of the wings. The competition in Prague was canceled to honor the dead. Never before had such a terrible tragedy occurred in the sport of skating.nguage Points1.championship: a competition held to determine the champion; position of a championExamples:An American team won the pairs championships.They won the men’s and women’s singles championships respectively. 2.beam: smile brightly and happilyExamples:He is beaming with delight.He beamed inside.3.dazzling: showing skill, qualities or beautyExamples:She gave him a dazzling smile.She has a dazzling diamond.4.senior: older in years; higher in rank, authority, etc.Examples:Mr. Gray is a senior officer in this bank.He is too senior to try for a young man’s job.5.bound: ready to start, having started (for)They were on the New York express, bound for Maine.That ship is bound for South America.6.distress: a state of danger or great difficultyExamples:If the storm continues on the mountain, the climber will be in distress by morning.The lifeboat went out to rescue a ship in distress.7.signal:(n.) something intended to warn, command, or give a messageExamples:A red light is often used as a danger signal.American Indians used to occasionally send smoke signals.(v.) send a signal or signals toExamples:The general signaled to his officers for the attack to begin.She was signaling wildly, waving her arms.8.contact: get in touch with somebodyExamples:I shall contact you by telephone.I must contact my lawyer before I make my fi nal decisions.9.lower: move or let down in heightExamples:Lowering the window shade will keep out the sun.He sat quite still, with his gaze lowered to the carpet.10.approach:(n.) movement towards or near to somethingExamples:Our approach drove away the wild animals.With the approach of the Spring Festival the weather turned cold. (v.) come near or nearerExamples:Walk softly as you approach the bed.I saw a figure approaching towards me.11.collision: an accident in which two or more people or vehicles hit each other while moving in different directionsExamples:The liner is reported to have had a collision with an oil tanker.The two cars were broken into pieces in the collision.12.in any case: whatever happensExamples:In any case, I shall return in a day or two.In any case, I would insist upon your being paid.(n.) a violent vehicle accidentExamples:There have been a lot of crashes lately.All the passengers were killed in the plane crash.(v.) fall or strike suddenly, violently and noisilyExamples:I heard the dinner tray crash to the floor.Standing on the beach, I could hear the waves crashing against the rocks.14.rear: raise; lift upExamples:A lion suddenly reared its head from among the tall grass.The skyscraper rears above the neighboring buildings.15. explode: burst or cause to burst violently and noisilyExamples:The boiler exploded and many people were injured by the hot steam.He pumped the ball up too much and it exploded.16. scatter: separate or cause to separate widelyExamples:A flock of birds scattered when the shot was fired.The government scattered the factories instead of concentrating them ina single area.17.stun: shock into helplessnessExamples:He was stunned by the unfairness of their judgment.She was stunned by the news of her fat her’s death18.tragic: very sad; unfortunateExamples:The tragic accident took eight lives.The driver of the car made a tragic mistake.b through: search something thoroughlyExamples:The students spent many hours in the library, combing through old books looking for facts they wanted.He combed through the files searching for evidence of fraud.20.wreckage: the broken parts of a destroyed thingExamples:After the accident, the wreckage of the cars was removed from the highway.The shore was covered with the wreckage of the destroyed ship1.championship: a competition held to determine the champion; position of a championAn American team won the pairs championships.They won the men’s and women’s singles championships respectively. 2.beam: smile brightly and happilyExamples:He is beaming with delight.He beamed inside.3.dazzling: showing skill, qualities or beautyExamples:She gave him a dazzling smile.She has a dazzling diamond.4.senior: older in years; higher in rank, authority, etc.Examples:Mr. Gray is a senior officer in this bank.He is too senior to try for a young man’s job.5.bound: ready to start, having started (for)Examples:They were on the New York express, bound for Maine.That ship is bound for South America.6.distress: a state of danger or great difficultyExamples:If the storm continues on the mountain, the climber will be in distress by morning.The lifeboat went out to rescue a ship in distress.7.signal:(n.) something intended to warn, command, or give a messageExamples:A red light is often used as a danger signal.American Indians used to occasionally send smoke signals.(v.) send a signal or signals toExamples:The general signaled to his officers for the attack to begin.She was signaling wildly, waving her arms.8.contact: get in touch with somebodyExamples:I shall contact you by telephone.I must contact my lawyer before I make my fi nal decisions.9.lower: move or let down in heightExamples:Lowering the window shade will keep out the sun.He sat quite still, with his gaze lowered to the carpet.10.approach:(n.) movement towards or near to somethingOur approach drove away the wild animals.With the approach of the Spring Festival the weather turned cold. (v.) come near or nearerExamples:Walk softly as you approach the bed.I saw a figure approaching towards me.11.collision: an accident in which two or more people or vehicles hit each other while moving in different directionsExamples:The liner is reported to have had a collision with an oil tanker.The two cars were broken into pieces in the collision.12.in any case: whatever happensExamples:In any case, I shall return in a day or two.In any case, I would insist upon your being paid.13.crash:(n.) a violent vehicle accidentExamples:There have been a lot of crashes lately.All the passengers were killed in the plane crash.(v.) fall or strike suddenly, violently and noisilyExamples:I heard the dinner tray crash to the floor.Standing on the beach, I could hear the waves crashing against the rocks.14.rear: raise; lift upExamples:A lion suddenly reared its head from among the tall grass.The skyscraper rears above the neighboring buildings.15. explode: burst or cause to burst violently and noisilyExamples:The boiler exploded and many people were injured by the hot steam.He pumped the ball up too much and it exploded.16. scatter: separate or cause to separate widelyExamples:A flock of birds scattered when the shot was fired.The government scattered the factories instead of concentrating them ina single area.17.stun: shock into helplessnessExamples:He was stunned by the unfairness of their judgment.She was stunned by the news of her father’s death18.tragic: very sad; unfortunateThe tragic accident took eight lives.The driver of the car made a tragic mistake.b through: search something thoroughlyExamples:The students spent many hours in the library, combing through old books looking for facts they wanted.He combed through the files searching for evidence of fraud.20.wreckage: the broken parts of a destroyed thingExamples:After the accident, the wreckage of the cars was removed from the highway.The shore was covered with the wreckage of the destroyed ship3.Important sentences1. This was going to be the time of their lives.This was going to be their most important and memorable experience.2. The crash site was a scene of total destruction.The place where the plane crashed was completely covered with wreckage.3. The crash stunned skaters and figure skating fans around the globe.The crash shocked figure skaters and their fans everywhere in the world.4. All that remained as rescuers combed through the wreckage were three pairs of melted skates dangling from one of the wings.When rescue workers carefully looked through the wreckage, the only things they found (to remind them of the skaters) were three pairs of melted skates suspended from one of the wings.II Passage B In the Nick of Time1.SummaryAs Katie Pritchard unloaded some groceries from her car, she thought her two sons were playing safely nearby. But they had wandered onto a railroad track and into the path of an approaching train. The train’s engineer and its conductor saw them on the track but could not stop t he train in time. The boys ignored the train’s whistling horn and screeching brakes. So the conductor, Tony Falzo, a former gymnast, hung from the front of the train, jumped at exactly the right moment, and rescued the two boys from the moving train, which barely missed crushing them before it finally stopped. One of the boys had a minor cut and the other was unharmed. The mother said she could find no word in a dictionary to express her gratitude to Tony. nguage Points1.unload: remove (a load) from (something)Examples:They unloaded the books from the car.The plane unloaded the passengers at the terminal.2.wander: move about without aim or purposeExamples:After tea I wandered alone about the town.What peculiar pleasure it is to wander through a strange city.3.cluster: a number of things of the same kind growing or being close together in a groupExamples:Many flowers grow in clusters.Here and there in the suburbs are newly built houses in clusters.4.put away: place something tidilyExamples:The letters were all put away in numbered files.If you have finished with those tools, I wish you’d put them away.5.roar: a deep loud continuing soundExamples:She was frightened by the lion’s roars.The roar of airplane engines announced a coming air aid.6.kneel: go down or remain on the knee(s)Examples:She knelt down to pull a weed from flower-bed.He went into the church, knelt (down) and began to pray.7.head for: move towardExamples:—“Where are you heading for?”—“I’m heading for London.”It’s not clear how many of them will be heading for Shang hai.8.slam: push, move hurriedly and with great forceExamples:He slammed the book down on the table and angrily walked out.She slammed on the brakes and the car came to a stop.9.steer: direct the course of (as a ship or vehicle)Examples:He steered the car skillfully through the narrow streets.He steered the boat between the islands.10.screech: a harsh, piercing soundExamples:The girl’s screeches brought the police.The forest seemed full of monkeys’ screeches.11.pound: beat repeatedlyExamples:With a madly pounding heart he took the steps three a time.Her heart began to pound and new life came into her limbs.12.leap: jump overExamples:When the bus slowed down the man leaped off.He leaped six meters in the broad jump.13.scoop: take up or outExamples:He scooped his books off the floor.She scooped the baby up in her arms and ran from the flame.14.crush: press with great force so as to break, hurtExamples:Don’t crush this box; there are flowers inside.Several people were crushed to death as they tried to escape from the burning theater.15. beneath: belowExamples:They sheltered themselves beneath their umbrellas.She concealed the bottle beneath her mattress.16. instant: a moment of timeExamples:Not for an instant did I believe he had lied.Mr. Carey considered the question for an instant.17.giant: very largeExamples:He bought giant Christmas trees last year.The giant packet gives you more for less money.18.stride: a long step in walkingExamples:In a few strides he crossed the room.He reached the house several strides before us.19.tuck: put into a convenient narrow space for protection, safety, etc. Examples:The bird tucked its head under its wing.Jack tucked a napkin under his chin.20.perch: (cause to) go into or be in the stated position (especially unsafely, or on something high)Examples:He would take out his spectacles and perch them on the end of his nose.The little village perches high among the hills.21.everlasting: lasting for ever; endlessExamples:What is the key to everlasting happiness?Their contributions to science have earned them an everlasting place in history.22.appreciation: grateful feelingExamples:He showed no appreciation of my help.How can we express our appreciation for your help?3.Sentence Explanation1. Just over a slight rise to the west, a 19-car freight train slowly made its way up the incline.On the other side of a small hill to the west, a 19-car freight train slowly climbed up the slope.2. Falzo knew right away that the train was going too fast to stop in time.Falzo quickly realized that the train was going too fast to stop before it hit the children.3. ... Falzo knew he couldn’t outrun it....Falzo knew he couldn’t run faster than the train.4. With one child tucked under each arm, he pressed Todd and Scott down into the roadbed gravel.He held the two kids one under each arm and pushed them down into the roadbed gravel between the rail tracks1. This list goes on, and it is expanding every day.he list of different kinds of advertisements is very long, and it is getting longer and longer.2. Without them acting as sponsors we would not be able to stage international sporting events.Large companies provide the necessary financial support needed for international sporting events, and in return they get to advertise their products at these sporting events.3. As useful as it is, advertisements are sometimes abused by unscrupulous people.Although advertisements have many advantages, some people use them in a dishonest way, usually for a bad purpose.4. Yet these advertisers blatantly ignore facts and promote their products nonetheless.Though these advertisers are consciously aware of the harm of smoking, they choose to overlook the obvious facts and keep on advertising cigarettes.5. Besides giving us a mental jolt they methodically numb and abuse our minds until we watch them without actually seeing and hear their chatter without actually listening.Not only do advertisements surprise us and distract us from the middle of an exciting program, they also attack us mentally to such an extent that we simply feel we don’t see or hear anything when the same advertisements are being repeated.6. Presently advertisement on television is based on hard-selling and relentless assault on the viewers.Now advertisers usually promote their products by putting viewers under extreme psychological pressure and attacking them with repetitive advertising of the same prodIII General Writing: Subject ClausesSubject clauses, which are introduced by that, what, why, whether, who, which, how and so on, are dependent clauses used as a subject in a complex sentence. Example: What you intend to do is interesting.。

大学体验英语综合教程2unit4笔记Unit 4 Calamities and rescues△board,on board,go on board1)Passengers checked their baggage before boarding the plane.2)Many of tourists on board had begun bargaining with the tradesman.3)The hijackers kept the pilot on board the plane as hostage(人质).4)We went on board Sabena yesterday morning.我们昨天早上登上Sabena号。

△championship n.1.冠军称号2.(pl)锦标赛1)What team did the woman's team championship go to?哪个队获得女子团体体赛冠军？2)The world men's basketball championships 世界男篮锦标赛3)The world singles figure skating championships 世界花样滑冰个人锦标赛△beamVt.vi.smile brightly and happilyN.(日光、灯光等)(一)道、束、柱[比喻]喜悦、笑颜1.beam of sunlight fell on the wall through the window2.Her face beaned with joy.喜形于色3.He beamed his approval of the new idea.4.He beamed on his visitors.△laugh出声(大)笑Smile微笑Giggle女人，孩子Beam书面，喜形于色△bound:adj.1.(~for) going to or intending to go to2.(~to do sth)certain to do sth1)The weather is bound to get better tomorrow.2)Where are you bound for?3)He was said to be bright at school and was almost certainly bound for university.4)There are bound to be times when he or she will encounter difficulties and problems.△distress n.1)危难The life boat went out to a ship in distress.2)穷苦(困) They did what they could to reduce distress among the poor.3)忧虑Two in distress make sorrow less.The mother was in great distress when her baby became ill.△approach vt.1)靠近，接近2)动手处理N.1)途径，方法2)接近1)The winter vacation is approaching.2)The lion's approach drove away the small animals.3)The best approach to learning a foreign language is the study of the spoken language.4)It might be possible to approach the problem in a different way.△collide: 1)crash together with violent impact碰撞2) be or come into conflict砥触，冲突1)If the aims of two countries collide，there may be a war.2) As the bus turned the corner, it collided with a van.3)They were on their way to the airport when their car was involved in a collision with a truck.△rear1) v.(1) (~ up) (of a horse, etc) raise itself on its legs(2) raise esp. one’s head(3) bring up (children)2) n.后部, 尾部, 后方the back part of somethingbring up the rear站在队尾；落在最后；殿后1)The engine of this bus is in the rear.2) Move to the rear of the bus. There are plenty of rear seats.3)We plead for an opportunity to live in decent houses and localities, for a chance to rear the children in physical and moral cleanliness.我们要求有机会住于象样的住房和地区，要求有机会在身心健康的环境中养育我们的孩子。

应用地球化学元素丰度数据手册迟清华鄢明才编著地质出版社·北京·1内容提要本书汇编了国内外不同研究者提出的火成岩、沉积岩、变质岩、土壤、水系沉积物、泛滥平原沉积物、浅海沉积物和大陆地壳的化学组成与元素丰度，同时列出了勘查地球化学和环境地球化学研究中常用的中国主要地球化学标准物质的标准值，所提供内容均为地球化学工作者所必须了解的各种重要地质介质的地球化学基础数据。

本书供从事地球化学、岩石学、勘查地球化学、生态环境与农业地球化学、地质样品分析测试、矿产勘查、基础地质等领域的研究者阅读，也可供地球科学其它领域的研究者使用。

图书在版编目（CIP）数据应用地球化学元素丰度数据手册/迟清华，鄢明才编著. －北京：地质出版社，2007.12ISBN 978－7－116－05536－0Ⅰ. 应… Ⅱ. ①迟…②鄢…Ⅲ. 地球化学丰度－化学元素－数据－手册Ⅳ. P595－62中国版本图书馆CIP数据核字（2007）第185917号责任编辑：王永奉陈军中责任校对：李玫出版发行：地质出版社社址邮编：北京市海淀区学院路31号，100083电话：（010）82324508（邮购部）网址：电子邮箱：zbs@传真：（010）82310759印刷：北京地大彩印厂开本：889mm×1194mm 1/16印张：10.25字数：260千字印数：1－3000册版次：2007年12月北京第1版•第1次印刷定价：28.00元书号：ISBN 978－7－116－05536－0（如对本书有建议或意见，敬请致电本社；如本社有印装问题，本社负责调换）2关于应用地球化学元素丰度数据手册（代序）地球化学元素丰度数据，即地壳五个圈内多种元素在各种介质、各种尺度内含量的统计数据。

它是应用地球化学研究解决资源与环境问题上重要的资料。

将这些数据资料汇编在一起将使研究人员节省不少查找文献的劳动与时间。

这本小册子就是按照这样的想法编汇的。

DIRECTIVE NUMBER: CPL 02-00-150 EFFECTIVE DATE: April 22, 2011 SUBJECT: Field Operations Manual (FOM)ABSTRACTPurpose: This instruction cancels and replaces OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-148,Field Operations Manual (FOM), issued November 9, 2009, whichreplaced the September 26, 1994 Instruction that implemented the FieldInspection Reference Manual (FIRM). The FOM is a revision of OSHA’senforcement policies and procedures manual that provides the field officesa reference document for identifying the responsibilities associated withthe majority of their inspection duties. This Instruction also cancels OSHAInstruction FAP 01-00-003 Federal Agency Safety and Health Programs,May 17, 1996 and Chapter 13 of OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-045,Revised Field Operations Manual, June 15, 1989.Scope: OSHA-wide.References: Title 29 Code of Federal Regulations §1903.6, Advance Notice ofInspections; 29 Code of Federal Regulations §1903.14, Policy RegardingEmployee Rescue Activities; 29 Code of Federal Regulations §1903.19,Abatement Verification; 29 Code of Federal Regulations §1904.39,Reporting Fatalities and Multiple Hospitalizations to OSHA; and Housingfor Agricultural Workers: Final Rule, Federal Register, March 4, 1980 (45FR 14180).Cancellations: OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-148, Field Operations Manual, November9, 2009.OSHA Instruction FAP 01-00-003, Federal Agency Safety and HealthPrograms, May 17, 1996.Chapter 13 of OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-045, Revised FieldOperations Manual, June 15, 1989.State Impact: Notice of Intent and Adoption required. See paragraph VI.Action Offices: National, Regional, and Area OfficesOriginating Office: Directorate of Enforcement Programs Contact: Directorate of Enforcement ProgramsOffice of General Industry Enforcement200 Constitution Avenue, NW, N3 119Washington, DC 20210202-693-1850By and Under the Authority ofDavid Michaels, PhD, MPHAssistant SecretaryExecutive SummaryThis instruction cancels and replaces OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-148, Field Operations Manual (FOM), issued November 9, 2009. The one remaining part of the prior Field Operations Manual, the chapter on Disclosure, will be added at a later date. This Instruction also cancels OSHA Instruction FAP 01-00-003 Federal Agency Safety and Health Programs, May 17, 1996 and Chapter 13 of OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-045, Revised Field Operations Manual, June 15, 1989. This Instruction constitutes OSHA’s general enforcement policies and procedures manual for use by the field offices in conducting inspections, issuing citations and proposing penalties.Significant Changes∙A new Table of Contents for the entire FOM is added.∙ A new References section for the entire FOM is added∙ A new Cancellations section for the entire FOM is added.∙Adds a Maritime Industry Sector to Section III of Chapter 10, Industry Sectors.∙Revises sections referring to the Enhanced Enforcement Program (EEP) replacing the information with the Severe Violator Enforcement Program (SVEP).∙Adds Chapter 13, Federal Agency Field Activities.∙Cancels OSHA Instruction FAP 01-00-003, Federal Agency Safety and Health Programs, May 17, 1996.DisclaimerThis manual is intended to provide instruction regarding some of the internal operations of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and is solely for the benefit of the Government. No duties, rights, or benefits, substantive or procedural, are created or implied by this manual. The contents of this manual are not enforceable by any person or entity against the Department of Labor or the United States. Statements which reflect current Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission or court precedents do not necessarily indicate acquiescence with those precedents.Table of ContentsCHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONI.PURPOSE. ........................................................................................................... 1-1 II.SCOPE. ................................................................................................................ 1-1 III.REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 1-1 IV.CANCELLATIONS............................................................................................. 1-8 V. ACTION INFORMATION ................................................................................. 1-8A.R ESPONSIBLE O FFICE.......................................................................................................................................... 1-8B.A CTION O FFICES. .................................................................................................................... 1-8C. I NFORMATION O FFICES............................................................................................................ 1-8 VI. STATE IMPACT. ................................................................................................ 1-8 VII.SIGNIFICANT CHANGES. ............................................................................... 1-9 VIII.BACKGROUND. ................................................................................................. 1-9 IX. DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY. ........................................................ 1-10A.T HE A CT................................................................................................................................................................. 1-10B. C OMPLIANCE S AFETY AND H EALTH O FFICER (CSHO). ...........................................................1-10B.H E/S HE AND H IS/H ERS ..................................................................................................................................... 1-10C.P ROFESSIONAL J UDGMENT............................................................................................................................... 1-10E. W ORKPLACE AND W ORKSITE ......................................................................................................................... 1-10CHAPTER 2PROGRAM PLANNINGI.INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 2-1 II.AREA OFFICE RESPONSIBILITIES. .............................................................. 2-1A.P ROVIDING A SSISTANCE TO S MALL E MPLOYERS. ...................................................................................... 2-1B.A REA O FFICE O UTREACH P ROGRAM. ............................................................................................................. 2-1C. R ESPONDING TO R EQUESTS FOR A SSISTANCE. ............................................................................................ 2-2 III. OSHA COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS OVERVIEW. ...................................... 2-2A.V OLUNTARY P ROTECTION P ROGRAM (VPP). ........................................................................... 2-2B.O NSITE C ONSULTATION P ROGRAM. ................................................................................................................ 2-2C.S TRATEGIC P ARTNERSHIPS................................................................................................................................. 2-3D.A LLIANCE P ROGRAM ........................................................................................................................................... 2-3 IV. ENFORCEMENT PROGRAM SCHEDULING. ................................................ 2-4A.G ENERAL ................................................................................................................................................................. 2-4B.I NSPECTION P RIORITY C RITERIA. ..................................................................................................................... 2-4C.E FFECT OF C ONTEST ............................................................................................................................................ 2-5D.E NFORCEMENT E XEMPTIONS AND L IMITATIONS. ....................................................................................... 2-6E.P REEMPTION BY A NOTHER F EDERAL A GENCY ........................................................................................... 2-6F.U NITED S TATES P OSTAL S ERVICE. .................................................................................................................. 2-7G.H OME-B ASED W ORKSITES. ................................................................................................................................ 2-8H.I NSPECTION/I NVESTIGATION T YPES. ............................................................................................................... 2-8 V.UNPROGRAMMED ACTIVITY – HAZARD EVALUATION AND INSPECTION SCHEDULING ............................................................................ 2-9 VI.PROGRAMMED INSPECTIONS. ................................................................... 2-10A.S ITE-S PECIFIC T ARGETING (SST) P ROGRAM. ............................................................................................. 2-10B.S CHEDULING FOR C ONSTRUCTION I NSPECTIONS. ..................................................................................... 2-10C.S CHEDULING FOR M ARITIME I NSPECTIONS. ............................................................................. 2-11D.S PECIAL E MPHASIS P ROGRAMS (SEP S). ................................................................................... 2-12E.N ATIONAL E MPHASIS P ROGRAMS (NEP S) ............................................................................... 2-13F.L OCAL E MPHASIS P ROGRAMS (LEP S) AND R EGIONAL E MPHASIS P ROGRAMS (REP S) ............ 2-13G.O THER S PECIAL P ROGRAMS. ............................................................................................................................ 2-13H.I NSPECTION S CHEDULING AND I NTERFACE WITH C OOPERATIVE P ROGRAM P ARTICIPANTS ....... 2-13CHAPTER 3INSPECTION PROCEDURESI.INSPECTION PREPARATION. .......................................................................... 3-1 II.INSPECTION PLANNING. .................................................................................. 3-1A.R EVIEW OF I NSPECTION H ISTORY .................................................................................................................... 3-1B.R EVIEW OF C OOPERATIVE P ROGRAM P ARTICIPATION .............................................................................. 3-1C.OSHA D ATA I NITIATIVE (ODI) D ATA R EVIEW .......................................................................................... 3-2D.S AFETY AND H EALTH I SSUES R ELATING TO CSHO S.................................................................. 3-2E.A DVANCE N OTICE. ................................................................................................................................................ 3-3F.P RE-I NSPECTION C OMPULSORY P ROCESS ...................................................................................................... 3-5G.P ERSONAL S ECURITY C LEARANCE. ................................................................................................................. 3-5H.E XPERT A SSISTANCE. ........................................................................................................................................... 3-5 III. INSPECTION SCOPE. ......................................................................................... 3-6A.C OMPREHENSIVE ................................................................................................................................................... 3-6B.P ARTIAL. ................................................................................................................................................................... 3-6 IV. CONDUCT OF INSPECTION .............................................................................. 3-6A.T IME OF I NSPECTION............................................................................................................................................. 3-6B.P RESENTING C REDENTIALS. ............................................................................................................................... 3-6C.R EFUSAL TO P ERMIT I NSPECTION AND I NTERFERENCE ............................................................................. 3-7D.E MPLOYEE P ARTICIPATION. ............................................................................................................................... 3-9E.R ELEASE FOR E NTRY ............................................................................................................................................ 3-9F.B ANKRUPT OR O UT OF B USINESS. .................................................................................................................... 3-9G.E MPLOYEE R ESPONSIBILITIES. ................................................................................................. 3-10H.S TRIKE OR L ABOR D ISPUTE ............................................................................................................................. 3-10I. V ARIANCES. .......................................................................................................................................................... 3-11 V. OPENING CONFERENCE. ................................................................................ 3-11A.G ENERAL ................................................................................................................................................................ 3-11B.R EVIEW OF A PPROPRIATION A CT E XEMPTIONS AND L IMITATION. ..................................................... 3-13C.R EVIEW S CREENING FOR P ROCESS S AFETY M ANAGEMENT (PSM) C OVERAGE............................. 3-13D.R EVIEW OF V OLUNTARY C OMPLIANCE P ROGRAMS. ................................................................................ 3-14E.D ISRUPTIVE C ONDUCT. ...................................................................................................................................... 3-15F.C LASSIFIED A REAS ............................................................................................................................................. 3-16VI. REVIEW OF RECORDS. ................................................................................... 3-16A.I NJURY AND I LLNESS R ECORDS...................................................................................................................... 3-16B.R ECORDING C RITERIA. ...................................................................................................................................... 3-18C. R ECORDKEEPING D EFICIENCIES. .................................................................................................................. 3-18 VII. WALKAROUND INSPECTION. ....................................................................... 3-19A.W ALKAROUND R EPRESENTATIVES ............................................................................................................... 3-19B.E VALUATION OF S AFETY AND H EALTH M ANAGEMENT S YSTEM. ....................................................... 3-20C.R ECORD A LL F ACTS P ERTINENT TO A V IOLATION. ................................................................................. 3-20D.T ESTIFYING IN H EARINGS ................................................................................................................................ 3-21E.T RADE S ECRETS. ................................................................................................................................................. 3-21F.C OLLECTING S AMPLES. ..................................................................................................................................... 3-22G.P HOTOGRAPHS AND V IDEOTAPES.................................................................................................................. 3-22H.V IOLATIONS OF O THER L AWS. ....................................................................................................................... 3-23I.I NTERVIEWS OF N ON-M ANAGERIAL E MPLOYEES .................................................................................... 3-23J.M ULTI-E MPLOYER W ORKSITES ..................................................................................................................... 3-27 K.A DMINISTRATIVE S UBPOENA.......................................................................................................................... 3-27 L.E MPLOYER A BATEMENT A SSISTANCE. ........................................................................................................ 3-27 VIII. CLOSING CONFERENCE. .............................................................................. 3-28A.P ARTICIPANTS. ..................................................................................................................................................... 3-28B.D ISCUSSION I TEMS. ............................................................................................................................................ 3-28C.A DVICE TO A TTENDEES .................................................................................................................................... 3-29D.P ENALTIES............................................................................................................................................................. 3-30E.F EASIBLE A DMINISTRATIVE, W ORK P RACTICE AND E NGINEERING C ONTROLS. ............................ 3-30F.R EDUCING E MPLOYEE E XPOSURE. ................................................................................................................ 3-32G.A BATEMENT V ERIFICATION. ........................................................................................................................... 3-32H.E MPLOYEE D ISCRIMINATION .......................................................................................................................... 3-33 IX. SPECIAL INSPECTION PROCEDURES. ...................................................... 3-33A.F OLLOW-UP AND M ONITORING I NSPECTIONS............................................................................................ 3-33B.C ONSTRUCTION I NSPECTIONS ......................................................................................................................... 3-34C. F EDERAL A GENCY I NSPECTIONS. ................................................................................................................. 3-35CHAPTER 4VIOLATIONSI. BASIS OF VIOLATIONS ..................................................................................... 4-1A.S TANDARDS AND R EGULATIONS. .................................................................................................................... 4-1B.E MPLOYEE E XPOSURE. ........................................................................................................................................ 4-3C.R EGULATORY R EQUIREMENTS. ........................................................................................................................ 4-6D.H AZARD C OMMUNICATION. .............................................................................................................................. 4-6E. E MPLOYER/E MPLOYEE R ESPONSIBILITIES ................................................................................................... 4-6 II. SERIOUS VIOLATIONS. .................................................................................... 4-8A.S ECTION 17(K). ......................................................................................................................... 4-8B.E STABLISHING S ERIOUS V IOLATIONS ............................................................................................................ 4-8C. F OUR S TEPS TO BE D OCUMENTED. ................................................................................................................... 4-8 III. GENERAL DUTY REQUIREMENTS ............................................................. 4-14A.E VALUATION OF G ENERAL D UTY R EQUIREMENTS ................................................................................. 4-14B.E LEMENTS OF A G ENERAL D UTY R EQUIREMENT V IOLATION.............................................................. 4-14C. U SE OF THE G ENERAL D UTY C LAUSE ........................................................................................................ 4-23D.L IMITATIONS OF U SE OF THE G ENERAL D UTY C LAUSE. ..............................................................E.C LASSIFICATION OF V IOLATIONS C ITED U NDER THE G ENERAL D UTY C LAUSE. ..................F. P ROCEDURES FOR I MPLEMENTATION OF S ECTION 5(A)(1) E NFORCEMENT ............................ 4-25 4-27 4-27IV.OTHER-THAN-SERIOUS VIOLATIONS ............................................... 4-28 V.WILLFUL VIOLATIONS. ......................................................................... 4-28A.I NTENTIONAL D ISREGARD V IOLATIONS. ..........................................................................................4-28B.P LAIN I NDIFFERENCE V IOLATIONS. ...................................................................................................4-29 VI. CRIMINAL/WILLFUL VIOLATIONS. ................................................... 4-30A.A REA D IRECTOR C OORDINATION ....................................................................................................... 4-31B.C RITERIA FOR I NVESTIGATING P OSSIBLE C RIMINAL/W ILLFUL V IOLATIONS ........................ 4-31C. W ILLFUL V IOLATIONS R ELATED TO A F ATALITY .......................................................................... 4-32 VII. REPEATED VIOLATIONS. ...................................................................... 4-32A.F EDERAL AND S TATE P LAN V IOLATIONS. ........................................................................................4-32B.I DENTICAL S TANDARDS. .......................................................................................................................4-32C.D IFFERENT S TANDARDS. .......................................................................................................................4-33D.O BTAINING I NSPECTION H ISTORY. .....................................................................................................4-33E.T IME L IMITATIONS..................................................................................................................................4-34F.R EPEATED V. F AILURE TO A BATE....................................................................................................... 4-34G. A REA D IRECTOR R ESPONSIBILITIES. .............................................................................. 4-35 VIII. DE MINIMIS CONDITIONS. ................................................................... 4-36A.C RITERIA ................................................................................................................................................... 4-36B.P ROFESSIONAL J UDGMENT. ..................................................................................................................4-37C. A REA D IRECTOR R ESPONSIBILITIES. .............................................................................. 4-37 IX. CITING IN THE ALTERNATIVE ............................................................ 4-37 X. COMBINING AND GROUPING VIOLATIONS. ................................... 4-37A.C OMBINING. ..............................................................................................................................................4-37B.G ROUPING. ................................................................................................................................................4-38C. W HEN N OT TO G ROUP OR C OMBINE. ................................................................................................4-38 XI. HEALTH STANDARD VIOLATIONS ....................................................... 4-39A.C ITATION OF V ENTILATION S TANDARDS ......................................................................................... 4-39B.V IOLATIONS OF THE N OISE S TANDARD. ...........................................................................................4-40 XII. VIOLATIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY PROTECTION STANDARD(§1910.134). ....................................................................................................... XIII. VIOLATIONS OF AIR CONTAMINANT STANDARDS (§1910.1000) ... 4-43 4-43A.R EQUIREMENTS UNDER THE STANDARD: .................................................................................................. 4-43B.C LASSIFICATION OF V IOLATIONS OF A IR C ONTAMINANT S TANDARDS. ......................................... 4-43 XIV. CITING IMPROPER PERSONAL HYGIENE PRACTICES. ................... 4-45A.I NGESTION H AZARDS. .................................................................................................................................... 4-45B.A BSORPTION H AZARDS. ................................................................................................................................ 4-46C.W IPE S AMPLING. ............................................................................................................................................. 4-46D.C ITATION P OLICY ............................................................................................................................................ 4-46 XV. BIOLOGICAL MONITORING. ...................................................................... 4-47CHAPTER 5CASE FILE PREPARATION AND DOCUMENTATIONI.INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 5-1 II.INSPECTION CONDUCTED, CITATIONS BEING ISSUED. .................... 5-1A.OSHA-1 ................................................................................................................................... 5-1B.OSHA-1A. ............................................................................................................................... 5-1C. OSHA-1B. ................................................................................................................................ 5-2 III.INSPECTION CONDUCTED BUT NO CITATIONS ISSUED .................... 5-5 IV.NO INSPECTION ............................................................................................... 5-5 V. HEALTH INSPECTIONS. ................................................................................. 5-6A.D OCUMENT P OTENTIAL E XPOSURE. ............................................................................................................... 5-6B.E MPLOYER’S O CCUPATIONAL S AFETY AND H EALTH S YSTEM. ............................................................. 5-6 VI. AFFIRMATIVE DEFENSES............................................................................. 5-8A.B URDEN OF P ROOF. .............................................................................................................................................. 5-8B.E XPLANATIONS. ..................................................................................................................................................... 5-8 VII. INTERVIEW STATEMENTS. ........................................................................ 5-10A.G ENERALLY. ......................................................................................................................................................... 5-10B.CSHO S SHALL OBTAIN WRITTEN STATEMENTS WHEN: .......................................................................... 5-10C.L ANGUAGE AND W ORDING OF S TATEMENT. ............................................................................................. 5-11D.R EFUSAL TO S IGN S TATEMENT ...................................................................................................................... 5-11E.V IDEO AND A UDIOTAPED S TATEMENTS. ..................................................................................................... 5-11F.A DMINISTRATIVE D EPOSITIONS. .............................................................................................5-11 VIII. PAPERWORK AND WRITTEN PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS. .......... 5-12 IX.GUIDELINES FOR CASE FILE DOCUMENTATION FOR USE WITH VIDEOTAPES AND AUDIOTAPES .............................................................. 5-12 X.CASE FILE ACTIVITY DIARY SHEET. ..................................................... 5-12 XI. CITATIONS. ..................................................................................................... 5-12A.S TATUTE OF L IMITATIONS. .............................................................................................................................. 5-13B.I SSUING C ITATIONS. ........................................................................................................................................... 5-13C.A MENDING/W ITHDRAWING C ITATIONS AND N OTIFICATION OF P ENALTIES. .................................. 5-13D.P ROCEDURES FOR A MENDING OR W ITHDRAWING C ITATIONS ............................................................ 5-14 XII. INSPECTION RECORDS. ............................................................................... 5-15A.G ENERALLY. ......................................................................................................................................................... 5-15B.R ELEASE OF I NSPECTION I NFORMATION ..................................................................................................... 5-15C. C LASSIFIED AND T RADE S ECRET I NFORMATION ...................................................................................... 5-16。

论体验式教学法在大学英语教学中的应用［摘要］文章对体验学习理论进行了研究和探讨，提出了在大学英语教学中使用体验式教学的概念和模式，这一概念能够反映体验式教学的本质和优势，教学模式也在教学实践中获得了比较好的效果。

［关键词］体验英语教学模式互动一、研究的必要性体验式学习强调的是学习者自主学习，在学习的过程中把所学的内容转化为自身知识并掌握知识的本质。

而体验式英语教学是在目前外语教学理论的发展基础上，借鉴体验式学习的优势而提出的。

当全球的外语教育培训机构力图寻找一种好的培训方式时，体验式学习以其独特的魅力和效果持久的优势照亮了渴求者的眼睛。

体验式培训有效地把“听—看—做”思维与学习者的行动结合在一起，并在这些过程中促使学习者的角色发生转换，成为积极主动的学习体。

学习者通过体验获得了效果持久的知识，同时也体会到了学习是一种莫大的乐趣。

目前，我们国家大学外语教学的发展现状不容乐观，教师基本上使用传统教学模式，课堂成为“讲堂”，教师灌输，学生接受。

如，不少教师在教学目标上，过分重视“记忆”，轻视实际能力的培养；在教学组织上，对创设教学情境，激发和吸引学生主动学习方面重视不够；在课堂师生互动中，重“教师讲话，学生听话”，“对话式”的问答行为少，“质问式”的问答行为多。

这种单一的教授文化的课堂模式异化了学生的学习动机，不利于学生主动发展，需要改革。

要改变以教代学的局面，即采用任务型外语教学法。

体验式教学正是顺应时代发展的需要，故研究这一课题具有重要意义。

二、研究的主要内容1.创设情境，包括情感情境和学习情境。

创设情感情境，是要激励学生学习的兴趣、动机和态度。

创设学习情境，是要容纳学生多样化的学习方式。

创设情境的方法有语言描述、音乐渲染、图画再现、实物演示等。

下面为我们在教学过程中设计的各种学习任务：（1）创设情感情境。

先播放与学习任务有关的音乐，如谈到奥运会时，利用多媒体播放相关情景，让学生感受这方面知识，激发他们的学习兴趣。

大学体验英语二（综合教程）Unit 4Calamities and RescuesListen and TalkLead inNature imposes difficult conditions upon the earth from time to time. The tornado and forest fire destroy natural , homes and other structures, and very often harm or kill people. Technological tragedies happen with little or no warning as we see trains crash and airplanes fall from the sky shortly after take-off. As tragic as calamities are, they seem to best in human nature. People trained in arrive at the scene and begin assisting the injured. Others come with equipment to remove debris. Men, women, and young people willingly come to the scene of an to be of help in some way. These selfless acts of kindness make our world a better place. Compassion eases the wounds of calamities.American Airlines flight number 587 crashed less than three minutes after JFK Airport in New York in November, 2001. an engine fire develop on the plane's number one engine located under the left wing of the Seconds later, the homes, completely destroying four of them. All 260 people airplane were killed along with six people at the crash site, leaving many people to mourn the their loved ones. The residents (people who live in the area of the crash)rallied together to comfort those grieving, while others removed bodies from the wreckage and did the necessary clean-up.Key:1. resources; 2. bring out;3. emergency; 4. accident; 5. taking off;6. Witnesses;7. aircraft;8. crashed into;9. aboard; 10. loss.Passage A: Death of a Dreamthe following questions with the information from the passage.1. Who was a better skater, Laurie or her sister MaribelLaurie was a better skater.was the weather like that dayThe weather was very good. It was warm and sunny with no storms or high winds.3. How many times did the pilot try to landThe pilot tried to land twice but failed.did officials in the Brussels control tower sense that there must be something wrong with the planeThey sensed that something must be wrong when the pilot lost contact with the control tower during the last few minutes before the scheduled landing.do you think was the impact of this plane crash on the sport of skating in the U.S.Answer:Open.3. Choose the best answer to each question based on the information you obtain from the passage.1. The 1961 world ice skating competition was planned to be held __________.A) in New YorkB) in BrusselsC) in BergD) in Prague2. The American skaters were excited when they boarded the plane because __________.A) they were going to fly to Brussels and PragueB) they were a group of young and energetic athletesC) they were heading for a great time in their livesD) they had a large team of eighteen members3. We can infer from the passage that __________.A) Laurie was selected into the team for Prague because she won the North American title for womenB) a skater in a family is likely to influence other members of the family so that they become skaters tooC) Laurie's mother taught her and her sister, Maribel, how to skate when they were little girlsD) Maribel became successful in skating in the United States earlier than her sister Laurie4. A witness of the plane crash reported seeing all of the following except that __________.A) the plane was about to land normallyB) the plane was circling the airportC) the plane climbed suddenly and steeplyD) the plane crashed onto the ground5. To show mourning for the skaters who were killed in the plane crash, __________.A) the skating competition for that year was cancelledB) the rescuers searched the wreckage for melted skatesC) skaters and skating fans helped to collect scattered debrisD) skating fans cried because of the death of their dreams and hopes Anwser: 1. D; 2. C; 3. B; 4. B; 5. A4. Fill in the blanks with the words given below. Change the form where necessary.1. The driver gave a ____ that he was going to turn right.2. It was reported that 41 people were killed in a plane ____ in the Himalayas last week.3. The ship's captain radioed that it was in ____ .4. The skaters moved over the ice with a smooth, effortless ____ .5. The bomb was taken away and the soldiers ____ it at a safe distance from the houses.6. They were on their way to the Shropshire Union Canal when their car was involved in a ____ with a truck.7. The Central Bank ____ interest rates by 2 percent.8. He ____ a cheerful welcome as he opened the door for the distinguished guest.9. He used to ____ his toys all over the floor and I had to pick them up.10. The _____ of the world's forests concerns everyone in some way. Anwser:1. signal 2. crash 3. distress 4. grace 5. exploded6. collision7. lowered8. beamed9. scatter 10. destruction5. Complete the following sentences with phrases or expressions from the passage.1. Marta ____ a box of old photographs, looking for the baby'sportrait.2. The cost of the house may be lower than we first thought; but ___ it will still be beyond our reach.3. The struggle between the drug company and the Government over prices finally ___ a satisfactory settlement.4. She was on a plane ____ Moscow when she fell ill.5. As soon as I was ____ , I began to have second thoughts about leaving.Anwser: 1. combed through 2. in any case 3. ended in 4. bound for 5. on boarda dictionary for the usage of the following words and make a sentence with each of them.1. The ____ (crew) are paid to do all the work on the ship.’d be a fool not ____ (embrace) an opportunity as good as that.3. The horse ____ (rear) up when it heard the gun shot.general election, originally ____ (schedule) for 29th September, is to be postponed until December.flower show ____ (grace) by the presence of the Queen.Anwser: 1. crew 2. to embrace gracedthe following sentences into English.1. 她在公共汽车站一直等到末班车进站。

Unit 4 Calamities and RescuesPassage A Death of a DreamThey boarded the plane in New York City with high hopes. The 18 members of the United States figure skating team would fly to Brussels, Belgium. Then they were to go on to Prague, Czechoslovakia, for the world ice skating championships. A photo was taken of the team members as they stood on the steps of the Sabena Airlines 707 jet. The best of America's skaters beamed for the camera. Mostly young, they laughed and giggled, their eyes dancing with excitement. This was going to be the time of their lives.There were three ice skating pairs on the plane. Two were brother-and-sister teams: Laurie and William Hickox and Ida and Ray Hadley. There was also the husband-and-wife team of Patricia and Robert Dineen. But the brightest star of all was a singles skater. Her name was Laurence "Laurie" Owen. Only 16 years old, she had won the North American title for women just two days earlier. Laurie had great skill, dazzling grace, and a winning smile.Laurie came from a skating family. Her mother, Maribel, had won the U.S figure skating championship nine times. Laurie had an older sister who shared her mother's name. Maribel Owen, age 20, was not quite as strong a skater as Laurie. Still, she had just won the U.S. senior pairs championship. All three of the Owen women were on the plane bound for Brussels.Sabena Flight 548 took off at 7:30 P.M. on February 14, 1961. The flight across the Atlantic was pleasant. Early the next day, the plane neared the airport at Brussels. There seemed to be no cause for concern. There was no distress signal of any kind from the pilot, Captain Louis Lambrechts. There were no storms or high winds in the region. In fact, the weather was perfect. It was warm and sunny.But something must have gone wrong in the cockpit. During the last few minutes before the scheduled landing, Captain Lambrechts did not contact the Brussels airport. Just before 10:00 A.M., he lowered the wheels of the jet and began his approach to land. But, at the last moment, he pulled the plane up. Perhaps he saw another jet taking off and feared a collision. Or perhaps he already knew that something was wrong with his plane. In any case, he circled the airport and prepared to try again.Lambrechts came in a second time, flying about 500 feet over a farm near the village of Berg, northeast of Brussels. Then he suddenly increased his speed and pulled the plane into a steep climb. By this time, officials in the Brussels control tower could tell that something was very wrong. "We saw the crash coming," said one official. "They couldn't have been faster," the official said. "But there was nothing they could do."A man riding on a train saw that the plane was in trouble. "The plane appeared to be making a normal approach to land when it suddenly reared up into the sky," he said. "Then it fell back like a great stone and we heard the explosion."It was 10:05 A.M. when the Sabena jet hit the ground and exploded in a ball of flames. It just missed hitting a row of houses. All 72 people on board were killed, including 49 Americans and 11 members of the crew. There was nothing anyone could do. The crash site was a scene of total destruction. Debris was scattered over 200 yards. Charred remains and body parts were strewn all over the area. Several couples on the plane were found locked in a final embrace.The crash stunned skaters and figure skating fans around the globe. Never before had anything so tragic happened in their sport. To honor the dead, the Prague competition was canceled. The crash was particularly devastating for some families. In addition to the Owen family, with its loss of three women, nine other skating families suffered more than one death. The hopes and dreams of these athletes had ended in a flash. All that remained as rescuers combed through the wreckage were three pairs of melted skates dangling from one of the wings.PA 梦断魂萦在纽约，美国花样滑冰队的18名成员踌躇满志地登上飞机。

1化学的起源化学可以被广泛的定义为分子的科学和它们之间的转换;和数学不同,化学在人类之前;我们的星球地球上的生命和人类的外观很可能是化学进程的具体结果;化学过程从历史的开端一直到现在都出现在人们的生活中;最初,这些过程不在我们的掌控之中,例如,果汁的发酵,肉和鱼的腐烂,木头的燃烧;后来我们学着去控制化学进程使用它来生产不同的产品,比如食物,金属,陶瓷和皮革;在化学的发展上,主要区分为四个阶段：史前化学,希腊化学,炼金术,科学化学;早期的化学很明显是被人们实际需要所激发的;火的发现提供了史前人类开始控制化学反应的一次机会;他们合成一些黄铜,青铜和其他易得材料的物品;因为人类早期对化学过程的应用早于记载,所以没有关于它们化学技能的记录;唯一可以判断它们化学能力的是考古的发现和不同的人造品;正如早期数学发展一样,实际需要影响着化学的发展;但是化学和数学在这个阶段很可能没有关系;即使有,也没有记录来确定这些;希腊化学主要建立在推测的基础上而不是在实验的基础上;这是古希腊所有科学的普遍特征;古希腊科学家实际上是哲学家,所以希腊对思考如此感兴趣盛于实验也就不足为奇了;事实上他们很少做思考之外的实验;这对数学是一个好的方法但是却不是对于物理,化学和生物科学;然而,希腊人思考了许多关于自然和物质结构,他们可以被看作早期化学理论的创造者;希腊引进了元素的概念总共提出了四种元素;Thalesren认为所有的东西来自一种基本的物质,就是水;Anaximenes,接受了元素的概念,但他认为来单独的元素自于空气中的物质;Heraclitus,认为宇宙的基本的特点是不断变化的,把火作为永久变化的元素;Empedocles摒弃了了单独元素的概念并引进了四种元素：水,空气,火和土,他也因为他的实验证明了空气是一种物质结构而出名;火这种元素最早被柏拉图引用他猜测每种元素的粒子有特定的形体,尽管这种粒子太小以至于看不见;因此,火的最小的粒子有规则的四面体结构,空气是八面体,水是二十面体,土是立方体主要是六面体;规则的四面体,八面体,二十面体,立方体是多面体的例子,总共有五种;规则的的多面体表面是全等的规则体,点和点是全等的;火是被认为最小,最尖锐和最轻的在所有的元素中,因为它很容易伤人和熄灭;看似规则的四面体是自然的选择被认为是火的形状,因为它是规则多面体中最小和最尖锐的;水是最大,最滑和最重的,因为它总是从地表光滑的流入峡谷;因此,正二十面体似乎是一种自然的选择,其形状由二十个正三角形组成;空气在火与水之间,于是出现了自然分配规则的八面体由八种正三角形组成空气;那就是正八面体有相同的面;正三角形,作为正四面体和正八面体的面;它面得数量在那两个面数量之间;事实上,这些四面体,八面体和二十面体可以被分解成也可以相似的形成其他多面体的正三角形,柏拉图认为,火,空气和水是可以相互转化的,也就是说,说能够被火转化成空气,然而在高层大气中当空气中没有火时,它就只能转化为水,形成雨或雪;最后一种元素是重而稳定的土;它被假设成为立方体形,由六个正方形组成;因为它不可能减少立方而转变为三角形,也不可能转变为正方形,所以柏拉图认为土不能够转变成为火,空气或者是水;这些都在柏拉图的蒂迈欧篇的对话中被讨论过;在十二面体中,柏拉图看到了宇宙的外部形状,因为在所有规则的正多面体中,它的体积是最接近球体体积的;蒂迈欧篇也包含了一些有关于有机和无机体的组成的讨论,可以被视为一个基本的有关化学的论文;在这一点上应该也许强调,柏拉图教导,理念,形式,是真正的基本模式背后的现象,这是说,思想是最根本的对象;柏拉图的这种四种元素的形状规则很有可能第一次用数学的模型应用在化学上;因为规则的多面体是数学结构物体;这种规则存在着点,面,楞的数量关系,第一次被欧拉发现,所以称为欧拉定理;描述为：V+F-E=2这是被认为第二完美的数学公式;有趣的是,为什么希腊人没有发现欧拉公式呢可能最简单的解释就是希腊数学比拓扑学要早两千年;作为数学的一部分,拓扑学只注重于处理事物之间的联系,而不关心事物的本质和度量;关于上述元素的一般化论述是被Aristotle提出的;他接受了四种元素的理念,同时引进了元素变化的概念;Aristotle认为通过结合事物相反的基本属性就能获得这些元素;这些属性包括冷、热和冷、湿和干;湿和热的结合产生了空气,湿和冷的结合形成了水;类似的,冷和干形成土;Aristotle还提出了第五种元素,被称为典范的醚;他认为天空和宇宙就是有着第五种元素构成;它定义了一种简单体,其他的物质都能分解为这种简单体但它本身却不可再分;他对一些化学反应进行了分类,首先提到的就是汞和蒸馏技术;Aristotle的思想主导了科学界近两千年;希腊学者还提出了关于物质结构的另一种理论,这关系到物质的可分割性;Leucippus是思考这个问题的打一个希腊哲学家;他认为物质是不能被无穷分解的,应为在物质分解的过程中,物质迟早会被分解的小到无法再被分解;他的学生Democritus,来自于Abdera,继续发展了他的理论;Democritus将这种最终的物质命名为原子,以为不可再分割的;我们常说的术语原子被来源于此;原子的概念是物质结构的原子理论和唯物主义哲学的基础;希腊哲学家们,特别是Aristotle不接受Leucippus和Democritus的原子理论;然而,原子理论并没有就此完结,因为Epicurus将原子理论作为他哲学思想的一部分,Epicurus的哲学思想在接下来的几个世纪都为人追捧;其中之一就是罗马诗人和哲学家Lucretius,他写的一本名曰De,Rerum Nature的精彩教学性诗集;在这本书中他大力颂扬原子理论的Democritus和Epicurus;Democritus和Epicurus的大部分工作记录都遗失了,但Lucretius的诗集完整无缺的保留了下来,并担任起向现代希腊人传达原子理论的中人;院子的分离和原子弹的出现就证实了原子理论是一个多完美的理论模型;在整个历史过程中,唯心主义哲学和唯物主义哲学一直的相反的,从化学的角度来看哲学,唯物主义为理解化合物的结构提供了一个基础;然而,物质的宏观性质,例如气味、颜色和味道也能被Plato的思想解释,同时他的理论也特别适合学习化合物结构的数学性质;如果我们结合唯物主义哲学在化学方面的实验性成果和唯心主义哲学的理论性成果,很明显,它们都是为化学发展所需的;当然,对于其他学科也是如此;炼金术作为一种化学形式,存在于公元前300年一直到十七世纪的后半叶;这是一个对于化学发展少有帮助的时期;因为炼金术士是一群对于理论和数学都不怎么关心的实验性人员;他们有两个主要目的：1点石成金；2长生不老;炼金术来源于古埃及;炼金术士的工作中有许多的魔法,并且他们的符号也很难被破译;然而,许多炼金术士所使用的译码系统都是真正的密码和一些基础数学;必须强调的是,化学作为一门科学真正始于时期实际的后半叶;随着Boyle的The Sceptical Chymist一书的出现,炼金术已逐渐转化为现在为人所知的科学化学;从炼金术到科学化学的转化时期持续了一个多世纪;它始于Boyle的书,终止于Lavoisier的Ttaite Elementire de Chimie;在这一时期出现了第一个统一性化学理论,名曰燃素理论;燃素来源于希腊词汇Φλογστοσ,意思为易燃的;如今,许多字典将化学定义为“研究物质组成、结构、性质和物质相互转化的反应的科学”;然而,知道了化学的定义并不等同于理解了它的实质;事实上,化学是一门实验科学;实验充当了两个角色;它为观察提供了基础,通过观察我们可以定义一些能被理论所解释的问题;同时,它为验证新理论的正确性提供了了一种途径;我们强调实验对于化学的重要性;2饮用水质量和健康消除水体中感染的病源是确保公共供水系统安全的主要考虑的因素;在上个世纪,当人们认识到细菌的起因,消除了下水道水污染,应用了消毒处理后,英国和欧洲其他国家的主要流行病：霍乱和伤寒基本消灭了;1937年在英国,由于氯化处理所有的公共供水系统导致了伤寒流行病;从那时到1986年,在英国的记录中一共有34次水体疾病的爆发;在这些疾病中,21次是由于公共供水系统的消毒失败和水处理带来的污染所造成的;近来出现了一些影响水系统微生物安全性的新问题;但是在保持有效监控策略的同时,通过数种合适的消毒措施保持足够的安全性却使其达到记录史最高水平;尽管早期饮用水标准中已经包含了铅及其他有毒元素的标准;但20世纪后半叶以来,人们对健康因素于饮用水中化学成分关系的关注却仍在不断增加;在20世纪70年代和80年代,最主要的水质化学处理的热点源于色谱以及后来的质谱的应用;起初源于杀虫剂,这些和随后分析科学的发展第一次揭示在痕量中水中的有机物含量有很大范围的变化;这些东西对健康的重要性仍然还不清楚,但毫无疑问,在如此高的浓度下,很多现象已经显现出来;很不幸,饮用水中化学物质的组成严重影响健康,尽管它含量很少很难测量,但在人一生中如此低的浓度的含量也很容易显现出来;由于缺少影响人类健康的鲜明证据,以毒理学估计为基础,许多国家,国际组织采取对饮用水化学成分的预防限制;例如：世界健康组织,美国环境保护署,加拿大健康及福利社,欧盟等;这些限制包含了无机物和有机物的限制;在1971年,世界健康组织一共提出了饮用水中九种化学物质的限制,八种无机物和一种有机物;到1993年,在WHO中饮用水指标中的化学物质限制共增长到94项,22种无机物,72种有机物;这一阶段因此很明显和饮用水标准中增加的复杂性有关;除了考虑对健康的影响外,饮用水的化学成分在消费者的可接受性方面也是相当重要的;它涉及外观,气味,味道,硬度和腐蚀性等;目前公共供水系统的质量要求的规定是在1989年的英国和威尔士的供水法规上定义的;而相同的标准已经被苏格兰和北爱尔兰废除了;英国标准必须符合欧盟指令,指令是水质必须是以人们的消费为目的的;这个法令限低了水中44种物质的含量,很多地区被规范;在欧盟中这些指令提供了国家关于饮用水中物质最低量的基础;对更大范围内的污染物进行更严格的限制,必须包含在自然法规中;例如,英国饮用水标准中增加了11项标准;在1984年和1993年,WHO提出了饮用水指标,这是世界专家所做的最新综述和建议;并且,提出这些是为了负责地给世界范围内的国家机构提供制定饮用水标准的指导;WHO指标还没有立法效应,但它广泛的提供了在饮用水健康方面的有用信息;欧盟的饮用水质量标准的基础,在1985年推行,但貌似在某种程度上WHO的饮用水标准自1970年推出后从没实行过;这个标准已经广泛的被科学界所批判,现在正在审查最近WHO提出的大多数指标;未处理的天然水通常铅的含量很低,饮用水中铅含量几乎完全由家庭中的铅管和服务设施所带来的,它经常但不总是于软水连接在一起,随着和铅管的接触,铅溶解的浓度增加,最大铅含量是在早上首次使用时;现代管道系统避免了铅的使用,但英国的许多旧设施仍然用铅管,甚至在软水地区;除了用铅管,铅也可能是某种焊接材料的成分,合金和聚氯乙烯管也会接触到饮用水;铅通常是一种有毒物并在骨骼内积累,血铅含量经常作为铅含量的指标,许多研究已经表明血铅含量和水中铅含量有关;当今英国饮用水血铅浓度限制是低于50ug/L;饮用水中如此低的铅含量可以导致检测血铅总量的增加,虽然它引起了对可能的结果的关注,但这一事实本事并非坏事;影响儿童学习能力,一般行为的神经生理学因素是最重要的,这些儿童以及孕妇,婴儿是人口中最易感人群;根据一些证据的审核,WHO在1993年建立了一个健康标准,饮用水中铅含量要低于10ug/L;水处理是铅溶解可能的补救措施中最引人注目的;小心的调节PH使其在8到8.5之间,加入少量的正磷酸盐,在某种情况下可以有效的将铅含量减少到50ug/L;然而没有办法用水处理方法来完成10ug/L的铅限量,唯一的补救措施就是完全代替铅而用一种更可行的材料;这是一种很昂贵的选择,WHO已经认识到需要时间来找到这种材料;人们都知道铅溶解难以解决,因而必须来减少消费者对水腐蚀的接触,并建议人们避免使用‘首次’的水;流经铅管多次的水的含铅浓度根据不同因素决定如接触时间和流量,最主要的是在对比铅的标准进行的水检测时确保样品的条件具有充分的代表性;自从1960年之后,在大英联合王国有大量的证据表明水中硝酸盐的含量有所增加,虽然把这种现象的原因归因于过多的氮肥使用,但是也有一些额外的因素需要被考虑;这些因素包括改变土地的使用,特别是把草原转变成耕地,以及不断增加的废水流入底下水的循环;硝酸盐在引用水中的限制基于它对血液疾病的影响,如正在哺育的婴儿所患有的正铁血红蛋白症;1970年世界健康组织欧洲饮用水标准合适的硝酸盐含量为50mg/L,含量在50~100mg/L被认为是可以接受的供量,医学权威警告说超过这个量就有患上婴儿正铁血红蛋白症的可能危险;欧盟饮用水指导允许的最大硝酸盐含量50mg/L,这也是世界健康组织在1933年设立的指导值;在英国硝酸盐的含量超过50mg/L就对邻近的数百万人有潜在的影响,但是并没有婴儿正铁血红蛋白症案例的证据;人们大量的关注在成年人的胃里摄取的硝酸盐被还原成亚硝酸盐的可能性,亚胺的存在导致了内部含氮亚硝基化合物的合成;含氮亚硝基化合物的重要性在于它们中的大多数对实验室的动物有高致癌性,同样也关注到水中高的硝酸盐含量与肠胃和泌尿系统癌症不断增加的发生率有关;在英国整个情况并不是如此,然而还是能支持这个观点;不仅当硝酸盐含量增加是肠胃癌发生率增加,而且在许多地区发现当饮用水中硝酸盐含量很低时仍有很高的肠胃癌发生率;世界健康组织审查了有关水中硝酸盐和胃癌关系的有利证据,得出：胃癌和水中硝酸盐含量的关系没有可信的证据,但在当前指标中,高于这个浓度时,证据是不确定的;3 元素周期表随着对原子的描述越来越详尽,我们发现自己处于进退两难之地;涉及着100种元素,我们怎样使这些元素保持连续性;一种方法是用元素周期表,周期表把原子信息列成表;它记录着一种元素含有多少质子和电子,它使我们可以计算出大多数元素同位素的中子数;周期表也存有每种元素的电子排列情况;周期表最不寻常的是它的发展是在人们还不知道原子中含有质子和中子之前;道尔顿提出了他的原子模型后不久一种不可再分的粒子,它的质量取决于它的性质,化学家开始根据原子质量来排列元素;当得出这种元素表,科学家们观测到元素的规律;例如,那些出现在特定的位置重的元素有某些相似性,这一观点已经越来越明显;当时已知的约60种元素中,第二种和第九种元素表现出相似性,第三种与第十种元素,第四种与第十一种元素也都具有相似的性质;1869年,门捷列夫,一个俄国化学家,提出了他们的元素周期表;他列表时考虑到原子质量和元素某种特性的周期性;这些元素主要是按原子质量递增的顺序排列的;在特别情况下,门捷列夫把较重的元素放在较轻元素之前;他这样做是为了在相同列上的元素有相似的化学性质;比如,他把蹄原子质量=128放在碘原子质量=127之前,因为蹄的性质和硫及硒相似,而碘的性质和氯及溴相似;门捷列夫i在他的周期表中列了许多气体,在他的周期表中留下了一些空格,他非但没有将那些空格看成缺憾,反而大胆地预测还存在着未被发现的元素;而且,他还预测了许多未知元素的性质;在接下来的几年里,许多气体被填充在新发现的元素中;这些元素的性质通常和门捷列夫预测的非常接近;这些伟大创新的预测使门捷列夫的元素周期表被广泛接受;我们都知道,一种元素的性质主要取决于原子最外层能级上的电子数;Na在它的最外层能级第三层有一个电子,Li原子在它的最外层第二层有一个单独的电子;Na和Li的化学性质相似;He和Ne原子已将所有能级排满,它们性质也相似,就是不容易发生化学反应;很明显,不仅具有相似性电子构型排列的原子有相似的化学性质,而且,某种电子排列会比其他的排列更稳定;在门捷列夫的元素周期表中,大多数情况下元素是按照原子质量排列的;这种排列也揭示了元素化学的周期性;因为电子数决定了元素的化学性质,所以电子数也应该决定元素在周期表中的位置;在现代元素周期表中,元素是按照原子序数来排列的;注意,这个数表明在一种元素的中性原子中有多少质子和中子;现代元素周期表,根据原子序数的递增而排列的,而门捷列夫周期表是以原子质量的递增来排列的,通常原子序数的增加是与原子质量的增加同步的;在特殊情况下,原子质量落后于原子序数,因为原子质量是质子和中子质量的而加和,故原子质量并不完全随原子序数增加而增加;有可能一种较低原子序数的原子有更大的原子质量;因此可以在元素周期表上看出来;Ar原子的质量比k原子的质量重;Te原子比I原子质量重;现代元素周期表的竖列叫做族;每一族的元素在最外层能级上有相同的电子数,因而有相反的化学性质,水平的行叫做周期;每一新周期预示着主电子能级的开始;例如,na从第三行开始;它的最外电子层是第三层第一个电子,因为每一行就开始了一个新的能级,所以我们可以从上到下预测原子的大小,因为当电子远离中子是,容易移动,我们也可以预测到原子越大,电离能越低,电离能是能移动电子的能量;在化学中,元素被分为两大类,金属元素和非金属元素,金属元素通常很硬,有光泽的元素,是可竖的,有延展性,我们也知道电子可以导电导热,现代社会建设中所需的许多坚固框架就是来自金属;五千多年前,金属的发明和使用将人类文明带出石器时代;第二类元素的特点是缺乏金属性,它们是非金属元素;非金属元素通常是气体或液体并不导电;在普遍性之外也有许多需要值得注意的例外,也有非常硬的非金属和很软的金属;比如,C的一种非金属金刚石是现知最硬的物质;汞,一种金属,在室温下为液体;几乎每个人对金属有普遍的认识; 除了物理性质之外,金属和非金属在化学性质上也有不同,我们将在后面章节中讨论;区别金属和非金属的性质也不是绝对的,许多元素有折中的性质,许多可归为独立的一类;划分元素并不局限于将他们划分为这两类;我们发现所有的金属并不完全相同,所以进一步分类是有可能的;这就像人类分为两种性别,男和女;但后来发现可以根据性格进一步划分内向和外向;关于金属,我们首先注意到许多化学性质并不活泼;一些金属如铜、金、银是非常耐腐蚀、耐生锈的;许多金属制的硬币和珠宝,不仅因为他们相对稀有美观,也因为他们有化学惰性;由于这个原因他们被称为贵金属;发现于几百年前沉船上的金币和银币沉入海底后,仍然可以打磨出他们原有的光泽;其他的金属却很不同,他们与水和空气反应很剧烈,实际上锂、钠、钾必须保存在油中,因为他们可以与水剧烈地反应可以达到爆炸;这些金属可以归纳为我们所知的活泼金属;因此,铜、银、金可以归为一类金属,锂、钠、钾可以归为另一类;以这些金属的相似关系,我们也适当的进行了归类;到目前为止,周期表中我们主要强调的是竖列;包含一族元素;事实上,在水平行上也有许多相同的特征;周期表中水平行中的元素叫做周期元素;每一周期是以一族元素结束的,称为惰性气体;这些元素就像贵金属一样,由单原子组成性质不活泼;低一周期包含两种元素,H和He;第二、三周期有八种元素,第四、五周期有十八种元素;第六周期有三十二种元素,第七周期有26种第七周期如果排满将包含三十二种元素;每一族是按该元素上方的数字编号的,最常用的是罗马数字后紧随A和B;另一种方法最终被接受,从第一族到第十八族;现在还不确定哪种方法胜出,或选用其他方法会被普遍接受;4总结化合物宿命包括：水,盐,糖,氨和石英;Compounds common names include water , salt , sugar, ammonia ,and quartz.1.阳离子命名the names of cations1.单原子阳离子的名称同元素的名称相同,后跟随离子一词;The names of monatomic cations are the same as the name of the element , with the addition of the word ion .例如：钠离子Sodium ion2 当一种元素可以形成不止一种阳离子,用编码---罗马数字等于离子电荷数来命名;When an element can form more than one kind of cation , we use the stock number , a Roman numeral equal to the change of the cation .例如：亚铜离子Cu+copperI ion 铜离子Cu2+ copperII ion亚铁离子Fe2+ironII ion 铁离子Fe3+ironIII ion2.阴离子命名Names of Anions1单原子阴离子命名时,元素名作为第一部分,加上后缀—ide;Monatomic anion are named by adding the suffix—ide and the first part of the。

大学英语精读课程教学大纲（实验班）一、层次与学制：本科，四年制二、教学时数：260学时，第一、二、三、四学期开设；周学时4三、适用专业：国际工商管理学院2010级1、2班四、课程性质与任务大学英语教学是我国高等教育的一个有机组成部分，也是体现我校“成人、成才、成功”教育理念的一门必修公共基础课。

大学体验英语综合教程教学是以英语语言知识与使用技能、学习策略和跨文化交际为主要内容，以外语教学理论为指导，充分利用现代化信息技术，采用基于计算机和课堂的大学英语精读教学模式，改进以教师讲授为主的单一教学模式，有利益促进学生个性化学习方法的形成和自主学习能力的发展。

大学英语精读课教学的终旨是培养学生的英语综合应用能力及以口头和书面的形式进行信息交流的能力。

五、教学教学目的与基本要求大学英语教学的目的是：培养学生的英语综合应用能力，特别是听说能力，使他们在今后工作和社会交往中能用英语有效地进行口头和书面的信息交流，同时增强其自主学习能力，提高综合文化素养，以适应我国社会发展和国际交流的需要。

教学要求：1. 听力理解能力能听懂英语授课并能听懂日常英语谈话和一般性题材的讲座，能基本听懂慢速英语节目，语速为每分钟120词左右，能掌握其中心大意，抓住要点，能运用基本的听力技巧帮助理解。

2. 口语表达能力能在学习过程中用英语交流，并能就某一主题进行讨论，能就日常话题和英语国家的人士进行交谈，能就熟悉的话题，经准备后做简短发言，表达比较清楚，语音、语调基本正确。

能在交谈中使用基本的会话策略。

3. 阅读能力能基本读懂一般性题材的英文文章，阅读速度达到每分钟70词。

在快速阅读篇幅较长、难度略低的材料时阅读速度达到每分钟100词。

能基本读懂国内英文报刊，掌握中心意思，理解主要事实和有关细节；能读懂工作、生活中常见的应用文体；能在阅读中使用有效的阅读方法。

4. 书面表达能力能完成一般性的写作任务，能描述个人的经历、情感和发生的事件等，能写常见的应用文，能就一定的话题或提纲在半小时内写出不少于150字的短文，内容基本完整，用词恰当，语意连贯；能掌握基本的写作技能。