Illustrating_the_Oxidation_States_of_Mn

三亚2024年09版小学英语第6单元期末试卷考试时间：100分钟（总分:140）B卷考试人：_________题号一二三四五总分得分一、综合题(共计100题)1、What is the capital of Vanuatu?A. Port VilaB. LuganvilleC. VilaD. Santo答案:A2、听力题：I want to ________ a new bike.3、听力题：Oxidation reactions involve the ________ of electrons.4、填空题：A ______ (鱼) can be colorful and beautiful.5、填空题：Many plants have medicinal ______ (用途).6、听力题：A reaction that releases gas is called a ______ reaction.7、What is the term for a baby lion?A. CubB. KitC. PupD. Foal答案:A8、听力题：The Earth's surface is covered by various types of ______ ecosystems.The ______ (小鸟) sings a beautiful melody in the ______ (清晨).10、填空题：The ancient Greeks held ________ to celebrate athletic competition.11、填空题：The artist exhibits her work in a _____ (画廊).12、填空题：I enjoy playing _________ with my sister. (桌面游戏)13、What do we call the process of converting a liquid into a gas?a. Evaporationb. Condensationc. Sublimationd. Filtration答案:a14、听力题：His favorite sport is ________.15、听力题：The capybara is very ____.16、What do we call the study of the Earth's physical structure?A. GeographyB. GeologyC. BiologyD. Meteorology答案:B17、填空题：The artist held an _____ (展览) of his work.18、填空题：The coach, ______ (教练), leads our team to victory.19、选择题：What do you call a person who writes plays?A. AuthorB. PlaywrightC. DirectorD. ProducerThe Earth's layers have different ______ characteristics.21、What do we call the process of plants making food using sunlight?A. RespirationB. PhotosynthesisC. DigestionD. Fertilization答案:B22、听力题：The chemical symbol for neon is _______.23、听力题：The ______ is very passionate about education.24、听力题：My brother likes to _____ video games. (play)25、听力题：The __________ is the imaginary line at degrees longitude.26、听力题：The __________ is the imaginary line that circles the Earth halfway between the poles.27、What is the name of the famous ancient ruin in Peru?A. Machu PicchuB. TikalC. PetraD. Stonehenge答案:A. Machu Picchu28、听力题：I have a brown ___. (dog)29、填空题：The blue whale is the largest animal on ________________ (地球).30、What do you call the person who studies stars and planets?a. Biologistb. Geologistc. Astronomerd. Chemist答案:CShe has two ___ and one brother. (sisters, sister, brother)32、听力题：The Earth's surface is shaped by both ______ and geological processes.33、Which of these is a vegetable?A. AppleB. CarrotC. BananaD. Grape34、填空题：A ________ (植物数据分析) informs research.35、Which animal is known as the "King of the Jungle"?A. ElephantB. LionC. TigerD. Bear答案:B36、听力题：A reaction that releases light is called a ______ reaction.37、填空题：A porcupine can defend itself with its ________________ (刺).38、听力题：They like to _____ (play/work) outside.39、填空题：Mount Fuji is a famous ________ (富士山是著名的________) in Japan.40、What is the opposite of "young"?A. OldB. NewC. FreshD. Young41、填空题：A sloth spends most of its time in ______ (树上).42、What do we call a place where people go to watch movies?A. TheatreB. CinemaC. AuditoriumD. Concert Hall答案：B43、What is the capital of Ethiopia?A. NairobiB. Addis AbabaC. DakarD. Cairo答案:B44、填空题：I love watching ______ (星星) at night, especially during a ______ (流星雨).45、听力题：The _______ can be a beautiful addition to any room.46、What do you call the outer layer of the Earth?A. CoreB. MantleC. CrustD. Shell47、填空题：The ________ (生态灾害) can harm wildlife.48、填空题：The _______ (The Magna Carta) limited the power of the monarchy.49、听力题：She is studying to be a ________.50、填空题：The coach, ______ (教练), motivates us to improve.51、听力题：We strive for ________ (excellence) in our work.52、听力题：The _____ (tree) is tall.53、听力题：He drinks ___ in the morning. (milk)54、What do we use to see underwater?A. BinocularsB. TelescopeC. GogglesD. Glasses答案: C55、填空题：The __________ (历史的真相) can be complex.56、What do you call a large, round cheese?A. CheddarB. GoudaC. BrieD. Wheel答案：D57、填空题：The ________ is a fun game to play with friends.58、How many Earth years does it take for Neptune to orbit the sun?A. 15B. 84C. 165D. 25059、听力题：The chemical formula for potassium hydroxide is _____.60、填空题：We have a ______ (丰富的) schedule for learning activities.61、What do we call the act of encouraging personal responsibility?A. AccountabilityB. OwnershipC. LeadershipD. All of the Above答案：D62、听力题：I like to play ______ (musical) instruments.63、听力题：A _______ reaction occurs when a substance is oxidized.64、What do you call the person who helps you in a gym?A. TrainerB. ChefC. DoctorD. Teacher答案: A65、听力题：A solution that contains a small amount of solute is called ______.66、听力题：The chemical formula for potassium nitrate is _______.67、填空题：I love to _______ with my dog.68、听力题：The __________ is the center of the earth.69、填空题：The country known for its lighthouses is ________ (美国).70、填空题：The ________ was a significant period of artistic achievement.71、填空题：In the fall, we can see many ______ (南飞的鸟).72、填空题：I believe that practice makes _______ (完美). I will keep trying to improve my _______ (技能).73、选择题：Which instrument has keys and is played by pressing them?A. GuitarB. DrumsC. PianoD. Flute74、What is the capital of the United States?A. New YorkB. Washington, D.C.C. Los AngelesD. Chicago75、填空题：The ________ was a period of time when dinosaurs roamed the Earth.The ________ (initiative) drives progress.77、What is the capital city of Mongolia?A. UlaanbaatarB. ErdenetC. DarkhanD. Choibalsan答案: A78、填空题：I saw a rabbit hopping in the ______.79、听力题：A physical change can be easily ______.80、What do we call the outer layer of the Earth?A. CoreB. MantleC. CrustD. Atmosphere答案: C81、听力题：The chemical formula for sodium sulfate is ______.82、听力题：I _____ (play/learn) the guitar.83、听力题：The ancient Egyptians used ________ to construct their pyramids.84、听力题：Chemical properties describe how a substance _____ with other substances.85、选择题：What do you call a house for bees?A. NestB. HiveC. DenD. Burrow86、填空题：The rabbit has big _________ (耳朵).The flowers in the garden attract _______ and happy bees.88、听力题：A ______ is a representation of scientific principles.89、What color is a typical fire truck?A. BlueB. GreenC. RedD. Yellow答案:C90、填空题：My family enjoys having ________ (周末聚会) together.91、What is the name of the toy that you can pull apart and put back together?A. PuzzleB. LegoC. Action FigureD. Doll答案:B92、听力题：The process of osmosis involves the movement of __________.93、填空题：My cat purrs when it feels ______ (放松).94、What do we call a person who studies the impact of technology on society?A. SociologistB. TechnologistC. AnthropologistD. Historian答案: A95、Which animal lives in the Arctic?A. LionB. Polar BearC. KangarooD. Elephant答案: B96、填空题：The __________ is a large body of water surrounded by land. (湖泊)What is 40 - 15?A. 25B. 20C. 30D. 3598、听力题：The chemical symbol for xenon is ______.99、听力题：A chemical reaction that involves the exchange of ions is called a _____.100、听力题：My cousin is interested in ____ (robotics).。

Oxidation and Reduction ReactionsPeriod/Topic Worksheets Quiz1. Oxidation, Reduction, Agents, & Reactions. 12. Lab: The Strength of Oxidizing Agents.3. Oxidation Numbers Spontaneous Reactions 2 14. Oxidation Numbers, Application to Reactions. 35. Balancing Redox Half Reactions Acid/Base. 4 26. Balancing Redox Reactions in Acid/Base. 57. Standard Potentials Using Chart. 6 38. Electrochemical Cells. 79. Electrochemical Cells Lab.10. Electrolytic Cells. 8 411. Electrolytic Cells Lab.12. Application of Electrochemical Cells13. Application of Electrolytic Cells 9 514. Corrosion, Redox Titrations, Breathalyzer 10 615. Review. Internet Review Practice Test 116. Review Practice Test 217. Test.Worksheet #1 Redox Half Reactions and ReactionsDefine each1. Oxidation2. Reduction3. Oxidizing agent4. Reducing agentWrite half reactions for each of the following atoms or ions. Label each as oxidation or reduction.5. Al6. S7. O-28. Ba2+9. N3-10. Br211. P12. Ca13 Ga3+14. S15. H216. H+17. F-18. P3-Balance each spontaneous redox equation. Identify the entities reduced and oxidized. State the reducing agent and the oxidizing agent.19. Al & Zn2+20. F2 & O2-21. O2& Ca22. Al3+ & LiWrite the oxidation and reduction reactions for each redox reaction. The first one is done for you.23. Fe2++ Co ⇄Co2++ FeOxidation: Co →Co2++ 2e-Reduction: Fe2++ 2e-→Fe24. 3 Ag++ Ni ⇄Ni3++ 3 AgOxidation:Reduction:25. Cu2+ + Pb ⇄Pb2++ CuOxidation:Reduction:26. O2+ 2 Sn ⇄O2-+ 2 Sn2+Oxidation:Reduction:27. Co2++ 2 F-⇄Co + F2Oxidation:Reduction:28. There are nine formulas for oxidizing agents from questions 19 to 28. List them all. Onlyconsider formulas that are on the left side of any equation. The first one is done for you.Zn2+29. There are nine formulas for reducing agents from questions 19 to 28. List them all. Onlyconsider formulas that are on the left side of any equation. The first one is done for you.AlWorksheet #2 Redox Half Reactions and Reactions1. State the Oxidation Number of each of the elements that is underlined.a) NH3_____ b) H2SO4_____c) ZnSO3_____ d) Al(OH)3_____e) Na _____ f) Cl2_____g) AgNO3_____ h) ClO4-_____i) SO2_____ j) K2Cr2O4_____k) Ca(ClO3)2_____ l) K2Cr2O7_____m) HPO32-_____ n) HClO _____o) MnO2_____ p) KClO3_____q) PbO2_____ r) PbSO4_____s) K2SO4_____ t) NH4+_____u) Na2O2_____ v) FeO _____w) Fe2O3_____ x) SiO44-_____y) NaIO3_____ z) ClO3-_____aa) NO3-_____ bb) Cr(OH)4_____cc) CaH2_____ dd) Pt(H2O)5(OH)2+_____ee) Fe(H2O)63+_____ ff) CH3COOH _____2. What is the oxidation number of carbon in each of the following substances?a) CO _____ b) C _____c) CO2_____ d) CO32-_____e) C2H6_____ f) CH3OH _____3. For each of the following reactants, identify: the oxidizing agent, the reducing agent, thesubstance oxidized and the substance reduced. Use oxidation numbers.a) Cu2+(aq)+ Zn (s)→Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq)Substance oxidized _____ Substance reduced _____Oxidizing agent _____ Reducing agent _____b) Cl2 (g)+ 2 Na (s) → 2 Na+(aq)+ 2 Cl-(aq)Substance oxidized _____ Substance reduced ____Oxidizing agent _____ Reducing agent _____Worksheet # 3 Spontaneous and Non-spontaneous Redox Reactions Describe each reaction as spontaneous or non-spontaneous.1. Au3+ + Fe3+ → Fe2+ + Au2. Pb + Fe3+ → Fe2+ + Pb2+3. Cl2 + F- → F2 + 2Cl-4. S2O82- + Pb → 2SO42- + Pb2+5. Cu2+ + 2Br-→ Cu + Br26. Sn2+ + Br2→ Sn4+ + 2Br-7. Pb2+ + Fe2+→ Fe3+ + Pb8. Can you keep 1 M HCl in an iron container? If the answer is no, write a balancedequation for the reaction that would occur.9. Can you keep 1 M HCl in an Ag container? If the answer is no, write a balanced equationfor the reaction that would occur.10. Can you keep 1 M HNO3 in an Ag container? If the answer is no, write a balancedequation for the reaction that would occur. (HNO3 consists of two ions H+ and NO3-) 11. Can you keep 1 M HNO3 in an Au container? If the answer is no, write a balancedequation for the reaction that would occur. (Remember, HNO3 consists of two ions H+and NO3-)12. Circle each formula that is able to lose an electronO2Cl-Fe Na+13. Determine the oxidation number for the element underlined.PbSO4__________ ClO3-__________HP032-__________ Na2O2__________CaH2__________ Al2(SO4)3 __________NaIO3__________ C4H12__________14. Al3+ + Zn →Al + Zn2+Substance oxidized _______ Oxidizing agent ________15. Cr2O72-+ ClO2- →Cr3++ ClO4-Substance reduced ________ Oxidizing agent ________16. State the Oxidation Number of each of the elements that is underlined.a) NH3__________ b) H2SO4__________c) ZnCO3 __________ d) Al(OH)3__________e) Na __________ f) Cl2__________17. Balance the redox equation using the half reaction method.Al & AgNO318. Circle each formula that is able to lose an electronO2Cl-Fe Na+Determine the oxidation number for the element underlined.19. PbSO4__________20. ClO3-__________21. HPO32-__________22. Na202 __________23. CaH2__________24. NaIO3__________25. C4H12__________26. Al2(SO4)3 __________27. Al3++ Zn →Al + Zn2+Substance oxidized __________ Oxidizing agent __________28. Cr2O72-+ClO2-→Cr3+ + ClO4-Substance reduced __________ Oxidizing agent __________29. O3 + H2O + SO2→ SO42- + O2 + 2H+Substance oxidized__________ Reducing agent __________30. 3As2O3 + 4NO3- + 7H2O + 4 H+→ 6H3AsO4 + 4NOSubstance reduced __________ Reducing agent __________ Worksheet # 4 Balancing Redox ReactionsBalance each of the following half-cell reactions. (In each case assume that the reaction takes place in an ACIDIC solution.) Also, state whether the reaction is oxidation or reduction.1. S2O32- →SO42-2. MnO4- → Mn2+3. As →AsO43-4. Cr3+ →Cr2O72-5. Pb2+ →PbO26. SO42- → S7. NO3- →NO8. NO3- →NH4+9. BrO3- → Br2Balancing Half Cell Reactions Balance in basic solution.10. NO3- →NO11. MnO4- → Mn2+12. As →AsO43-13. Cr3+ →Cr2O72-14. Pb2+ →PbO215. SO42- → S16. S2O32- →SO42-17. NO3- →NH4+18. BrO3- → Br219. Determine if each of the following changes is oxidation, reduction or neither.SO32-→SO42-________________CaO →Ca ________________CrO42-→Cr2O72-________________CrO42-→Cr3+________________2I-→I2________________IO3-→I2________________MnO4-→Mn2+________________ClO2-→ClO-________________ 20. Cr2O72-+ Fe2+→Cr3++ Fe3+Substance oxidized _____ Substance reduced _____ Oxidizing agent _____ Reducing agent _____Worksheet # 5 Balancing Redox Reactions in Acid and Basic Solution Balance each redox equation. Assume all are spontaneous. Use the half reaction method.1. O2-+ F22. Al + O23. K + Zn+2Balance each half reaction in basic solution.4. Cr2O72 - →Cr3+5. NO→NO3-6. SO42- →SO27. MnO2→Mn2O3Balance each redox reaction in acid solution using the half reaction method.8. H2O2+ Cr2O72- →O2+ Cr3+9. TeO32- + N2O4 →Te + NO3-10. ReO4-+ IO-→IO3-+ Re11. PbO2 + I2→Pb2++ IO3-12. As →H2AsO4-+ AsH3 Balance each redox reaction in basic solution using the half reaction method.13. O2+ Cr3+ →H2O2+ Cr2O72-14. Te + NO3- →TeO32-+ N2O415. IO3-+ Re →ReO4-+ IO-16. Pb2++ IO3- →PbO2 + I217. Cr2O72- + Hg →Hg2++ Cr3+State of the change represents oxidation, reduction or neither. Use oxidation #s. Remember that if the oxidation # increases it means oxidation and when it decreases it mean reduction!18. MnO2→Mn2O319. NH3→NO220. HClO4 →HCl + H2O21. O2→O2-22. P2O5→P4H10Determine the oxidation number23. H2S O4 22. HS O4-24. P4 23. NaH25. U O3 24. Na2O226. U2O525. P b SO4Worksheet # 6 Review1. Describe each in your own wordsa) Oxidationb) Reductionc) Oxidizing agentd) Reducing agent2. Write half reactions for each. Describe as oxidation or reduction. Circle all oxidizing agents.a) Nab) Cac) Al3+d) F1-e) N2f) O2-3. Write the reaction between the following: Use the half reaction method.a) Ca + Al(NO3)3b) Sn + AgNO3c) Sn + Au(NO3)34. Circle each reducing agent: Cu Cu+Al Al3+5. Circle each oxidizing agent: F- F O2-O26. Ni+2 reacts with Mn, however, Al+3 does not react with Mn. Rank the oxidizing agents inorder of decreasing strength. Rank the reducing agents in order of decreasing strength.7. Ag+ reacts with Pb, however, Ca+2 does not react with Pb. Rank the reducing agents inorder of decreasing strength. Rank the oxidizing agents in order of decreasing strength.8. Cl2 reacts with Ag, however, Ag does not react with Mg+2. Rank the oxidizing agents inorder of decreasing strength. Rank the reducing agents in order of decreasing strength.9. Ni+2 reacts with Mn, however, Al+3 does not react with Mn. Rank the reducing agents inorder of decreasing strength. Rank the oxidizing agents in order of decreasing strength.10. Cl2 reacts with Br-, however, I2 does not react with Br-. Rank the oxidizing agents inorder of decreasing strength. Rank the reducing agents in order of decreasing strength. Classify as oxidation, reduction or neither.11. SO42-→S2-12. MnO2→MnO4-13. Cr2O72-→CrO42-14. IO3-→I215. Given the following lab dataSnCl2& Ni SpontaneousNi(NO3)2& Fe SpontaneousCr(NO3)3& Fe Non spontaneous.i) Write three balanced equations.ii) Rank the oxidizing agents in decreasing order of strength.iii) Rank the reducing agents in decreasing order of strength.iv) Will SnCl2 react with Cr? Explain?v) Will Fe2+ react with Sn?16. Determine the oxidizing and reducing agent. Balance in acidic solution.MnO4- + H2S →S + MnO17. Determine the oxidizing and reducing agent. Balance in acidic solution.SO42-+ Br2→S2O32-+ BrO3-18. Balance in basic solution MnO4-+ H2S →S + MnO19. Describe as spontaneous or non-spontaneous. Use your reduction potential chart.a) ZnCl2& Cu b) CuCl2& NaClc) Br2& Fe2+d) H2S & Al3+20. Can you keep HCl in a Zn container? Explain? What about an Au container?Balance in basic solution21. SO42- + Br2→S2O32-+ BrO3-Classify as an oxidizing agent, reducing agent or both based on its position on the table.State the E o or voltage of its position. Some of these are both, so state two voltages and indicate that it can be an oxidizing and reducing agent.e.g. MnO4- (in acid) oxidizing agent 1.51 V22. Br2_________________ _________________23. Fe2+_________________ _________________24. MnO4- (water) _________________ _________________25. Ni _________________ _________________26. Cr3+_________________ _________________27. H2O _________________ _________________ Indicate as spontaneous or non-spontaneous.28. MnO4- (Alkaline) & Fe2+29. HNO3& Ag30. HCl & MgWrite each oxidation and reduction half reaction for each question above. Determine the E o for each. Calculate the E o for the overall reaction.34.35.36.Worksheet # 7 Electrochemical Cells1. Oxidation is when electrons are .2. Reduction is when electrons are .3. The reducing agent undergoes .4. The oxidizing agent undergoes .5. A negative voltage means the reaction is .6. In an electrochemical cell electrons exit the electrode which is .7. In an electrochemical cell the reduction reaction is on the chart, while theoxidation reaction is .8. The cathode is the site of and the anode is the site of .9. Anions migrate to the and cations migrate to the .10. Anions have a charge and cations have a charge.Draw and completely analyze each electrochemical cell.11. Zn / Zn(NO3)2 ll Cu / Cu(NO3)212. Ag / AgNO3 ll H2 / HClWorksheet # 8 Electrolytic Cells1. In an electrolytic cell, reduction occurs at the electrode and oxidationoccurs at the electrode.2. If there are two possible reduction reactions, the one on the chart occurs.3. For reduction, the chart is read from to .4. For oxidation, the chart is read from to and the sign of thevoltage is .5. If there are two possible oxidation reactions, the one on the chart occurs.6. Corrosion of a metal is .7. Electrolysis electrical energy.8. Electrochemical cells electrical energy.9. Electrolytic cells electrical energy.10. What is the standard reference cell? E o = vDraw and completely analyze each electrolytic cell.11. Molten NaCl12. Aqueous Na2SO413. Liquid K2O14. 1.0 M LiI15. 250.0 mL of 0.200 M MnO4- reacts with excess SO3-2. How many grams ofMnO2 are produced? This is Chemistry 11 stoichiometry.2MnO4- + 3SO32- + H2O → 2MnO2 + 3SO42- + 2OH-16. Determine the oxidation number for each underlined atom.MnO2Cr2O72-3-C2O42-Al(NO3)317. Describe each term:Salt bridgeElectrolyteAnodeCathodeSpontaneousElectron affinity18. What would happen if you used an aluminum spoon to stir a solution of FeSO4(aq)? Writea reaction and calculate E o.19. Draw an electrochemical cell using Cu and Ag electrodes.20. 250.0 mL of 0.500 M MnO4- are required to titrate a 100.0 ml sample of SO3-2. Calculatethe [SO3-2] 2MnO4- + 3SO32- + H2O → 2MnO2 + 3SO42- + 2OH-21. How is the breathalyzer reaction used to determine blood alcohol content (you mightneed to look this up in your textbook?22. 2H++ Mg → Mg2+ +H2Oxidizing agent__________ Reducing agent_________Worksheet # 9 Electrolytic, Electrochemical Cells & ApplicationDetermine the half reactions for each cell and the cell voltage or minimum theoretical voltage and overall equation.1. Ag / Pb electrochemical cell.Anode: Cathode:Anode reaction: Cathode reaction:Overall reaction: Voltage:2. ZnCl2(l) electrolytic cell (electrowinning)Anode: Cathode:Anode reaction: Cathode reaction:Overall reaction: MTV:3. CuSO4(aq) electrolytic cell (electrowinning)Anode: Cathode:Anode reaction: Cathode reaction:Overall reaction: MTV:4. The electrolysis of 1M NaI (electrowinning)Anode: Cathode:Anode reaction: Cathode reaction:Overall reaction: MTV:5. The reaction needed to make Al. The electrolyte is and its phase is(molten or aqueous).To lower the mp. from 2000 o C to 800 o C is used.Anode: Cathode:Anode reaction: Cathode reaction:Overall reaction:6. The reaction needed to electroplate a copper penny with silver.Anode: Cathode:Anode reaction: Cathode reaction:Possible Electrolyte:7. The reaction needed to nickel plate a copper penny.Anode: Cathode:Anode reaction: Cathode reaction:Possible Electrolyte:8. The reaction used in the electrorefining of lead.Anode: Cathode:Anode reaction: Cathode reaction: Possible Electrolyte:Worksheet # 10 Electrolytic, Electrochemical Cells, Corrosion, & Cathodic Protection Determine the half reactions for each cell and the cell voltage or minimum theoretical voltage.1. Zn / Mg electrochemical cellAnode: Cathode:Anode reaction: Cathode reaction:Overall reaction: Voltage:2. The electrolytic cell used to produce Al.Electrolyte: Phase (aqueous or molten)Anode: Cathode:Anode reaction: Cathode reaction:Overall reaction:3. The electrolysis KI(aq)Anode: Cathode:Anode reaction: Cathode reaction:Overall reaction: MTV4. The electrorefining of PbAnode: Cathode:Anode reaction: Cathode reaction:5. Nickel plating a iron nail.Anode: Cathode:Anode reaction: Cathode reaction:ElectrolyteThe -ve side of the power supply is connected to the6. Draw an Ag/ Zn electrochemical cell.7. Draw a KF(l) electrolytic cell.8. Draw a KF(aq) electrolytic cell.9. Draw a FeI2(aq) electrolytic cell.10. Draw a Cd/Pb electrochemical cell. Cd is not on the reduction chart, however, the Cdelectrode gains mass and the total cell potential is 0.5 v. Determine the half-cell potential for Cd.11. Write the overall reaction and describe the anode and cathode for a Zn/C, fuel, alkalineand lead/acid cell.12. 2HIO3 + 5H2SO3 →I2 + 5H2SO4+ H2Ooxidizing agent substance oxidizedsubstance reduced reducing agent13. What is the electrolyte in a fuel cell?14. What is the fuel in a fuel cell?15. Describe the differences and similarities between an electrolytic and electrochemical cell.16. Describe and give two examples of electrowinning.17. Describe and give one example of electrorefining.18. List three metals that can be won from aqueous solution.19. List three metals that cannot be won from aqueous solution.20. List the electrolyte in each of the following.Fuel cell,Alkaline batteryDry Cell (Leclanche)Lead acid battery21. State two metals that can be used to cathodically protect Fe. Describe how they protectiron from corrosion.22. Write the half reaction that describes the corrosion of iron.23. Write the half reaction that describes the reduction reaction that occurs when ironcorrodes in air and water.24. Why does iron corrode faster in salt water?25. Write the anode and cathode reaction in an electrolytic cell with a CaCl2(l) electrolyte.26. Explain why you would choose Zn or Cu to cathodically protect iron?27. Choose a suitable redox reactant to oxidize Cl- to ClO4- in a redox titration.28. Describe as an electrochemical or electrolytic cell:a) Fuel cellb) Charging a car batteryc) Discharging a car batteryd) Ni platinge) Industrial Al productionf) Cl2 production29. Write the anode and cathode reactions for each of the above processes.30. Al and AgNO3(aq) are mixed and the surface of the Al darkens. List the two oxidizingagents in decreasing strength. List the two reducing agents in decreasing strength.31. Analyze ThisLabel each anode and cathode.Write each anode and cathode reaction.Indicate the ion migration in each cell.Determine the initial cell voltage of the electrochemical cell. Determine the MTV for the electrolytic cell.Will electrolysis occur?Indicate electron flow.Indicate all electrodes that gain mass.Indicate all electrodes that lose mass.What happens to [NO 3-] in the Mg half-cell?What happens to the [Ag +] in the Ag half-cell? What happens to [Mg 2+] in the Mg half-cell?What is the equilibrium electrochemical cell potential? What chemical is made at the Pt electrode on the right? What chemicals are made at the Pt electrode on the left?1 M Mg(NO 3)2 Mg 1 M AgNO 3Pt1 M CuSO4Redox Quiz #1 Agents, Spontaneous Reactions, Oxidation #.1. In a redox reaction, the species that loses electronsA. is oxidizedB. is called the cathodeC. gains mass at the electrodeD. decreases in oxidation number2. Which of the following is the strongest oxidizing agent?A. Cu2+B. Pb2+C. Ni2+D. Sn2+3. Metallic platinum reacts spontaneously with Au3+(aq) but does not react withAg+(aq).The metals, in order of increasing strength as reducing agents, areA. Ag, Pt, AuB. Pt, Au, AgC. Au, Ag, PtD. Au, Pt, Ag4. The oxidizing agent in the reaction below isMnO4- + 5Fe2+ + 8H+→ Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + 4H2OA. Fe2+B. Fe3+C. Mn2+D. MnO4-5. MnO4- + 5Fe2+ + 8H+→ Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + 4H2ODuring the reaction, electrons transfer fromA. Fe3+ to Fe2+B. Fe2+ to MnO4-C. MnO4- to Fe2+D. MnO4- to Mn2+6. As an element is oxidized, its oxidation numberA. increases as electrons are lostB. decreases as electrons are lostC. increases as electrons are gainedD. decreases as electrons are gained7. A solution of 1.0 M Pb(NO3)2 will not react with a container made ofA. CuB. FeC. SnD. Zn8. A spontaneous redox reaction occurs when a piece of iron is placed in 1.0 MCuSO4. The reducing agent isA. FeB. Cu2+C. H2OD. SO42-9. A substance is oxidized when itA. loses protonsB. gains protonsC. loses electronsD. gains electrons10. A strip of titanium, Ti, is placed in 1.0 M Sn(NO3)2. The shiny surface of thetitanium darkens, indication that a reaction hasoccurred. From this observation it may be concluded thatA. Ti2+ is a weaker reducing agent than Sn2+B. Ti2+ is a weaker oxidizing agent than Sn2+C. Ti2+ is a stronger reducing agent than Sn2+D. Ti2+ is a stronger oxidizing agent than Sn2+11. Consider the following redox reaction : Hg2+ + Cu → Hg + Cu2+ . In thisreaction, Hg2+ is aA. weaker reducing agent than Cu2+B. weaker oxidizing agent than Cu2+C. stronger reducing agent than Cu2+D. stronger oxidizing agent than Cu2+12. The species which gains electrons in a redox reactionA. loses massB. is oxidizedC. is the oxidizing agentD. increases in oxidization number13. Samples of Uranium, Vanadium and Yttrium (U, V, Y) were placed in solutionscontaining the metallic ions U3+, V2+, and Y3+. The following observations wererecorded.The oxidizing agents from the strongest to the weakest areA. V2+, U3+, Y3+B. U3+, V2+, Y3+C. Y3+, U3+, V2+D. V2+, Y3+, U3+14. Use the data below to answer the question.Mo3+(aq) + Ir(s)→no observable reactionIr3+(aq) + Nd(s)→Nd3+(aq) + Ir(s)Mo3+(aq) + Nd(s)→Nd3+(aq) + Mo(s)From these data it can be predicted that the oxidizing agents, listed from strongest to weakest, are:A. Ir3+ Mo3+Nd3+B. Mo3+ Nd3+ Ir3+C. Ir3+ Nd3+ Mo3+D. Mo Ir Nd15. Which process could cause X2-(aq) to change to X+(aq)?A. Z(s)→ Z3-(aq)B. Z(s)→ Z3+(aq)C. Z2-(aq)→Z+(aq)D. Z3-(aq)→ Z(s)16. In the reaction, what is the reducing agent?4 Zn(s) + 10 H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)→NH4+(aq) + 4 Zn2+(aq) + 3 H2O(l)A. Zn(s)B. H+(aq)C. Zn2+(aq)D. NO3-(aq)16. A student observed the reactions between four different metals and the solutionsof their ions, and then recorded these 'spontaneous' reactions.I. W(s) + X+(aq)→ W+(aq) + X(s)II. X(s) + Y+(aq) → X+(aq) + Y(s)III. Y(s) + Z+(aq)→Y+(aq) + Z(s)IV. X(s) + W+(aq)→ X+(aq) + W(s)V. X(s) + Z+(aq)→ X+(aq) + Z(s)If equation I is correct, which equation did the student record incorrectly?A. IIB. IIIC. IVD. V17. The reaction below proceeds spontaneously.A2+(aq) + X(s)→ A(s) + X2+(aq)Elements A(s) and X(s) respectively, could beA. Cr2+ and CoB. Pb2+ and CuC. Co2+ and CuD. Ni2+ and Zn18. A piece of Sn(s) was placed in the following solutions:I. Cu(NO3)2(aq)II. Hg(NO3)2(aq)III. AgNO3(aq)IV. Fe(NO3)2(aq)A spontaneous reaction will occur in all solutions exceptA. IB. IIC. IIID. IV19. Theoretically, a reducing agent can be described as a substance thatA. loses electrons and becomes reduced.B. loses electrons and causes reduction.C. gains electrons and causes oxidation.D. gains electrons and becomes reduced.20. In the reactionCu(s) + 2Ag+(aq)→ Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)A. Cu(s) is reduced by the oxidizing agent.B. Ag+(aq) is the reducing agent and Cu(s) is reduced.C. Cu(s) is the reducing agent and Ag+(aq) is reduced.D. Cu(s) is the oxidizing agent and Ag+(aq) is oxidized.21. Which of the following reactions is non-spontaneous?A. I2(s)+ Fe(s)→2I-(aq)+ Fe2+(aq)B. Ni2+(aq) + Sn2+(aq)→Ni(s)+ Sn4+(aq)C. 2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) →2Li+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) + H2(g)D. 2Cl2(g) + 2 H2O(l) →4Cl-(aq) + O2(g) + 4H+(aq)22. Which of the following best describes the process of oxidation?A. the process in which oxygen is producedB. the process in which electrons are addedC. the process in which the oxidation number decreasesD. the process in which the oxidation number increases23. What is the oxidation number of N in the mercury (II) compound Hg(NH3)2Cl2A. -6B. -4C. -3D. +224. Which of the following combinations will react spontaneously under standardconditions?A. Ag + Br2B. Ni + Co2+C. Zn + Mg2+D. Au + HNO325. Identify the substance that is oxidized in the following equation:Br2 + SO2(g) + K2SO4 + 2H2O → 2H2SO4 + 2KBrA. Br2B. SO2C. H2OD. K2SO426. What is the reducing agent in the following equation?Fe2+ + 2I-→ Fe(s) + I2(s)A. I2B. I-C. Fe2+D. Fe3+27. What is the oxidation number of C in the C3H5O2- ion ?A. -1/3B. -2/3C. -1D. -228. Which of the following best describes what happens when lead solid is placed in a1.0 M solution of Cu(NO3)2?A. The solution turns a darker blue.B. No changes are observed.C. Copper solid forms on the lead and the solution changes colour.D. The mass of lead solid increases and the solution does not change colour.29. Identify the reducing agent in the following equation:Zn + 2MnO2 + H2O ⇌ Zn(OH)2 + 2MnO(OH)A. ZnB. H2OC. MnO2D. Zn(OH)230. Consider the following equation: Co + SO42- + 4H+⇌ Co2+ + H2SO3 + H2OWhich statement is correct?A. The sulphur is oxidized and the cobalt is reduced.B. The cobalt is oxidized and the sulphur is reduced.C. The hydrogen is reduced and the cobalt is oxidized.D. The hydrogen is reduced and the oxygen is oxidized.Redox Quiz #21. Which of the following pairs of ions will react spontaneously in a solution?A. Cu2+ and Fe2+B. Pb2+ and Sn2+C. Co2+ and Cr2+D. Mn2+ and Cr2+2. When NO2 reacts to form N2O4 the oxidation number of nitrogenA. increases by 2B. increases by 4C. increases by 8D. does not change3. Consider the following redox equation:12H+(aq) + 2IO3-(aq) + 10Fe2+(aq)→ 10Fe3+(aq) + I2(s) + 6H2O(l)The reducing agent isA. I2B. H+C. Fe2+D. IO3-4. The oxidation number of nitrogen increases inA. NO3- → NOB. N2O4→ NI3C. NH3→ NH4+D. NO2→ N2O55. Which of the following represents a balanced reduction half-reaction?A. VO2 + 2H+ + 2e-→ V2+ + H2OB. VO2 + H2→ V2+ + H2O + le-C. VO2 + 2H+ + le-→ V2+ + H2OD. VO2 + 4H+ + 2e-→ V2+ + 2H2O6. Consider the following half reaction:Sb2O3 + 6H+ + 6e-⇄ 2Sb + 3H2OThe oxidation number of antimony in Sb2O3A. increases by 3B. increases by 6C. decreases by 3D. decreases by 67. Consider the following unbalanced half-reactionHClO2⇄ HClOThe balanced half-reaction would haveA. 1 electron on the leftB. 1 electron on the rightC. 2 electrons on the leftD. 2 electrons on the right8. The oxidation number of platinum in Pt(H2O)42+ isA. +2B. 0C. +4D. +1/29. Consider the following half-reaction :BrO-→ Br-(basic)The balanced equation for the half-reaction isA. BrO- + 2H+ + 2e-→ Br- + H2OB. BrO- + 2H+→ Br-+ H2O + 2e-C. BrO- + H2O → Br- + 2OH- + 2e-D. BrO- + H2O + 2e-→ Br- + 2OH-10. Consider the following redox reaction:2MnO4- + 5CH3CHO + 6H+→ 5CH3COOH + 2Mn2+ + 3H2OThe species that loses the electron isA. H2OB. MnO4-C. CH3CHOD. CH3COOH11. Hydrogen has an oxidation number of –1 inA. H2B. NaHC. H2OD. KOH12. Consider the following:2NO3- + 4H+ + 2e- → N2O4 + 2H2OThis equation representsA. reductionB. oxidationC. neutralizationD. decomposition13. Which of the following half-reactions is balanced?A. IO3- + 6H+ +5e-→ I2 + 3H2OB. IO3- + 6H+ + 4e-→½ I2 + 3H2OC. IO3- + 6H+→ ½ I2 + 3H2O + 5e-D. IO3- + 6H+ + 5e-→ ½ I2 + 3H2O14. Consider the following redox reaction:Al + MnO4- + 2H2O →Al(OH)4- + MnO2The chemical species being oxidized isA. AlB. MnO4-C. Al(OH)4-D. MnO215. Consider the following redox reaction:6H+ + 6I- + ClO3-→ 3I2 + 3H2O + Cl-The reducing agent isA. I-B. I2C. H+D. ClO3-16. Nitrogen has an oxidization number of zero inA. N2B. NO2C. NH3D. HNO317. When MnO4- reacts to form Mn2+, the manganese in MnO4- isA. reduced as its oxidation number increasesB. reduced as its oxidation number decreasesC. oxidized as its oxidation number increasesD. oxidized as its oxidation number decreases18. Consider the following reaction:2HNO3 + 3H2S → 2NO + 3S + 4H2OThe nitrogen in HNO3 undergoesA. reductionB. oxidationC. electrolysisD. neutralization19. The oxidation number in carbon in CaC2O4 isA. +2B. +3C. +4D. +620. Consider the following redox reaction:2Cr3+(aq) + 3Cl2(aq) + 7H2O(l)→ Cr2O72-(aq) + 6Cl-(aq) + 14H+(aq)The species which loses electrons isA. Cl2B. Cr3+。

sci处理流程待定英语Scientific Inquiry Process Outline.1. Observation and Questioning.Make objective observations of the natural world.Formulate questions based on these observations.Example: Observing that plants exhibit different growth patterns under varying light conditions leads to the question, "How does light affect plant growth?"2. Hypothesis Formulation.Propose a tentative explanation to answer the research question.The hypothesis should be testable and falsifiable.Example: "Light intensity has a positive effect on plant growth."3. Prediction.Deduce logical predictions from the hypothesis.Predictions should be specific and measurable.Example: "Plants exposed to higher light intensity will exhibit greater stem elongation than those exposed to lower light intensity."4. Experimentation.Design and conduct an experiment to test the predictions.Control variables to eliminate confounding factors.Example: Growing plants under controlled light conditions to isolate the effect of light intensity ongrowth.5. Data Collection and Analysis.Collect data on the dependent variables (e.g., plant height) under different experimental conditions.Analyze the data using statistical methods to determine if the results support the predictions.Example: Analyzing plant height measurements to assess the relationship between light intensity and growth.6. Interpretation.Explain the results based on the hypothesis.Consider alternative explanations and addresspotential sources of error.Example: If the results show a positive correlation between light intensity and plant growth, conclude that thehypothesis is supported.7. Scientific Communication.Communicate the research findings through scientific papers, presentations, or other scholarly forums.Explain the methods, results, and implications of the study.Example: Publishing a peer-reviewed article in a reputable scientific journal.8. Replication and Verification.Encourage other researchers to replicate the study to verify the results.Scientific knowledge is strengthened through independent validation.Example: Conduct similar experiments with differentplant species or under different environmental conditions.9. Revision or Refinement.Based on the results of replication and verification, revise or refine the hypothesis as needed.Scientific knowledge is dynamic and subject to change based on new evidence.Example: If replication studies yield conflicting results, the hypothesis may need to be modified or rejected.10. Application.Explore the practical implications of the research findings.Consider potential applications in agriculture, medicine, or other fields.Example: Developing guidelines for optimizing plantgrowth under different light conditions in agricultural settings.。

生物信息学分析工具的使用教程导言：在生物学领域中，随着高通量测序技术的快速发展，生物信息学分析工具的应用变得越来越重要。

这些工具能够帮助研究人员进行基因组、转录组、蛋白质组等大规模数据的分析和解释。

本文将为您介绍几种常用的生物信息学工具，并提供详细的使用指南。

一、BLAST（基因序列比对工具）BLAST（Basic Local Alignment Search Tool）是最常用的生物信息学工具之一，用于比对基因或蛋白质序列中的相似性。

以下是使用BLAST的步骤：1. 打开NCBI网站的BLAST页面，并选择适当的BLAST程序（如BLASTn、BLASTp等）。

2. 将查询序列粘贴到"Enter Query Sequence"框中，或者上传一个FASTA格式的文件。

3. 选择适当的数据库，如"nr"（非冗余序列数据库）或"refseq_rna"（已注释的RNA序列数据库）。

4. 设置相似性阈值、期望值和其他参数。

5. 点击"BLAST"按钮开始比对。

6. 结果页面会显示比对结果的列表和详细信息，包括匹配上的序列、相似性得分等。

二、DESeq2（差异表达基因分析工具）DESeq2是一种用于差异表达基因分析的R包。

以下是使用DESeq2的步骤：1. 安装R语言和DESeq2包。

2. 将基因表达矩阵导入R环境中，并进行预处理（如去除低表达基因）。

3. 根据实验设计设置条件和组别。

4. 进行差异分析，计算基因的表达差异和显著性。

5. 可视化差异表达基因的结果，如绘制散点图、MA图、热图等。

三、GSEA（基因集富集分析工具）GSEA（Gene Set Enrichment Analysis）是一种基于基因集的富集分析方法，用于识别与特定性状或实验条件相关的生物学功能。

以下是使用GSEA的步骤：1. 准备基因表达矩阵和相关的分组信息。

Property （特性）of the Semen Coicis （薏苡仁）polypeptide （多肽）Abstract Shelle（d 有壳的，脱壳的）Semen Coicis power were taken as the raw material,then determinate the content of polypeptide of the lactic acid bacteria fermentation products. Take the methods that unfermented and fermented polypeptide were purified by ultrafiltration and Sephadx G-25 gel column chromatography on glucose, and to compare the oxidation resistance of the each larger elution peak. The results show that, the income rate of the fermented polypeptide were 0.468%, they were 8 times as the blank control group, the rate of scavengingsuperoxide anion of fermented Semen Coicis polypeptide were 58%, the rate of scavenging of Hydroxyl radicals can achieve 83% and the reductive capacity of 3+Fe both were excel remarkably than the unfermented polypeptide.Key words shelled Semen Coicis; lactic acid bacteria; ferment; polypeptide; oxidation resistance. Introduction Semen Coicis ,it is a kind of the dried and riped seed of gramineous plants ,it is also known as Chinese sorghum, Job's-tears, it is commonly known “asMedicine King Rice”、“ Hui Hui rice ”、“Six Gorge Rice”and so on. In recent years, Scholars at home and abroad make a research into the chemical composition and pharmacological activity of Semen Coicis . Modern pharmacological research shows that , Semen Coicis polypeptide has the obvious effects of inhibition of ACE activity、antioxidant、improve immunity and so on. At present more researches are about the Semen Coicis polypeptide, mainly use the mold fermentation or enzymolysis to extract the Semen Coicis polypeptide, and at the same time make a research into its activity, yet few of determinations about comparison of antioxidant activity for the shelled Semen Coicis fermentation of lactic acid bacteria after and before. Make a comparative research of antioxidant activity between use the probiotic lactic acid bacteria to ferment the shelled Semen Coicis power into Semen Coicis polypeptide and the unfermented, for the future research in fermented foods about Semen Coicis and also provide references .1 Materials and methods （材料和方法）1.1 Materials and reagents （试剂）Tested lactic acid bacteria: two strains of lactic acid bacteria which were isolated from the traditional fermented food （they were preserved into the microbiology laboratory of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University College of Food scienee and Engineering ), shelled Semen Coicis(Japan imports), SDS, B -Mercaptoethanol ,sodium tetraborate, orthophthalaldehyde, acetocaustin, pyrogallic acid, ferrous sulfate, potassium ferricya nide and soon the reage nts were an alytically pure.1.2 Instrument and quipment (仪器和设备) TU1810 UV visible spectrophotometer(Beijing PuXi general instrument Ltd. );YM50 Stainless steel vertical electric steam sterilizer(Sha nghai San she n medical apparatus Ltd. ); High speed centrifuge(Thermo Fisher OF The United States ); Ultrafiltration centrifugal tube.1.3 Experiment Methods (实验方法)1.3.1 Fermentation process (发酵过程) After make the tested lactic acid bacteriaSc6-3 and NM01 activate three gen eratio ns, as 3%(Sc6-3:NM01=1:2) ino culate in the 8% of Semen Coicis power culture medium, the fermented temperature is 26 , matrix particle size is about 20 orders, pH is n atural value, ferme nt for 72 hours, un ferme ntatio ns are bla nk control group. After centrifugation , take the supernatant and concentrated, after ultrafiltration centrifugal filtrate, freeze-dried to get the Semen Coicis coarse polypeptide.Technological processShelled Semen Coicis^ Choose^ Crush—Weight—Water immersior—Sterilize—Ferme nt supernatan—Co ncen trate^ Ultrafiltrati on cen trifugal filtrate concen trate —Freeze-driec—Coarse polypeptide.1.3.2 Determination (决定，确定) of polypeptide content(内容)A: The reagent preparation of OPA:Weight 40mg orthophthalaldehyde accurately and soluble in the 1ml metha nol, add25ml 100mmol/ L sodium tetraborate , 2.5ml 10% SDS and 100 L 妝-Mercaptoethanol, then add water to 50ml .(Should be prepared whe n using)B: Draw the standard curve:Concentration(mmol/ L)L-Phenylalanine standard curveC: Determination of the content of polypeptide in the sample150 pL sample were take n in to the tube , the n add 3ml OFA reage nt, measure time and oscillating and mixing, then put to react at room temperature for 2 minutes, after that determi nate the absorba nee at 340nm and corresp ond to the sta ndard curve to derive the protein hydrolysis activity. Whe n determ in ated it , it was easy to appear the phenomenon of absorbance baseline drift because of lamp current and light battery, so we should use the blank tube to zero frequently inorder to eliminate the system error of the resulting.Seme n Coicis polypeptide in come rate=M/ M i x 100%M2=165.19X C x V x 10-6=（A-b）/ a x V x 165.19Among that :M1-the quality of shelled Semen Coicis power（g）;M2-the quality of coarse polypeptide in the culture medium（g）;-1C- concentration of culture medium（mmo - L ）;V-volume of culture medium（ml）;A- absorbance;a- the slope of the standard curve of L- phenylalanine;b- intercept of standard curve in the vertical coordinate.1・3・3 Purification （提纯）of Sephadex G-25 （交联葡聚糖凝胶“作为分子筛用于化学品的分离与提纯” 25 数字用来区别型号，表示介质凝胶按交联度不同，数字越小质交联度越大，分级范围越小，反之亦然）column （列、柱）chromatography （层析法，色谱法）经Sephadex G-25柱层析纯化By natural sedimentation to fill the Sephadex G-25 gel column, and deal balance with the bidistilled water . Confect the Semen Coicis coarse polypeptide into 100mg/ ml solution, the volume is 3ml, then with bidistilled water elutied, detect the wavelength at 280nm ,3ml per tube, make the eluted liquid pipe number as the abscissa and absorbance as ordinate, draw the elution curve. Collect the larger elution peak and detect their antioxidant activity respectively.1.3.4 Method for determination （确定）of antioxidant （抗氧化剂）activity （活性）1.3.4.1 Method for determination of scavenging 清除）oxygen free radical^ 氧自由基）1.3.4.2 Make use of pyrogallic acid in the alkalescent environment to self oxidation and decomposition of oxygen free radicals and colored intermediates, the absorbance of colored intermediates in the value at 320nm have obvious linear relationship with the time（in 5 minutes）, they can calculate the rate of removal of oxygen free radicals.Preparation of 9mmol/ L pyrogallic acid solution by 10mmol/ L HCI solution, then preparation of 50mmol/ L Tris-HCl buffer solution(pH 8.2), take the preparation of Tris-HCl buffer solution 4.5ml and add polypeptide solution with different concentrations(with distilled water instead of polypeptide solution for blank) ,after mix them, to be with the pyrogallic acid solution in the bath at25 °C and after insulate 20 minutes, add 1ml pyrogallic acid solution in it, pour the mixed solution into the cuvette immediately, record the absorbance every 30 seconds at 320nm and determinate for 5 minutes. Calculate the rateof polypeptide of removal of oxygen free radicals:M= (N 0-N X) / N0 x 100%N0 -he timerate of the blank solution absorbaneethe experiment determination N0 =0.0684;N X -the timerate of the different concentrations of the sample solution absorbance .Method for the determination of hydroxyl radical (羟基) scavenging(清除) ability Sodium salicylate can effectively capture hydroxyl free radicals generated by perhydrol(H2O2) and Fe2+, and produce the colored substance, which has strong absorption at the wavelength of 510nm, at result, a negative correlation was found between absorbance value and the scavenging capacity of this substance.-1 -10.5mL 2mmolL・ sodium salicylate - ethanol solution、0.5mL 9mmol - L ferrous sulfate ( ferrous sulfate solution were instead by distilled water to eliminate interference) and 1.5mL different concentrations of polypeptide solution (peptide solution were instead by distilled water as the blank control)were mixed in test tube one by one ,then added 0.5mL perhydrol to start the reaction and put the tubes into 37 C water bath immediately lasting 1h ,at last ,we can obtain the absorbency value at different concentrations.Scavenging rate E of Hydroxyl Radical (OH) wa s calculated as the following formula: E=(A0-Ax) / A0X 100%Ax= A1-A2A o: absorbance value of blank solution after the reaction;A x: the real absorbance eliminate interference after the reaction, A1:absorbance value ofsample solution at different concentrations;A2: absorba nee value after distilled water in stead of ferrous sulfate .Method for determination of reductive ability （还原剂能力）-11mL polypeptide solution with eertain concentration、2.5ml 0.2mo?L 、pH=6.6 phosphate buffer and 2.5ml mass fracti on of 1% potassium cyanide soluti on were mixed into the test tubeswhich were put in 50 °C water bath lasting 20min and added 2.5 mL mass fraction 10% trichloroacetic acid solution , and then centrifuged for 10 min at a speed of 3000 r/min and took 2.5ml upper solutionnext ,after that added 2.5 mL distilled water and 0.5 mL mass fraction of 0.1% ferric chloride solution, at last ,determined absorbancevalues at the wavelength of 700 nm。

IEEE Std1241-2000 IEEE Standard for Terminology and Test Methods for Analog-to-Digital ConvertersSponsorWaveform Measurement and Analysis Technical Committeeof theof theIEEE Instrumentation and Measurement SocietyApproved7December2000IEEE-SA Standards BoardAbstract:IEEE Std1241-2000identifies analog-to-digital converter(ADC)error sources and provides test methods with which to perform the required error measurements.The information in this standard is useful both to manufacturers and to users of ADCs in that it provides a basis for evaluating and comparing existing devices,as well as providing a template for writing specifications for the procurement of new ones.In some applications,the information provided by the tests described in this standard can be used to correct ADC errors, e.g.,correction for gain and offset errors.This standard also presents terminology and definitions to aid the user in defining and testing ADCs.Keywords:ADC,A/D converter,analog-to-digital converter,digitizer,terminology,test methodsThe Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,Inc.3Park Avenue,New York,NY10016-5997,USACopyrightß2001by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,Inc.All rights reserved. Published 13 June 2001. Printed in the United States of America.Print:ISBN0-7381-2724-8SH94902PDF:ISBN0-7381-2725-6SS94902No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form,in an electronic retrieval system or otherwise,without the prior written permission of the publisher.IEEE Standards documents are developed within the IEEE Societies and the Standards Coordinating Committees of the IEEE Standards Association(IEEE-SA)Standards Board.The IEEE develops its standards through a consensus development process,approved by the American National Standards Institute,which brings together volunteers representing varied viewpoints and interests to achieve thefinal product.Volunteers are not necessarily members of the Institute and serve without compensation.While the IEEE administers the process and establishes rules to promote fairness in the consensus development process,the IEEE does not independently evaluate,test,or verify the accuracy of any of the information contained in its standards.Use of an IEEE Standard is wholly voluntary.The IEEE disclaims liability for any personal injury,property or other damage,of any nature whatsoever,whether special,indirect,consequential,or compensatory,directly or indirectly resulting from the publication,use of,or reliance upon this,or any other IEEE Standard document.The IEEE does not warrant or represent the accuracy or content of the material contained herein,and expressly disclaims any express or implied warranty,including any implied warranty of merchantability orfitness for a specific purpose,or that the use of the material contained herein is free from patent infringement.IEEE Standards documents are supplied‘‘AS IS.’’The existence of an IEEE Standard does not imply that there are no other ways to produce,test,measure,purchase, market,or provide other goods and services related to the scope of the IEEE Standard.Furthermore,the viewpoint expressed at the time a standard is approved and issued is subject to change brought about through developments in the state of the art and comments received from users of the standard.Every IEEE Standard is subjected to review at least everyfive years for revision or reaffirmation.When a document is more thanfive years old and has not been reaffirmed,it is reasonable to conclude that its contents,although still of some value,do not wholly reflect the present state of the art. 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Comments for revision of IEEE Standards are welcome from any interested party,regardless of membership affiliation with IEEE.Suggestions for changes in documents should be in the form of a proposed change of text,together with appropriate supporting ments on standards and requests for interpretations should be addressed to:Secretary,IEEE-SA Standards Board445Hoes LaneP.O.Box1331Piscataway,NJ08855-1331USANote:Attention is called to the possibility that implementation of this standard may require use of subjectmatter covered by patent rights.By publication of this standard,no position is taken with respect to theexistence or validity of any patent rights in connection therewith.The IEEE shall not be responsible foridentifying patents for which a license may be required by an IEEE standard or for conducting inquiriesinto the legal validity or scope of those patents that are brought to its attention.IEEE is the sole entity that may authorize the use of certification marks,trademarks,or other designations to indicate compliance with the materials set forth herein.Authorization to photocopy portions of any individual standard for internal or personal use is granted by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,Inc.,provided that the appropriate fee is paid to Copyright Clearance Center. To arrange for payment of licensing fee,please contact Copyright Clearance Center,Customer Service,222Rosewood Drive,Danvers,MA01923USA;(978)750-8400.Permission to photocopy portions of any individual standard for educational classroom use can also be obtained through the Copyright Clearance Center.Introduction(This introduction is not a part of IEEE Std1241-2000,IEEE Standard for Terminology and Test Methods for Analog-to-Digital Converters.)This standard defines the terms,definitions,and test methods used to specify,characterize,and test analog-to-digital converters(ADCs).It is intended for the following:—Individuals and organizations who specify ADCs to be purchased—Individuals and organizations who purchase ADCs to be applied in their products —Individuals and organizations whose responsibility is to characterize and write reports on ADCs available for use in specific applications—Suppliers interested in providing high-quality and high-performance ADCs to acquirersThis standard is designed to help organizations and individuals—Incorporate quality considerations during the definition,evaluation,selection,and acceptance of supplier ADCs for operational use in their equipment—Determine how supplier ADCs should be evaluated,tested,and accepted for delivery to end users This standard is intended to satisfy the following objectives:—Promote consistency within organizations in acquiring third-party ADCs from component suppliers—Provide useful practices on including quality considerations during acquisition planning —Provide useful practices on evaluating and qualifying supplier capabilities to meet user requirements—Provide useful practices on evaluating and qualifying supplier ADCs—Assist individuals and organizations judging the quality and suitability of supplier ADCs for referral to end usersSeveral standards have previously been written that address the testing of analog-to-digital converters either directly or indirectly.These include—IEEE Std1057-1994a,which describes the testing of waveform recorders.This standard has been used as a guide for many of the techniques described in this standard.—IEEE Std746-1984[B16]b,which addresses the testing of analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters used for PCM television video signal processing.—JESD99-1[B21],which deals with the terms and definitions used to describe analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters.This standard does not include test methods.IEEE Std1241-2000for analog-to-digital converters is intended to focus specifically on terms and definitions as well as test methods for ADCs for a wide range of applications.a Information on references can be found in Clause2.b The numbers in brackets correspond to those in the bibliography in Annex C.As of October2000,the working group had the following membership:Steve Tilden,ChairPhilip Green,Secretary&Text EditorW.Thomas Meyer,Figures EditorPasquale Arpaia Giovanni Chiorboli Tom Linnenbrink*B.N.Suresh Babu Pasquale Daponte Solomon MaxAllan Belcher David Hansen Carlo MorandiDavid Bergman Fred Irons Bill PetersonEric Blom Dan Kien Pierre-Yves RoyDan Knierim*Chairman,TC-10CommitteeContributions were also made in prior years by:Jerry Blair John Deyst Norris NahmanWilliam Boyer Richard Kromer Otis M.SolomonSteve Broadstone Yves Langard T.Michael SoudersThe following members of the balloting committee voted on this standard:Pasquale Arpaia Pasquale Daponte W.Thomas MeyerSuresh Babu Philip Green Carlo MorandiEric Blom Fred Irons William E.PetersonSteven Broadstone Dan Knierim Pierre-Yves RoyGiovanni Chiorboli T.E.Linnenbrink Steven J.TildenSolomon MaxWhen the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this standard on21September2000,it had the following membership:Donald N.Heirman,ChairJames T.Carlo,Vice-ChairJudith Gorman,SecretarySatish K.Aggarwal James H.Gurney James W.MooreMark D.Bowman Richard J.Holleman Robert F.MunznerGary R.Engmann Lowell G.Johnson Ronald C.PetersenHarold E.Epstein Robert J.Kennelly Gerald H.Petersonndis Floyd Joseph L.Koepfinger*John B.PoseyJay Forster*Peter H.Lips Gary S.RobinsonHoward M.Frazier L.Bruce McClung Akio TojoRuben D.Garzon Daleep C.Mohla Donald W.Zipse*Member EmeritusAlso included are the following nonvoting IEEE-SA Standards Board liaisons:Alan Cookson,NIST RepresentativeDonald R.Volzka,TAB RepresentativeDon MessinaIEEE Standards Project EditorContents1.Overview (1)1.1Scope (1)1.2Analog-to-digital converter background (2)1.3Guidance to the user (3)1.4Manufacturer-supplied information (5)2.References (7)3.Definitions and symbols (7)3.1Definitions (7)3.2Symbols and acronyms (14)4.Test methods (18)4.1General (18)4.2Analog input (41)4.3Static gain and offset (43)4.4Linearity (44)4.5Noise(total) (51)4.6Step response parameters (63)4.7Frequency response parameters (66)4.8Differential gain and phase (71)4.9Aperture effects (76)4.10Digital logic signals (78)4.11Pipeline delay (78)4.12Out-of-range recovery (78)4.13Word error rate (79)4.14Differential input specifications (81)4.15Comments on reference signals (82)4.16Power supply parameters (83)Annex A(informative)Comment on errors associated with word-error-rate measurement (84)Annex B(informative)Testing an ADC linearized with pseudorandom dither (86)Annex C(informative)Bibliography (90)IEEE Standard for Terminology and Test Methods for Analog-to-Digital Converters1.OverviewThis standard is divided into four clauses plus annexes.Clause1is a basic orientation.For further investigation,users of this standard can consult Clause2,which contains references to other IEEE standards on waveform measurement and relevant International Standardization Organization(ISO) documents.The definitions of technical terms and symbols used in this standard are presented in Clause3.Clause4presents a wide range of tests that measure the performance of an analog-to-digital converter.Annexes,containing the bibliography and informative comments on the tests presented in Clause4,augment the standard.1.1ScopeThe material presented in this standard is intended to provide common terminology and test methods for the testing and evaluation of analog-to-digital converters(ADCs).This standard considers only those ADCs whose output values have discrete values at discrete times,i.e., they are quantized and sampled.In general,this quantization is assumed to be nominally uniform(the input–output transfer curve is approximately a straight line)as discussed further in 1.3,and the sampling is assumed to be at a nominally uniform rate.Some but not all of the test methods in this standard can be used for ADCs that are designed for non-uniform quantization.This standard identifies ADC error sources and provides test methods with which to perform the required error measurements.The information in this standard is useful both to manufacturers and to users of ADCs in that it provides a basis for evaluating and comparing existing devices,as well as providing a template for writing specifications for the procurement of new ones.In some applications, the information provided by the tests described in this standard can be used to correct ADC errors, e.g.,correction for gain and offset errors.The reader should note that this standard has many similarities to IEEE Std1057-1994.Many of the tests and terms are nearly the same,since ADCs are a necessary part of digitizing waveform recorders.IEEEStd1241-2000IEEE STANDARD FOR TERMINOLOGY AND TEST METHODS 1.2Analog-to-digital converter backgroundThis standard considers only those ADCs whose output values have discrete values at discrete times, i.e.,they are quantized and sampled.Although different methods exist for representing a continuous analog signal as a discrete sequence of binary words,an underlying model implicit in many of the tests in this standard assumes that the relationship between the input signal and the output values approximates the staircase transfer curve depicted in Figure1a.Applying this model to a voltage-input ADC,the full-scale input range(FS)at the ADC is divided into uniform intervals,known as code bins, with nominal width Q.The number of code transition levels in the discrete transfer function is equal to 2NÀ1,where N is the number of digitized bits of the ADC.Note that there are ADCs that are designed such that N is not an integer,i.e.,the number of code transition levels is not an integral power of two. Inputs below thefirst transition or above the last transition are represented by the most negative and positive output codes,respectively.Note,however,that two conventions exist for relating V min and V max to the nominal transition points between code levels,mid-tread and mid-riser.The dotted lines at V min,V max,and(V minþV max)/2indicate what is often called the mid-tread convention,where thefirst transition is Q/2above V min and the last transition is3Q/2,below V max. This convention gets its name from the fact that the midpoint of the range,(V minþV max)/2,occurs in the middle of a code,i.e.,on the tread of the staircase transfer function.The second convention,called the mid-riser convention,is indicated in thefigure by dashed lines at V min,V max,and(V minþV max)/2. In this convention,V min isÀQ from thefirst transition,V max isþQ from the last transition,and the midpoint,(V minþV max)/2,occurs on a staircase riser.The difference between the two conventions is a displacement along the voltage axis by an amount Q/2.For all tests in this standard,this displacement has no effect on the results and either convention may be used.The one place where it does matter is when a device provides or expects user-provided reference signals.In this case the manufacturer must provide the necessary information relating the reference levels to the code transitions.In both conventions the number of code transitions is 2NÀ1and the full-scale range,FSR,is from V min to V max.Even in an ideal ADC,the quantization process produces errors.These errors contribute to the difference between the actual transfer curve and the ideal straight-line transfer curve,which is plotted as a function of the input signal in Figure1b.To use this standard,the user must understand how the transfer function maps its input values to output codewords,and how these output codewords are converted to the code bin numbering convention used in this standard.As shown in Figure1a,the lowest code bin is numbered0, the next is1,and so on up to the highest code bin,numbered(2NÀ1).In addition to unsigned binary(Figure1a),ADCs may use2’s complement,sign-magnitude,Gray,Binary-Coded-Decimal (BCD),or other output coding schemes.In these cases,a simple mapping of the ADC’s consecutive output codes to the unsigned binary codes can be used in applying various tests in this standard.Note that in the case of an ADC whose number of distinct output codes is not an integral power of2(e.g.,a BCD-coded ADC),the number of digitized bits N is still defined,but will not be an integer.Real ADCs have other errors in addition to the nominal quantization error shown in Figure1b.All errors can be divided into the categories of static and dynamic,depending on the rate of change of the input signal at the time of digitization.A slowly varying input can be considered a static signal if its effects are equivalent to those of a constant signal.Static errors,which include the quantization error, usually result from non-ideal spacing of the code transition levels.Dynamic errors occur because of additional sources of error induced by the time variation of the analog signal being sampled.Sources include harmonic distortion from the analog input stages,signal-dependent variations in the time of samples,dynamic effects in internal amplifier and comparator stages,and frequency-dependent variation in the spacing of the quantization levels.1.3Guidance to the user1.3.1InterfacingADCs present unique interfacing challenges,and without careful attention users can experience substandard results.As with all mixed-signal devices,ADCs perform as expected only when the analog and digital domains are brought together in a well-controlled fashion.The user should fully understand the manufacturer’s recommendations with regard to proper signal buffering and loading,input signal connections,transmission line matching,circuit layout patterns,power supply decoupling,and operating conditions.Edge characteristics for start-convert pulse(s)and clock(s)must be carefully chosen to ensure that input signal purity is maintained with sufficient margin up to the analog input pin(s).Most manufacturers now provide excellent ADC evaluation boards,which demonstrate IN P U T IN P U T(a)Figure 1—Staircase ADC transfer function,having full-scale range FSR and 2N À1levels,corresponding to N -bit quantizationIEEE FOR ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERTERS Std 1241-2000IEEEStd1241-2000IEEE STANDARD FOR TERMINOLOGY AND TEST METHODS recommended layout techniques,signal conditioning,and interfacing for their ADCs.If the characteristics of a new ADC are not well understood,then these boards should be analyzed or used before starting a new layout.1.3.2Test conditionsADC test specifications can be split into two groups:test conditions and test results.Typical examples of the former are:temperature,power supply voltages,clock frequency,and reference voltages. Examples of the latter are:power dissipation,effective number of bits,spurious free dynamic range (SFDR),and integral non-linearity(INL).The test methods defined in this standard describe the measurement of test results for given test conditions.ADC specification sheets will often give allowed ranges for some test condition(e.g.,power supply ranges).This implies that the ADC will function properly and that the test results will fall within their specified ranges for all test conditions within their specified ranges.Since the test condition ranges are generally specified in continuous intervals,they describe an infinite number of possible test conditions,which obviously cannot be exhaustively tested.It is up to the manufacturer or tester of an ADC to determine from design knowledge and/or testing the effect of the test conditions on the test result,and from there to determine the appropriate set of test conditions needed to accurately characterize the range of test results.For example,knowledge of the design may be sufficient to know that the highest power dissipation(test result)will occur at the highest power supply voltage(test condition),so the power dissipation test need be run only at the high end of the supply voltage range to check that the dissipation is within the maximum of its specified range.It is very important that relevant test conditions be stated when presenting test results.1.3.3Test equipmentOne must ensure that the performance of the test equipment used for these tests significantly exceeds the desired performance of the ADC under ers will likely need to include additional signal conditioning in the form offilters and pulse shapers.Accessories such as terminators, attenuators,delay lines,and other such devices are usually needed to match signal levels and to provide signal isolation to avoid corrupting the input stimuli.Quality testing requires following established procedures,most notably those specified in ISO9001: 2000[B18].In particular,traceability of instrumental calibration to a known standard is important. Commonly used test setups are described in4.1.1.1.3.4Test selectionWhen choosing which parameters to measure,one should follow the outline and hints in this clause to develop a procedure that logically and efficiently performs all needed tests on each unique setup. The standard has been designed to facilitate the development of these test procedures.In this standard the discrete Fourier transform(DFT)is used extensively for the extraction of frequency domain parameters because it provides numerous evaluation parameters from a single data record.DFT testing is the most prevalent technique used in the ADC manufacturing community,although the sine-fit test, also described in the standard,provides meaningful data.Nearly every user requires that the ADC should meet or exceed a minimum signal-to-noise-and-distortion ratio(SINAD)limit for the application and that the nonlinearity of the ADC be well understood.Certainly,the extent to whichthis standard is applied will depend upon the application;hence,the procedure should be tailored for each unique characterization plan.1.4Manufacturer-supplied information1.4.1General informationManufacturers shall supply the following general information:a)Model numberb)Physical characteristics:dimensions,packaging,pinoutsc)Power requirementsd)Environmental conditions:Safe operating,non-operating,and specified performance tempera-ture range;altitude limitations;humidity limits,operating and storage;vibration tolerance;and compliance with applicable electromagnetic interference specificationse)Any special or peculiar characteristicsf)Compliance with other specificationsg)Calibration interval,if required by ISO10012-2:1997[B19]h)Control signal characteristicsi)Output signal characteristicsj)Pipeline delay(if any)k)Exceptions to the above parameters where applicable1.4.2Minimum specificationsThe manufacturer shall provide the following specifications(see Clause3for definitions):a)Number of digitized bitsb)Range of allowable sample ratesc)Analog bandwidthd)Input signal full-scale range with nominal reference signal levelse)Input impedancef)Reference signal levels to be appliedg)Supply voltagesh)Supply currents(max,typ)i)Power dissipation(max,typ)1.4.3Additional specificationsa)Gain errorb)Offset errorc)Differential nonlinearityd)Harmonic distortion and spurious responsee)Integral nonlinearityf)Maximum static errorg)Signal-to-noise ratioh)Effective bitsi)Random noisej)Frequency responsek)Settling timel)Transition duration of step response(rise time)m)Slew rate limitn)Overshoot and precursorso)Aperture uncertainty(short-term time-base instability)p)Crosstalkq)Monotonicityr)Hysteresiss)Out-of-range recoveryt)Word error rateu)Common-mode rejection ratiov)Maximum common-mode signal levelw)Differential input impedancex)Intermodulation distortiony)Noise power ratioz)Differential gain and phase1.4.4Critical ADC parametersTable1is presented as a guide for many of the most common ADC applications.The wide range of ADC applications makes a comprehensive listing impossible.This table is intended to be a helpful starting point for users to apply this standard to their particular applications.Table1—Critical ADC parametersTypical applications Critical ADC parameters Performance issuesAudio SINAD,THD Power consumption.Crosstalk and gain matching.Automatic control MonotonicityShort-term settling,long-term stability Transfer function. Crosstalk and gain matching. Temperature stability.Digital oscilloscope/waveform recorder SINAD,ENOBBandwidthOut-of-range recoveryWord error rateSINAD for wide bandwidthamplitude resolution.Low thermal noise for repeatability.Bit error rate.Geophysical THD,SINAD,long-term stability Millihertz response.Image processing DNL,INL,SINAD,ENOBOut-of-range recoveryFull-scale step response DNL for sharp-edge detection. High-resolution at switching rate. Recovery for blooming.Radar and sonar SINAD,IMD,ENOBSFDROut-of-range recovery SINAD and IMD for clutter cancellation and Doppler processing.Spectrum analysis SINAD,ENOBSFDR SINAD and SFDR for high linear dynamic range measurements.Spread spectrum communication SINAD,IMD,ENOBSFDR,NPRNoise-to-distortion ratioIMD for quantization of smallsignals in a strong interferenceenvironment.SFDR for spatialfiltering.NPR for interchannel crosstalk.Telecommunication personal communications SINAD,NPR,SFDR,IMDBit error rateWord error rateWide input bandwidth channel bank.Interchannel crosstalk.Compression.Power consumption.Std1241-2000IEEE STANDARD FOR TERMINOLOGY AND TEST METHODS2.ReferencesThis standard shall be used in conjunction with the following publications.When the following specifications are superseded by an approved revision,the revision shall apply.IEC 60469-2(1987-12),Pulse measurement and analysis,general considerations.1IEEE Std 1057-1994,IEEE Standard for Digitizing Waveform Recorders.23.Definitions and symbolsFor the purposes of this standard,the following terms and definitions apply.The Authoritative Dictionary of IEEE Standards Terms [B15]should be referenced for terms not defined in this clause.3.1Definitions3.1.1AC-coupled analog-to-digital converter:An analog-to-digital converter utilizing a network which passes only the varying ac portion,not the static dc portion,of the analog input signal to the quantizer.3.1.2alternation band:The range of input levels which causes the converter output to alternate between two adjacent codes.A property of some analog-to-digital converters,it is the complement of the hysteresis property.3.1.3analog-to-digital converter (ADC):A device that converts a continuous time signal into a discrete-time discrete-amplitude signal.3.1.4aperture delay:The delay from a threshold crossing of the analog-to-digital converter clock which causes a sample of the analog input to be taken to the center of the aperture for that sample.COMINT ¼communications intelligence DNL ¼differential nonlinearity ENOB ¼effective number of bits ELINT ¼electronic intelligence NPR ¼noise power ratio INL ¼integral nonlinearity DG ¼differential gain errorSIGINT ¼signal intelligenceSINAD ¼signal-to-noise and distortion ratio THD ¼total harmonic distortion IMD ¼intermodulation distortion SFDR ¼spurious free dynamic range DP ¼differential phase errorTable 1—Critical ADC parameters (continued)Typical applicationsCritical ADC parametersPerformance issuesVideoDNL,SINAD,SFDR,DG,DP Differential gain and phase errors.Frequency response.Wideband digital receivers SIGINT,ELINT,COMINTSFDR,IMD SINADLinear dynamic range fordetection of low-level signals in a strong interference environment.Sampling frequency.1IEC publications are available from IEC Sales Department,Case Postale 131,3rue de Varemb,CH 1211,Gen ve 20,Switzerland/Suisse (http://www.iec.ch).IEC publications are also available in the United States from the Sales Department,American National Standards Institute,25W.43rd Street,Fourth Floor,New York,NY 10036,USA ().2IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,445Hoes Lane,P.O.Box 1331,Piscataway,NJ 08855-1331,USA (/).。

一．好的论文题目是成功的一半好的论文，每一个部分都需要精雕细琢。

我们先来看看Science, Nature 子刊上用的都是些什么题目，到底这些题目暗含哪些玄机？以下是从2016年发表的论文中随机挑选的一些题目，我将其做了一下简单的分类：?reduction1. Water splitting–biosynthetic system with CO2efficiencies?exceeding?photosynthesis. (Science, 2016, 352, 1210)类似: Scalable water splitting on particulate photocatalyst sheets with a solar-to-hydrogen energy conversion efficiency?exceeding?1%?(Nature Materials 2016,15,611-615)这种题目适合哪类文章？适合于那种性能极其显着的文章（可以创纪录的文章），比如说Nocera et al. 的?Science, 2016, 352, 1210，直接与光合作用进行对比，给人的震撼是非常强的。

这种对比效果能够一下子抓住人们的眼球，吸引着读者进行阅读。

要点：使用这样的题目首先你的实验结果得够牛，你对于实验结果要足够自信，对于背景知识的了解得要足够深。

因为取这样的题目意味着你要真正达到了某一个高度。

如果明明有很多大海在那里，你个小池塘和小水坑进行比较，那么会闹笑话的。

2.1 Quantifying?the promotion of Cu catalysts by ZnO for methanol synthesis (?Science,2016, 352, 969-974.)2.2?Exploring?the origin of high optical absorption in conjugated polymers. (Nature Materials 2016,?DOI:?10.1038/nmat4645?)2.3 Promoting?solution phase discharge in Li–O2 batteries containing weakly solvatingelectrolyte?solutions (Nature Materials 2016, DOI: 10.1038/nmat4629)2.4 Reconstructing?solute-induced phase transformations within individual nanocrystals (NatureMaterials 2016,?doi:10.1038/nmat4620)2.5 Tailoring?the nature and strength of electron–phonon interactions in the SrTiO3(001) 2D electron?liquid (Nature Material, 2016, doi:10.1038/nmat4623)我简单地检索了下Nature Materials上面的文章题目，发现这种类型的题目真的非常多。

海口2024年10版小学6年级英语第2单元测验试卷考试时间：80分钟（总分:110）B卷考试人：_________题号一二三四五总分得分一、综合题(共计100题共100分)1. 选择题：What do we call a scientist who studies rocks?A. BiologistB. GeologistC. ChemistD. Physicist2. 听力题：The __________ is a crucial area for studying biodiversity.3. 填空题：My puppy loves to dig in the ______ (沙土).4. 听力题：In a redox reaction, one species is oxidized while another is reduced, involving a transfer of _____.5. 听力题：The chemical formula for magnesium oxide is __________.6. 选择题：What do you call the act of telling a lie?A. DeceitB. TruthC. HonestyD. Integrity答案:A7. 填空题：我的朋友喜欢 _______ (活动). 她觉得这很 _______ (形容词)A __________ is a scientific explanation based on experiments and observations.9. 填空题：The clouds are ______ in the sky.10. 选择题：What do we call the event that happens every year in December?A. ChristmasB. HalloweenC. ThanksgivingD. New Year11. 听力题：A balloon filled with air is an example of a ______.12. 听力题：The cat is _____ (curious/lazy) and playful.13. 填空题：My favorite holiday is ______.14. 填空题：Rainforests have a high level of ______ (湿度).15. 听力题：I want to _____ (go/stay) at home.16. 选择题：What is the main function of leaves?A. To absorb waterB. To produce foodC. To provide shadeD. To hold seeds17. 选择题：What is the name of the famous dog in the movie "The Wizard of Oz"?A. TotoB. SpikeC. RexD. Max答案: A18. 填空题：The invention of ________ has transformed daily life.They are friends since _____ (childhood/adulthood).20. 填空题：I want to _____ (research) plants for my project.21. 填空题：My ________ (玩具名称) helps me learn about different cultures.22. 听力题：A _______ is a change that alters the chemical structure of a substance.23. 听力题：They are ___ (singing/playing) together.24. 填空题：I like to ______ (参与) in environmental cleanup.25. 填空题：The ________ is a delightful friend to have.26. 听力题：A saturated solution is one that cannot dissolve any more _____ (solute).27. 听力题：A ____ is a playful creature that loves to chase after balls.28. 选择题：What is the main ingredient in chocolate?A. CocoaB. SugarC. MilkD. Flour答案:A29. 听力题：A solute is the substance that is _____ in a solution.30. 听力题：Oxidation is the loss of ______.31. 选择题：What do you wear on your feet?A. HatB. ShoesC. GlovesD. Scarf32. 填空题：The capital of Spain is ________ (马德里).33. c Ocean is located at the ________ (北极). 填空题：The Arct34. 听力题：I want to ___ a great leader. (become)35. 听力题：I like to ________ in the summer.36. 听力题：The ______ teaches us about nutrition.37. 选择题：What is the main ingredient in ice cream?A. MilkB. CreamC. SugarD. All of the above38. 听力题：Chemical changes often produce _____ (gas), heat, or light.39. 填空题：A cactus can live in a __________ (干旱的) environment.40. 填空题：A _______ (海马) swims in a unique way.41. 填空题：She is a dancer, ______ (她是一位舞者), who practices every day.42. Wall was built over several _____. 填空题：The Grea43. 听力题：A ____ is a small mammal that likes to dig and burrow.44. 填空题：My ________ (玩具类型) brings back memories.What do you call the vertical line in a graph?A. X-axisB. Y-axisC. Z-axisD. Time-axis答案:B46. 填空题：Every summer, I go to _______ (地方) for vacation. It’s a wonderful way to _______ (放松).47. 听力题：The ________ (committee) makes decisions.48. 选择题：What do you call the traditional Japanese garment?A. KimonoB. SariC. HanbokD. Cheongsam49. 听力题：The chemical formula for samarium(II) oxide is _____.50. 填空题：A butterfly drinks nectar with its long ______ (舌头).51. 填空题：A _______ (海马) swims in the sea.52. 填空题：My ________ (玩具名称) is the best gift I've ever received.53. 听力题：I love to play ______ (sports) with my friends.54. 选择题：What do we call the process of water turning into vapor?a. Precipitationb. Evaporationc. Condensationd. Sublimation答案:b________ (植物多样性研究) provides insights.56. 听力题：The capital of Kenya is ________.57. 选择题：What is the main purpose of a library?A. Borrow booksB. Watch moviesC. Play gamesD. Study science答案:A58. 填空题：Protecting endangered ______ (植物物种) is vital for preservation.59. 听力题：The chemical formula for lithium fluoride is _______.60. 选择题：What do we call a young male dog?A. PupB. KittenC. CubD. Foal61. 填空题：I find ________ (化学) very interesting.62. 填空题：Julius Caesar was a famous leader in __________ (罗马).63. 听力题：A __________ is a mixture that can be separated by centrifugation.64. n be very _________. (长) 填空题：Snakes d65. 听力题：The bread is _____ (fresh/stale).66. 选择题：What is the main ingredient in sushi?A. NoodlesB. BreadC. RiceD. Meat答案:C67. 填空题：The __________ (环境科学) informs conservation efforts.68. 选择题：What do you call the person who teaches students?A. DoctorB. TeacherC. EngineerD. Chef答案:B69. 选择题：What is the name of the largest freshwater lake in the world?A. Lake SuperiorB. Lake VictoriaC. Caspian SeaD. Lake Baikal答案: D70. 填空题：A ______ (肉食动物) hunts for its food.71. 填空题：The _____ (植物) needs sunlight to grow.72. 填空题：The __________ (历史的复兴) fosters renewal.73. 填空题：I enjoy playing with my toy ________ (玩具名称) during holidays.74. 填空题：The _____ (青蛙) leaps gracefully from one place to another.75. 选择题：What is the opposite of happy?A. SadB. JoyfulC. ExcitedD. Angry答案:A76. 填空题：My birthday is in ______ (七月). I want to have a big ______ (派对) with cake and ______ (气球).77. 填空题：The roots of a plant help it to absorb ______ (养分) from the soil.78. 听力题：The _____ can be seen in the sky as a streak of light.79. 听力题：She has a _____ (cat/dog) at home.80. 填空题：The tortoise carries its home on its ______ (背上).81. 填空题：When I play with my _________ (玩具), I always feel _________ (快乐).82. 选择题：What do we use to take photographs?A. CameraB. PhoneC. ComputerD. Tablet83. 听力题：The garden is ______ (full) of colors.84. 听力题：A solution that can conduct electricity is called an ______ solution.85. 选择题：What is the term for an animal that only eats plants?A. HerbivoreB. CarnivoreC. OmnivoreD. Scavenger答案:A. Herbivore86. 听力题：We play games on the ___ (weekend/weekday).87. 选择题：What is the third planet from the sun?A. MarsB. VenusC. EarthD. Jupiter答案:C88. 填空题：The first successful trachea transplant was performed in ________.89. 填空题：She is ______ (乐于助人).90. 选择题：What is the capital city of Japan?A. SeoulB. BeijingC. TokyoD. Bangkok91. 听力题：The process of freezing turns a liquid into a __________.92. 听力题：The ________ (turtle) is slow and steady.93. 填空题：I saw a _____ (小猫) playing with a ball of yarn.94. 填空题：The __________ (历史的多样性) enriches our narratives.95. 听力题：A ______ is a liquid that can dissolve a solute.96. 听力题：We are going to the ___. (beach) this summer.97. 听力题：The __________ is a famous area known for its technology.98. 填空题：The train is _______ (准时到达).99. 听力题：The girl loves to ________.100. 选择题：What is the main ingredient in mayonnaise?A. MustardB. EggC. OilD. Vinegar答案:C。

《欧洲文化入门》本作者绪论《欧洲文化入门》由于其内容庞杂，琐碎，因而是一门学习起来比较困难的课程。

其实大家大可不必担心，只要我们潜下心去，找出里面的规律和线索，这门课并不难攻克。

我们要牢记文化的五分法：一、社会历史(包括政治、经济、宗教、历史) 二、哲学三、文学四、科学五、艺术(包括绘画、雕塑、建筑和音乐)，以记忆每个时代的各要点为主，理解纵向的变迁为辅，后者主要的作用时帮助我们更好的记住前者。

《欧洲文化入门》的考试大致包括以下几种题型：四选一，填空，判断，简答题，名词解释，论述题。

选择题：这种题型可考查考生的记忆、理解、判断、推理分析，综合比较，鉴别评价等多种能力，评分客观，故常被应用。

在答题时，如果能瞬时准确地把正确答案找出来最好，假如没有把握，就应采用排除法，即应从排除最明显的错误开始，把接近正确答案的备选项留下，再分析比较强以逐一否定最终选定正确答案。

填空题：这种题型常用于考核考生准确记忆的“再现”能力，在答题时，无论有几个空，回答都应明确、肯定，不能含糊其辞，填空题看似容易实则难，最好的应对办法是对英语语言知识中最基本的知识、概念、原理等要牢记。

名词解释：这种题型一般针对英语专业自考本科段课程中的基本概念、专业名词进行命题，主要考核考生的识记、理解能力。

在答题时，答案要简明、概括、准确，如分值较大，可简要扩展。

简答题：这种题型一般围绕基本概论、原理及其联系进行命题，着重考核考生对概念、史实、原理的掌握、辨别和理解能力。

在答题时，既不能像名词解释那样简单，也不能像论述题那样长篇大论，答案要有层次性，列出要点，并加以简要扩展就可以。

论述题：这种题型一般从试卷编制的全局出发，能从体现考试大纲中的重点内容和基本问题的角度来命题，着重考核考生分析、解决实际问题的能力，考核考生综合应用能力和创见性。

在答题时，要仔细审题，列出答案要点，然后对要点逐一展开叙述，此时考生应发挥自己的真知灼见，要在深度，广度上下功。

Parasitic oxidation refers to the unwanted oxidation of a substance or material, often resulting in degradation or deterioration of its properties. This phenomenon ismonly encountered in various fields, including materials science, chemistry, and industry. Understanding the mechanisms and implications of parasitic oxidation is crucial for the development of effective prevention and mitigation strategies.1. Definition and Mechanisms of Parasitic OxidationParasitic oxidation can be defined as the undesired reaction of a material with oxygen or other oxidizing agents, leading to the formation of oxides or other oxidized products. This process can occur through various mechanisms, including:1.1. Atmospheric ExposureExposure to ambient 本人r or oxygen can lead to the onset of parasitic oxidation in many materials, especially metals and alloys. The presence of moisture, pollutants, or other reactive species in the atmosphere can further accelerate this process.1.2. Catalytic EffectsCert本人n catalysts or impurities present in a material can promote the initiation and progression of parasitic oxidation.This ismonly observed in heterogeneous catalysis and industrial processes involving reactive substances.1.3. Thermal ActivationElevated temperatures can enhance the reactivity of materials with oxygen, leading to accelerated parasitic oxidation. This is particularly relevant in high-temperature applications such asbustion, metallurgy, and thermal processing.2. Impact and Consequences of Parasitic OxidationThe consequences of parasitic oxidation can be significant and detrimental to the performance and reliability of affected materials. Some of the key impacts include:2.1. Degradation of Mechanical PropertiesThe formation of oxides and other oxidized species canpromise the mechanical strength, ductility, and toughness of materials. This can lead to structural f本人lure, fractures, or reduced lifespan in engineeringponents.2.2. Loss of Functional PropertiesMany functional materials, such as semiconductors, catalysts, and coatings, can suffer a decline in their performance due toparasitic oxidation. This may result in diminished efficiency or effectiveness in their intended applications.2.3. Environmental and Health ConcernsIn some cases, the by-products of parasitic oxidation can pose environmental or health hazards. This is particularly relevant in the context of 本人r pollution, hazardous waste, and chemical safety.3. Prevention and Control Strategies for Parasitic Oxidation Given the widespread impact of parasitic oxidation, it is essential to develop effective strategies for its prevention and control. Some key approaches include:3.1. Material Selection and DesignChoosing materials with inherent resistance to oxidation, or employing protective coatings and surface treatments, can help mitigate the effects of parasitic oxidation. This is amon strategy in the development of corrosion-resistant alloys and high-temperature ceramics.3.2. Environmental ControlLimiting the exposure of materials to harsh or reactiveenvironments, such as controlling the humidity, temperature, orposition of the atmosphere, can reduce the likelihood of parasitic oxidation. This is relevant in storage, transportation, and industrial processing operations.3.3. Inhibitor AdditivesThe use of specific chemical additives or inhibitors can suppress the occurrence of parasitic oxidation in cert本人n materials. This approach ismonly used in the formulation of anti-corrosion agents and oxidation-resistantpounds.4. Research and Development in Parasitic Oxidation Continued research and development efforts are essential for advancing the understanding and management of parasitic oxidation. This includes:4.1. Fundamental StudiesInvestigating the mechanisms, kinetics, and thermodynamics of parasitic oxidation at the molecular and atomic levels is critical for developing predictive models and theoretical frameworks.4.2. Advanced Characterization TechniquesEmploying state-of-the-art analytical tools, such as electronmicroscopy, spectroscopy, and surface science techniques, can provide valuable insights into the behavior and evolution of materials undergoing parasitic oxidation.4.3. Multidisciplinary CollaborationCollaboration between researchers from diverse fields, including chemistry, physics, materials science, and engineering, can foster new perspectives and innovative approaches to addressing the challenges of parasitic oxidation.In conclusion, parasitic oxidation represents a pervasive and consequential phenomenon that warrants attention and action across various scientific and technological dom本人ns. By g本人ning a deeper understanding of its mechanisms, impacts, and control strategies, researchers and practitioners can work towards mitigating the adverse effects of parasitic oxidation and enhancing the performance and longevity of materials and products.。

361 Chapter 14Techniques for dye injection and cell labelling PETER MOBBS, DA VID BECKER, RODDY WILLIAMSON, MICHAEL BATE and ANNE WARNER1. IntroductionThe introduction of compounds into cells via iontophoresis or pressure injection from micropipettes is a powerful technique of wide application in modern biology. The many uses to which this technique can be put include:(i) Cell identification following electrophysiological recording.(ii) Delineation of cellular architecture in anatomical studies.(iii) Tracing neuronal pathways.(iv) Identification of cell progeny in lineage studies.(v) Investigations of the transfer of molecules from one cell to another via gap junctions or other routes.(vi) The introduction of genetic material that affect protein synthesis or gene expression.(vii) The measurement of intracellular ion concentrations, for example pH or calcium ion.This chapter describes the techniques used to inject cells and focuses upon the design of experiments for some common applications of these methods. In the final sections, we offer sample protocols and advice on the necessary equipment.The basic methods for cell injection are similar whatever the compound to be used. This chapter concentrates on techniques that involve iontophoresis or pressure injection using intracellular micropipettes while section 9 describes some other routes by which compounds can introduced into cells. For each application described below, we concentrate upon the factors that influence thePETER MOBBS, Department of Physiology, University College London, Gower St., London WC1E 6BT, UKDAVID BECKER AND ANNE WARNER, Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, University College London, Gower St., London WC1E 6BT, UKRODDY WILLIAMSON, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth, PL1 2PB, UK MICHAEL BATE, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing St., Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK362P. MOBBS AND OTHERSchoice of the compound to inject, since this is usually the factor most crucial to success.2. Microinjection methodsManufacturing micropipettesPipettes for intracellular microinjection can be produced on any standard microelectrode puller. The best pipettes generally have the following characteristics: (a) a relatively short shank (b) a relatively large tip diameter. The latter is frequently a limitation because, for successful penetration of small cells without damage, the tip diameter also must be small. When the diameter of the tip is small then both the iontophoresis and pressure injection of compounds is impeded, the former by the charge on the glass and the electrical resistance of the tip and the latter by the tip’s resistance to bulk flow of solution. Several different types of glass are available for the production of micropipettes. A number of manufacturers (see appendix B) provide suitable capillaries with a variety of outside diameters, with thick or thin walls, with and without internal filaments, made from soda or borosilicate glass. Pipettes made from thick-wall borosilicate glass are usually the most robust and useful for penetrating tough tissue. However, thin-wall glass has the advantage that the channel through the tip is usually larger, and thus the resistance is lower, for any given tip size. The characteristics of micropipettes for use in microinjection experiments can sometimes be improved by bevelling (see Chapter 11). Soda-glass is somewhat less fragile than borosilicate glass but is difficult to pull to fine tips, it has been dropped from some supplier’s lists. No matter what the theoretical expectations, the best electrodes to use are those that work!Pipette fillingModern micropipette glass incorporates an internal ‘filament’ (actually a second narrow capillary). The filament increases the capillarity of pipettes so that fluid is drawn into the tip. This characteristic can be exploited to enable very small volumes of fluid to be loaded into the pipette tip, which is useful where the compound to be injected is expensive. Solutions can be introduced into the back of the pipette either by immersion or by bringing into contact with a drop of fluid. The volume drawn into the tip depends upon its diameter. Pipettes with tips of 1 µm will draw up about 100 nl and those of 5 µm will fill with about 1 µl of fluid. Coarse pipettes can be filled by sucking fluid directly through the tip. Electrical connections to pipettes in which only the tip is filled can usually be effected simply by sticking a wire into the pipette lumen. The presence of a thin trail of electrolyte along the outside of the internal filament provides the necessary path for current flow. It is advisable to centrifuge all solutions before use to remove material that may block the tip.IontophoresisIontophoresis involves the ejection of a substance from a pipette by the application ofcurrent. The polarity of the ejection current employed depends on the net charge on the substance to be injected (negative pulses are used to eject negatively charged molecules). Most modern microelectrode amplifiers are equipped with a current pump that can be used to provide an iontophoretic current that is, within limits,independent of the electrode resistance (see Chapters 1 and 16). If only a simple amplifier is available, or the current pump is unable to provide sufficient voltage to drive the required current through the electrode tip, then it is possible to use a battery and a current limiting resistor as a current source. If a battery is employed then the headstage of the amplifier should be switched out of the circuit when the battery is connected. Obviously the current provided by this crude arrangement will be governed by Ohm’s Law. The current applied to a cell should be as small as is consistent with the introduction of sufficient of the compound into the cell. In all events the voltage produced by the passage of the iontophoretic current must be limited (to say +100 to −100 mV) to avoid damage to the cell membrane.Continuous application of current should be avoided since it often causes the electrode tip to block. This block can sometimes be relieved by reversing the polarity of the current for a short time. However, once an electrode shows signs of block the trend is usually irreversible and the pipette should be discarded. Often the best strategy is to employ short duration current pulses of alternating polarity. Whatever the form of the pulse, small currents for long periods are usually more successful than high currents for shorter times. To recognise electrode block and standardise procedures, it is essential to monitor the current flow through the electrode. It is not sufficient simply to monitor the voltage applied to the electrode! If the amplifier employed does not have a current monitor then a simple one can be improvised by measuring the voltage drop across a resistor in the earth return circuit. The membrane potential of the cell should be measured during electrode insertion, before switching to current injection. It is sensible to check the condition of the cell by measuring its resting potential at intervals during iontophoresis. Such measurements are simplified by using a bridge amplifier (see Chapters 1 and 16) that enables the membrane voltage to be monitored continuously during current passing experiments. For a detailed discussion of the circuits for current injection and current monitoring see Purves (1981).A useful technique for achieving bulk flow from the electrode tip is to cause high frequency oscillations of the voltage across the electrode resistance. This is achieved by pressing the ‘buzz’ or ‘zap’ buttons present on some amplifiers. The effect of these can be imitated by turning up the capacity compensation control, found on nearly all microelectrode amplifiers, to the point at which the electrode voltage oscillates (termed ‘ringing’).In theory the amount of a substance ejected from the pipette during an iontophoretic pulse can be estimated from a consideration of its transport number (Purves, 1981). In practice, these estimates are highly unreliable and the transport number is often unknown for the compound employed.Pressure injectionPressure ejection is the method of choice for the injection of neutral molecules and 363Techniques for dye injection and cell labelling364P. MOBBS AND OTHERSthose of low iontophoretic mobility. Commercial pressure injection devices are available (see list of suppliers) that enable the application of calibrated pressure pulses to the back end of the injection pipette. Essentially a pressure injection system consists of a gas cylinder connected, via a timing circuit, a solenoid-operated valve and a pressure regulator, to a side-arm pipette holder. Commercial equipment is expensive, but a home-made rig can be simply made from the components listed above. The timing circuit can be replaced by a manually operated switch. Take care to ensure that the connections and tubing are safe at the pressures employed and that the pipette is firmly held within the holder. The pressure and timing of the pulse can be roughly established by measuring the diameter of a drop expelled from the pipette tip into a bath of liquid paraffin. However, this method frequently over-estimates the back-pressure from the cytoplasm and quantification of pressure injection is often as uncertain as in iontophoresis.Patch-pipettesMany substances can be introduced into cells from patch-pipettes while recording in the whole-cell mode. The concentration that a compound reaches within the cell during whole-cell recording is equal to that within the patch-pipette solution. Thus for most dyes and labels the concentrations to employ are a fraction of those used in iontophoresis or pressure injection experiments. For example, Lucifer Yellow CH incorporated into the patch-pipette solution at 1 mg ml−1will produce intense fluorescence of the cell (40 mg ml−1is used in sharp electrodes for iontophoresis; Fig. 1B).3. Techniques for visualizing cellsVisualizing cells prior to injectionIn order to inject a cell you must be able to guide your micropipette toward it. There are three techniques available to aid in the steering of electrodes:(a) Stereotaxic movements combined with continuous electrical recording (mainly used for penetration of cells in brain nuclei).(b) Visual guidance using white light and interference contrast optics to visualize the cell and identify targets.(c) Visual guidance using cells prelabelled with fluorescent dyes as the target.In solid tissue, whatever technique is chosen to guide the electrode, the target must lie along initial trajectory of the electrode. Manipulation out of this axis will break the electrode.1. Stereotaxis. This method requires that you know precisely where your target cells lie even though you can not see them. Such information is sometimes available from stereotactic atlases. Micromanipulators can be roughly calibrated to give depth measurements but errors always arise as a result of tissue distortion during electrode penetration. The identification of the target cells can sometimes be achieved through knowledge of their electrical properties or synaptic connections,for example by the response to current injection or stimulation of a peripheral nerve.2. Interference contrast optics.Phase contrast and differential interference contrast techniques (Nomarski) are good for visualising living cells. Phase contrast is useful for cells in tissue culture but does not work well for tissue slices. Nomarski optics provide high resolution and can be used to provide effective optical sections of transparent tissue. The more recently introduced Hoffman optics are cheaper than Nomarski optics and are useful for viewing tissue slices because they provide a greater depth of field.3. Prelabelling with a fluorophore.There are two approaches to the prelabelling of cells to identify them as targets for subsequent microinjection experiments. Cells can either be bathed in a dye that becomes internalized (Fig. 1E), or labelled by retrograde transport of a marker from their axons (Fig. 1A). Whilst some dyes are either actively taken into cells or simply diffuse across the membrane others only enter if the membrane is disrupted by osmotic shock or through exposure to dimethyl sulphoxide. Whatever the method of prelabelling, the choice of the label is crucial to success. Ideally the label should be visible under the same filter set as the dye used in subsequent injection experiments and the intensity of the prelabel’s fluorescence should not mask that of the injected fluorophore. Since the prelabel may remain inside the cell for an extended period, it is important that it is non-toxic.Retrograde labelling of neurons via their axonal projections is an extremely useful means of identifying populations of cells that project to particular targets. Fast blue and diamidino yellow are amongst the most popular of the labels available for this purpose. Fast blue labels the cell cytoplasm and diamidino yellow stains the nucleus (Fig. 1E). Both pass rapidly across the cell membrane and can be used to label cells from their axon terminals or from cut axons. General labelling of all the cells in a tissue can be achieved by bathing in a dilute solution of the dyes. Both of these dyes work well on formaldehyde-fixed tissue. Target cells identified with these prelabel dyes can subsequently be injected with Lucifer Yellow, carboxyfluorescein or Cascade Blue which are visible with the same filter set (Fig. 1E).Some fluorophores with useful properties are neither taken up nor transported by cells. However, they can be made into useful labels through conjugation to lectins,dextrans or plastic microspheres. Lectins bind to sugar moieties on the cell membrane, are brought into the cell through endocytosis and transported. Dextrans can also be conjugated to most fluorophores. Plastic microspheres can be coupled to fluorescent molecules. They are available in a variety of materials and sizes. Applied to damaged axons they are taken up by and retrogradely transported. Microspheres are visible in the electron microscope.Visualizing labelled cellsThe object of many microinjection experiments is to render the cell under study visible by introduction of a label. The majority of such labels are either fluorescent or can be processed to produce a coloured reaction product. Below we describe the techniques for visualizing and recording the results of cell labelling experiments.365Techniques for dye injection and cell labelling366P. MOBBS AND OTHERSOften labelled cells can be visualised without any histological processing and some labels can be used to follow changes in cell morphology that occur over extended periods of time (Purves et al.1986). Methods for the fixation of tissue and the histological processing of tissue containing labels are given later.Fluorescent labels are excited by light at one wavelength and emit light at another longer wavelength. The user must choose the excitation and emission filters most suitable to their application (see appendix A). It is convenient to have the microscope used for positioning the electrode equipped with a light source and filters capable of exciting the label. This allows the user to determine the endpoint of the injection experiment by observation. Many of the labels in common use are excited by far blue or UV light. The tungsten or quartz halogen bulbs found in most microscope illuminators do not provide much light at these wavelengths and an additional mercury or xenon light source is required. Most manufacturers provide some convenient means for switching between the white and UV light sources. If this switching mechanism is to be used during the course of a labelling experiment, it is imperative that it operates without vibration if the microelectrode is to remain in the cell under study.The factors involved in the choice of the optics and light sources for fluorescence microscopy are complex. The short discussion below is offered as an introduction that may be supplemented by consulting some of excellent free literature provided by major manufacturers (see for example the booklets offered by Zeiss, Lieca and Nikon). Mercury lamps are cheaper than xenon lamps. However, the emission spectrum of a xenon lamp is relatively continuous throughout the UV and visible spectrum while that of mercury lamps consists of a series of sharp peaks (emission lines). With mercury lamps, it is important to ensure that a line exists at a wavelength appropriate to the dye in use. Most modern fluorescence microscopes employ epi-illumination, a system in which the light used to excite the dye is focused on the specimen through the same objective used to view the light emitted by the dye.The choice of objective is critical in fluorescence microscopy. Quartz objectives pass much more short wavelength light than those made from glass. However, quartz objectives are expensive and unnecessary for use with dyes excited by light in the visible and near UV regions of the spectrum. It is crucial that the objective has a high numerical aperture (NA) since both the intensity of the light focused on the specimen and the light gathering power of the lens increase with the square of the aperture. An objective with an NA of 1.0 will yield 16 times as much light as a 0.5 NA lens. High NA objectives have shorter working distance and need an immersion medium - water, oil or glycerol (for UV). For injection of cells in thick preparations on an upright microscope water immersion lenses are preferable to those that work in air because they have a greater NA and there is no optical distortion due to meniscus effects of the micropipette on the bath surface. On the other hand, very long working distance air electrodes can be covenient, if optically inferior. Two particularly useful lenses are Zeiss ×40 0.75 NA W water immersion and the Nikon ×40 ELWD air (NA 0.5) with correction collar. Intensity of fluorescent light also depends upon the magnification. Itdecreases as the square of the magnification: a ×10 eyepiece produce an image of 25% the intensity of an image formed by a ×5 eyepiece. Low magnification eyepieces are therefore preferable for visual observation.Fluorescent images can be recorded on film or by analog or digital video techniques. There are many black and white, colour print and transparency films suitable for recording fluorescence images. Generally a film of high speed and acceptable grain should be chosen. Colour films of speed greater than 400 ASA tend to be too grainy, however, black and white films such as Kodak’s TMAX give excellent results even at 2400 ASA (must be developed in TMAX developer). In normal photography, the reciprocity law applies and the total amount of exposure is given by the product of the luminance and the exposure time. Thus an exposure of 1/60th of a second at f8 is the same as for 1/30th at f11. With dim objects the reciprocity law fails to predict the exposure and the exposure time has to be increased.Most film manufacturers provide a guide to the performance of their films at low light intensities. In practice it is often better simply to take several exposures of increasing duration starting with the exposure time indicated by the meter on the camera.The advent of cheaper video cameras that operate at low light intensities has opened up the possibility of recording fluorescent images either on video-tape or in digital form on a computer. Digital image recording has the advantage of allowing complex analysis of an image.Labels that result in a coloured or opaque reaction product are much simpler to photograph than those labelled with fluorescent compounds. No special equipment is required.4. Labelling cells for subsequent identification and fordetermination of overall cell architectureDyes injected for these purposes should have the following properties: (a) they should be visible, either immediately or after chemical reaction; (b) they should remain in the injected cell, either because they are too large to move across the cell membrane and through gap junctions or because they are strongly bound by the cytoplasm; (c) they should not be toxic, although this requirement can be relaxed if the tissue is to be processed immediately after the cell has been injected; (d) they should be stable and not break down to give products with different properties; (e)they should withstand histological processing. In practice, property (e) is the most difficult to achieve.Six classes of compound are used for this purpose:1. Inherently fluorescent molecules and those tagged with a fluorescent probe.Lucifer Yellow (MW 457) and carboxyfluorescein (MW 376) are the most popular fluorescent compounds for determining overall cellular architecture. However, they are far from ideal for this purpose. Both pass through gap junctions (see below) and carboxyfluorescein cannot be fixed. Lucifer Yellow withstands fixation well but as 367Techniques for dye injection and cell labelling368P. MOBBS AND OTHERSwith all other dyes some fluorescence intensity is lost. Passage through gap junctions can be prevented by conjugation of the fluorophore to dextrans. Dextrans (MWs 3000-70000) can be coupled to fluorescein, rhodamine isothiocyanate or Texas Red. They can be prepared in the laboratory (see Gimlich & Braun, 1985) or purchased commercially (Molecular Probes, 48-49 Pitchford Avenue, Eugene, Oregon, OR97402-9144 USA). Cascade Blue and sulphrhodamine 101 are also useful for determining cellular architecture and extend the range of colours available for double marking experiments. For examples of multiple labelling see Fig. 1D,F. Advantages:Can be pressure injected or iontophoresed.Can be seen in living cells with appropriate fluorescent illumination.Are not toxic provided the amount injected is kept fairly low.Do not break down.Will withstand routine fixation and embedding techniques, provided the fixative or mountant does not generate auto-fluorescence. Glutaraldehyde fixation, for example, must be avoided. Many commercial mountants, such as DPX, are unsuitable for this reason. Mountants that are designed to reduce fading can now be obtained (e.g. Citifluor, City University, London). Disadvantages:Limit of detection determined by threshold of fluorescence. Detection levels can be improved by electronic image intensification.Fluorescence fades under continuous illumination. This can be reduced by using anti-fade mountants.Fluorescein fades particularly fast, but is more fluorescent than rhodamine or Texas Red.Sometimes become incorporated into cellular organelles with time, making fluorescence particulate.Margin between visible not toxic, and visible but toxic is narrow.2. The carbocyanine dyes.Octadecyl(C18)-indocarbocyanine (DiI) and oxycarbocyanine (DiO) (MWs 934 and 882) are highly fluorescent lipophilic compounds. They dissolve in, and diffuse throughout, the lipids of the plasma membrane. They are not toxic and they have been reported to remain in the cell membrane for up to one year (Kuffler, 1990). They will also diffuse along membranes in lightly fixed tissue. In the absence of any sites of membrane fusion the carbocyanines label single cells. The diffusion rate for these compounds is slow (about 6 mm/day, slower in fixed tissue), however, carbocyanines with unsaturated alkyl chain segments (FAST-DiI and FAST-DiO) exhibit accelerated diffusion rates. The polyunsaturated “DiASP” compounds (N-4(4-dilinoleylaminostyryl)-N-methylpyridinium iodide and related molecules) (MW~800) are also reported to diffuse more rapidly. Because the carbocyanines are insoluble in water they must either be pressure injected into cells in solution inDMSO or alcohol or applied to the cell membrane in which they rapidly dissolve.DiI and DiO can be visualized by fluorescence microscopy. DiI has similar excitation properties to rhodamine, excited by green it fluoresces red. DiO is similar to fluorescein in that it is excited by blue light and produces green fluorescence. DiAsp has a broad excitation spectrum and fluoresces orange. These dyes can be converted into a permanent reaction product via the Maranto reaction (Maranto, 1982) in which the singlet oxygen released by illumination is used to oxidise diamino-benzidine (DAB).Advantages:They are not toxic and can remain in the cell membrane without harm over several years.Disadvantages:Not water soluble.They tend to fade quickly particularly in laser scanning confocal microscopy.Long diffusion times.Can only be pressure injected.3. Enzymes such as horse radish peroxidase. Horse radish peroxidase (HRP) is reacted with diamino-benzidine or other chromogens to generate a product visible in the light or electron microscope. There are many protocols for developing HRP (see Mesulam, 1982 and Heimer & Robards, 1981 for a selection). Widely used in studies in the central nervous system. The injection of enzymes can also be used to kill individual cells (e.g. pronase). This is potentially useful in lineage and regeneration studies.Advantages:Can be pressure injected or iontophoresed.Not toxic.Remains within the injected cell, provided the preparation is free from micro-peroxidases. Will cross synapses, which can be useful when tracing pathways.Does not break down.Good visibility.Reaction product visible in the electron microscope.Disadvantages:Can only be seen after reaction product produced. However, by using a fluorescent peroxidase conjugate, such as RITC-peroxidase (Sigma P5031),an indication of the staining can be obtained during the fill period (see Fig.1A-C).Can get reaction product from endogenous peroxidases, so method has to be modified if this is likely to be a problem.The penetration of chromogen into tissue is rather poor (about 100 µm), so that whole mounts or slices have to be below this thickness.369Techniques for dye injection and cell labelling370P. MOBBS AND OTHERSMuch of the enzyme activity is lost on fixation. If possible the material is best fixed after reaction.4.Biocytin. A recently introduced intracellular marker (Horikawa & Armstrong, 1988) comprising a highly soluble conjugate of biotin and lysine (MW 372.48) that has a high binding affinity for avidin. The injected biocytin is visualised by attaching a label to avidin, e.g. a fluorescent label such as FITC or rhodamine, or a chromogenic enzyme such as HRP. Suitable avidin conjugates are widely available (e.g. Sigma, Vector Labs.). A small molecular weight biotin compound, biotinamide (MW 286), is also available (Neurobiotin, Vector Labs, 16 Wulfric Square, Bretton, Peterborough PE3 8RF, UK) and may be easier to inject (Kita & Armstrong, 1991). Advantages:Highly soluble in aqueous solutions.Can be pressure injected or iontophoresed.Low toxicity.Does not break down.Good fluorescent, visible light, or electron microscopic visibility after avidin reaction.Disadvantages:Can only be seen after avidin reaction.Reaction penetration limited to about 100 µm even with detergents or surfactants so tissue may have to be sectioned.Some ultrastructural degradation from penetration agents.Can pass between coupled cells.Occurs naturally in trace amounts.5. Heavy metals such as cobalt and nickel.The metal is precipitated with ammonium sulphide or hydrogen sulphide. The sensitivity can be improved by intensification with silver (Pearse, 1968; Bacon & Altman, 1977). Double labelling can be achieved by using different metals in the same preparation followed by precipitation with rubeanic acid (Quicke & Brace, 1979); this results in precipitates of different colours depending on the metal, e.g. cobalt = yellow, nickel = blue, copper = olive.Heavy metal complexes, such as lead EDTA (Turin, 1977) can be suitable in cells that are not linked to their neighbours by gap junctions (see later section). In principle, it is possible to prepare a range of heavy metal complexes of different sizes so long as the complex is firmly held, so that there is no free metal or anion which might be toxic, and the metal has a much higher affinity for sulphide than for the anion used to make the complex. This is essential to ensure precipitation of the metal out of the complex. The advantage of a heavy metal complex is that the complex can be much less toxic than the heavy metal itself and may be much easier to eject from the pipette. However, some metal sulphides will re-dissolve if the precipitant (usually ammonium sulphide) contains polysulphides. Freshly prepared solutions saturated with H2S do not suffer from polysulphide formation.。

小学上册英语第5单元综合卷(有答案)英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.What do we call the process of a caterpillar turning into a butterfly?A. MetamorphosisB. EvolutionC. TransformationD. Development 答案: A. Metamorphosis2.Helium was first discovered in the ______ spectrum.3.The capital of Indonesia is _______.4. A ____ has large, flapping ears and can hear very well.5.What do we call the stars and planets in the sky?A. UniverseB. Solar SystemC. GalaxyD. Atmosphere答案: A6.The _______ (The fall of the Berlin Wall) marked the end of Communist control in Eastern Europe.7.My friend is very ________.8.When it snows, I enjoy making __________ with my friends. (雪人)9.What is the main purpose of a refrigerator?A. To heat foodB. To cool foodC. To cook foodD. To freeze food答案: B10. A _____ (植物研究合作) can lead to groundbreaking discoveries.11.The __________ is a natural wonder located in the United States. (黄石公园)12.Turtles can live for a ______ (很长的时间).13.My brother is __________ (富有想象力).14. A ____(mixed-use development) combines residential and commercial spaces.15.What is the name of the famous ancient ruins in Mexico?A. TeotihuacanB. Machu PicchuC. Angkor WatD. Petra答案: A16.We visit the ______ (自然史博物馆) to learn about fossils.17.The discovery of ________ changed the course of history.18. A dolphin leaps gracefully out of the _______ and splashes down again.19.I enjoy playing ________ with my family.20.I like to ___ (play/watch) games.21.What do we call a young female goat?A. KidB. CalfC. LambD. Foal答案:A.Kid22.My friend is __________ (聪明绝顶).23.The _______ can change its shape with the seasons.24.The _____ (养分) in the soil is vital for plant health.25.What is the term for a young goat?A. CalfB. KidC. LambD. Foal答案: B26.An electric motor converts electrical energy into _______ energy.27.Animals that have scales are typically __________.28.The capital of Bonaire is __________.29.My favorite animal is a ______ (dolphin).30. A __________ is a reaction that involves a change in temperature.31.The first successful cloning of a mammal was of _____.32.I like to go ________ (爬山) with my friends.33.The ______ (小鸟) builds a nest for its eggs.34.My _____ (仓鼠) runs on its wheel.35.The ______ helps us learn about communication.36.The painting is very ___ (colorful).37.I often visit my ____.38.I can see a ______ in the sky. (bird)39. A strong acid has a pH less than ______.40.The atomic number of an element tells you the number of _____ (protons) it has.41.What do we call the part of the brain that controls balance?A. CerebellumB. CerebrumC. BrainstemD. Cortex答案:A42.The __________ is a famous natural landmark in the United States. (黄石公园)43.The capital of Ecuador is __________.44.The iguana is often seen basking in the ______ (阳光).45.The __________ (农业) is important for our economy.46.The ______ (小龙) is a mythical creature often found in ______ (故事).47.What is the term for a baby capybara?A. PupB. KitC. CalfD. Hatchling答案:c48.The fish swims in the ___. (water)49.The chemical formula for calcium chloride is ______.50.The ancient Romans practiced ________ (宗教多元).51.I want to _____ (go/stay) at home.52.The speed of light is very ______.53.What do we call a baby dog?A. KittenB. PuppyC. CalfD. Chick答案:B54.The chemical formula for yttrium oxide is _____.55.The Earth's surface is shaped by both climatic and ______ factors.56.Understanding plant _____ (结构) helps in gardening.57.The _____ (spoon) is shiny.58.The _____ (温带雨林) hosts a variety of plant species.59.The balloon is ______ (floating) in the air.60.The river is ______ (calm) and clear.61. A solution with a pH of contains more ______ than a solution with a pH of .62. A ____ is a large animal that can be trained to work.ets are made of ice, dust, and ______.64.__________ are used in the beauty industry for skincare.65.The _____ is a phenomenon where the moon blocks the sun.66.My cat enjoys the warmth of the _______ (阳光).67.The __________ is important for keeping bones strong.68.The __________ is the area of land between two rivers.69.The __________ (历史的深度剖析) reveals nuances.70.Certain plants can ______ (提供) habitat for endangered species.71. A _______ can measure the amount of energy consumed by a device.72.The ________ was a significant treaty that fostered diplomatic relations.73.The chemical symbol for silver is ________.74.I like to draw pictures of my ________ (玩具名) and imagine their adventures.75.I share my toys with my ______. (我和我的______分享玩具。

bioinformatics analysis is atechniqueBioinformatics Analysis: A Technique Shaping Modern Biomedical ResearchBioinformatics analysis is an intricate technique that revolutionizes the field of biomedical research. It involves the application of computational methods to biological data, enabling scientists to extract meaningful information from vast amounts of genetic, proteomic, and other biological datasets. This technique has become crucial in the post-genomic era, where the amount of biological data generated is exploding at an unprecedented rate.The core of bioinformatics analysis lies in the integration of multiple disciplines, including computer science, statistics, mathematics, and biology. This interdisciplinary approach allows researchers to tackle complex biological problems using advanced computational tools and algorithms. For instance, bioinformatics techniques are used to annotate and interpret genome sequences, predict protein function and interactions, analyze gene expression patterns, and identify biomarkers for various diseases.One of the most significant applications of bioinformatics analysis is in personalized medicine. By analyzing individual genetic variations, bioinformatics can help predict a person's risk for certain diseases and their response to different medications. This information can then be used to develop personalized treatment plans tailored to the unique genetic profile of each patient.Moreover, bioinformatics analysis plays a crucial role in drug discovery and development. By analyzing the interactions between drugs and their targets at the molecular level, bioinformatics can help identify potential drug candidates and predict their efficacy and safety profiles. This information can significantly shorten the drug discovery process and reduce the costs associated with clinical trials.In addition to its applications in personalized medicine and drug discovery, bioinformatics analysis also has numerous other uses. It can be used to study the evolution of species, the mechanisms of gene regulation, and the interactions between different biological systems. Bioinformatics analysis is also essential in the field of epidemiology, where it helps track the spread of diseases and identify potential outbreaks.In conclusion, bioinformatics analysis is a technique that has revolutionized biomedical research. Its interdisciplinary nature and the use of advanced computational methods have enabled researchers to extract meaningful information from vast amounts of biological data. This information has led to breakthroughs in personalized medicine, drug discovery, and other areas of biomedical research, promising better health outcomes and improved quality of life for millions of people.。

生物专业英语试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. Which of the following is not a type of cell organelle?A. MitochondriaB. NucleusC. RibosomeD. Cell wall2. The process of DNA replication is catalyzed by:A. PolymeraseB. TransposaseC. LigaseD. Helicase3. In eukaryotic cells, where is the transcription of DNA primarily carried out?A. CytoplasmB. MitochondriaC. NucleusD. Ribosomes4. What is the basic unit of heredity in all living organisms?A. GeneB. ChromosomeC. DNA moleculeD. Protein5. The term "genome" refers to:A. The complete set of genes of an organismB. The entire DNA of an organismC. The sum of all the proteins in an organismD. The collection of all the cells in an organism6. Which of the following is a method of genetic engineering?A. CrossbreedingB. CloningC. CRISPR-Cas9D. Natural selection7. What is the role of tRNA in protein synthesis?A. To provide the energy for the processB. To carry specific amino acids to the ribosomeC. To serve as the template for protein synthesisD. To catalyze the formation of peptide bonds8. The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that the allele frequencies in a population will remain constant in the absence of:A. MigrationB. Genetic driftC. Natural selectionD. All of the above9. Which of the following is not a type of mutation?A. DeletionB. InsertionC. TranslocationD. Translation10. The process of photosynthesis primarily occurs in the:A. Cell wallB. CytoplasmC. ChloroplastsD. Nucleus二、填空题（每空1分，共10分）1. The chemical structure of DNA is a double ________ helix.2. The process by which a fertilized egg develops into a mature organism is called ________.3. In genetics, the term "dominant" refers to an allele that expresses its effect when ________.4. The scientific name for a species is composed of two parts: the genus name and the ________ name.5. The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to ________, modify, and package proteins for secretion or delivery toother organelles.三、简答题（每题10分，共20分）1. Explain the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.2. Describe the process of mitosis and its significance incell division.四、翻译题（每题15分，共30分）1. Translate the following sentence into English:"基因编辑技术，如CRISPR-Cas9，为研究和治疗遗传性疾病提供了新的可能性。

⾷品⼯艺学课件Processing of fruitsInstructor: mingfeng zheng(郑明锋) phd.Email:vanheng@/doc/bca037d13186bceb19e8bb68.htmlCell: 138********注意：课件全部根据⽼师提供的ppt整理，在编号上可能会有些问题，所以⼤家将就着看，祝⼤家考试顺利。

Chapter one：introductionFruit quality and preprocessingObjectsThrough the introduction, the students knowThe relationship between quality of fruit and the processed product,The relationship between composition of fruit and the processed product,Quality attributes of fresh fruits, and quality measurementspreprocessing methods and technologies1.1 classification of fruitsFruits are commonly classified by growing region as follows. Temperate zone, subtropical, and tropical. Growing region and environmental conditions specific to each regionsignificantly affect fruit quality. Examples of fruit grown in each region are listed below:1) temperate zone fruits2) subtropical fruits3) tropical fruits(1) temperate zone fruitsPome fruits(仁果类): apple, asian pear (nashi), european pear, quince榅桲果Stone fruits: apricot杏, cherry, nectarine, peach, plumSmall fruits and berries: grape (european and american types), strawberry, raspberry, blueberry, blackberry, cranberry (2) subtropical fruitsCitrus fruits: grapefruit, lemon, lime, orange, pummelo, tangerine, and mandarinNoncitrus fruits: avocado, cherimaya, fig, kiwifruit, olive, pomegranate(3) tropical fruitsMajor tropical fruits: banana, mango, papaya, pineappleMinor tropical fruits: carambola, cashew apple, durian, guava,longan, lychee, mangosteen, passion fruit, rambutan1.2 quality of raw materialsThe quality of processed fruit products depends on their quality at the start of processing; How maturity at harvest, Harvesting methods,Post harvest handling proceduresMaintenance in fresh fruits between harvest and process initiation.Quality attributes of fresh fruitsAppearance、exture factors、flavor components、nutritional quality、safety factorsAppearance factorsSize、shape、color、freedom from defects and decay.Texture factorsFirmness, crispness, juiciness.Flavor componentsSweetness, sourness (acidity), astringency, (收敛),bitterness, aroma, off-flavors,Nutritional qualityFruit's content of vitamins (a and c are the most important in fruits), minerals, dietary fiber, carbohydrates, proteins. Safety factorsResidues of pesticides, presence of heavy metals, mycotoxins produced by certain species of fungi, microbial contamination.1.3 losses in fresh fruits after harvastWater loss,Physical injuries,physiological breakdown, decayLoss of acidity, flavor, color, and nutritive valueFactors influence fruit qualityIn the orchard,During transportation,Throughout the handling system (sorting, sizing, ripening, and storage).The total time between harvesting and processingMinimizing the delays throughout the post harvest handling system greatly reduces finality loss, especially in highly perishable fruits such as strawberries, blackberries, apricots, and cherries.1.4 contribution of fruits to human nutritionEnergy (calories)VitaminsMineralsDietary fiberThe us. Department of agriculture and other organizations currently encourage consumers to participate in the "five a day" program which focuses on consumption of five servings of either fruit or vegetables each day.Energy (calories)(1) carbohydrates: banana, breadfruit, raisin葡萄⼲(2) proteins & amino acids: nuts, dried apricot and fig(3) fats. Avocado, olive, nutsFruits typically contain between 10% and 25% carbohydrates, a small amount (less than1.0%) of proteins, and a very small amount (less than 0.5 %) of fat. Carbohydrates, sugars,and starches are broken down to co2, water, and energy during metabolism. Carbohydrates and fats provide most of the calories the body requires for heat and energy.Vitamins(1) fresh fruits and vegetables contribute about 91% of vitamin c, 48% of vitamin a, 27% of vitamin b6, 17% of thiamin硫胺(维⽣素b1) to diet.(2) the following fruits are important contributors (based on their vitamin content and the amount consumed) to the supply of indicated vitamins in the u.s. Diet:*vitamin a: apricot, peach, cherry, orange, watermelon, cantaloupe*vitamin c: strawberry, orange, grapefruit, banana, apple, cantaloupe* niacin烟酸: peach, banana, orange, apricot"*riboflavin核黄素: banana, peach, orange, apple* thiamin: orange, banana, grapefruit, appleMinerals(1) fresh fruits and vegetables contribute about 26% of the magnesium镁and 19% of the iron to the u.s. Diet.(2) the following fruits are important contributors to the supply of indicated minerals in the us. Diet:* potassium钾: banana, peach, orange, apple* phosphorus磷: banana, orange, peach, raisin, fig*calcium: tangerine, grapefruit, orange* iron: strawberry, banana, apple, orangeDietary fiber(1) all fruits and nuts contribute to the dietary fiber in the diet. Dietary fiber consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin⽊质素, and pectic substances, which are derived primarily from fruit cell walls and skin.(2) the dietary fiber content of fruits ranges from 0.5-1.5% (fresh weight basis).(3) dietary fiber plays an important role in relieving constipation by increasing water-holding capacity of feces. Its consumption is also linked to decreased incidence of cardiovascular disease, diverticulosis, and colon cancer.factors influefncing composition and quality of fruitsPreharvest factors(1) genetic: selection of cultivars, differences in raw fruit composition, durability, and response to processing. Fruit cultivars grown for fresh market sale will not be the optimal cultivars for processing.(2) climatic: temperature, light, wind--climatic factors may have a strong influence on nutritional quality of fruits. Light intensity significantly affects vitamin concentration, and temperature influences transpiration rate, which will affect mineral uptake and metabolism. ?(3) cultural practices: soil type, soil nutrient and water supply, pruning修剪, thinning, pest control-fertilizer addition may significantly affect the mineral content of fruit.1. 5 maturity at harvest and harvesting methodMaturity at harvest is one of the primary factors affecting fruit composition, quality, and storage life. Although most fruits reach peak eating quality when harvested fully ripe, they are usually picked mature, but not ripe, to decrease mechanical damage during postharvest handling. Harvesting may also mechanically damage fruit; therefore, choice of harvest methodshould allow for maintenance of quality.Postharvest factors1) environmental，2) handling methods，3) time period between harvesting and consumption(1) environmentalTemperature, relative humidity, atmospheric composition,(2) handling methodsPostharvest handling systems involve the channels through which harvested fruit reaches the processing facility or consumer. Handling methods should be chosen such that they maintain fruit quality and avoid delays.(3) time period between harvesting and consumptionDelays between harvesting and cooling or processing may result in direct losses (due to water loss and decay) and indirect losses (decrease in flavor and nutritional quality).Fruit maturity, ripening, and quality relationshipsMaturity at harvest is the most important factor that determines storage life and final fruit quality. Immature fruits are of inferior quality when ripened. Overripe fruits are likely to become soft and with insipid flavor soon after harvest. Fruits picked either too early or too late in the season are more susceptible to physiological disorders and have a shorter storage life than those picked at mid-season.Maturity and ripeningIn general, fruits become sweeter, more colorful, and softer as they mature.Some fruits are usually picked mature but unripe so that they can withstand the postharvest handling system when shipped long distances. Most currently used maturity indices are based on a compromise between those indices that would ensure the best eating quality to the consumer and those that provide the needed flexibility in transportation and marketing.Carbohydrates（碳⽔化合物）Carbohydrates : fresh fruits vary greatly in their carbohydrate content, with a general range being between 10% and 25%;. The texture, taste, and food value of a fresh fruit is related to its carbohydrate content. Sucrose, glucose, and fructose are the primary sugars found in fruits.Fructose is sweeter than sucrose, and sucrose is sweeter than glucose.Starch is converted to sugar as the fruits mature and ripen.Proteins（蛋⽩质）Fruits contain less than 1% protein (as opposed to 9-20% protein in nuts such as almond, and walnut). Changes in the level and activity of proteins resulting from permeability changes in cell membranes may be involved in chilling injury. Enzymes, which catalyze metabolic processes in fruits, are proteins that are important in the reactions involved in fruit ripening and senescence.Enzymes in fruits：（Organic acids（有机酸）Organic acids are important intermediate products of metabolism. The krebs (tca) cycle is the main channel for the oxidation of organic acids in living cells, and it provides the energy required for maintenance of cell integrity. Organic acids aremetabolized into manyconstituents, including amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins.Citric acid、malic acid、tartaric acid、oxalic acidPigments（⾊素）Pigments undergo many changes during the maturation and ripening of fruits.(1) loss of chlorophyll (green color), which is influenced by ph changes, oxidative conditions, and chlorophyllase action(2) synthesis and/or revelation of carotenoids (yellow and orange colors)(3) development of anthocyanins (red, blue, and purple colors.Beta-carotene is a precursor to vitamin a. Carotenoids are very stable and remain intact in fruit tissues, even when extensive senescence has occurred.Phenolic compounds（酚类化合物）Total phenolic content is higher in immature fruits than in mature fruits and is the main substrate involved in enzymatic browning of cut, or otherwise damaged, fruit tissues when exposed to air.Enzymatic browning（酶促褐变）Enzymatic browning occurs due to the oxidation of phenolic compounds and is mediated, in the presence of o2, by the enzyme polyphenoloxidase (ppo). The initial product of oxidation is usually o-quinone, which is highly unstable and undergoes polymerization to yield brown pigments of higher molecular weight. Polyphenoloxidase catalyzes the following tworeactions:Volatiles（挥发性）Volatiles are responsible for the characteristic aroma of fruits. They are present in extremely small quantities (c <100µg/g fresh wt.).Volatile compounds are largely esters（酯）, alcohols, acids, aldehydes（醛）, an d ketones (low-molecular weight compounds).VitaminsThe water-soluble vitamins includeVitamin c,Thiamin硫胺(维⽣素b1),Riboflavin核黄素,Niacin烟酸, vitamin b6,Folacin叶酸, vitamin b12, biotin维⽣素h. Fat soluble vitamins include vitamins a, d, e, and k.Fat-soluble vitamins are less susceptible to postharvest losses.Vitamin cAscorbic acid is most sensitive to destruction when the commodity is subjected to adverse handling and storage conditions. Losses are enhanced by extended storage, highertemperatures, low relative humidity, physical damage, and chilling injury. Postharvest losses in vitamins a and b are usually much smaller than losses in vitamin c.1.7 biological factors involved in postharvest deterioration (变坏) of fruits ?Respiration (呼吸作⽤)Ethylene productionTranspiration (蒸腾作⽤)Physiological disordersPhysical damagePathological breakdownRespirationStored organic materials (carbohydrates, proteins, fats) are broken down into simple end products with a release of energy. Oxygen (o2) is used in this process, and carbon dioxide (co2) is produced.The loss of stored food reserves in the commodity during respiration hastens senescence as the reserves that provide energy to maintain the commodity's living status are exhausted. ?Food value (energy value) for the consumer is lost; it has reduced flavor quality, with sweetness especially being lost; and salable dry weight is lost (especially important for commodities destined for dehydration). The energy released as heat.Ethylene productionEthylene, the simplest of the organic compounds affecting the physiological processes of plants, is produced by all tissues of higher plants. As a plant hormone, ethylene regulates many aspects of growth development, and senescence and is physiologically active in traceamounts (less than 0.1 ppm).Transpiration or water lossWater loss is the main cause of deterioration because it results not only direct quantitative.Losses (loss of salable weight) hut also in loss of its appearance, loss of cripsness, andjuiciness), and nutritional quality.The dermal system (outer protective coverings) governs the regulation of water loss by the commodity.Physiological disorders(1) freezing injury :usually results in immediate collapse of the tissues and total loss.(2) chilling injury when fruits (mainly those of tropical and subtropical origin) are held at temperatures above their freezing point and below 5-15℃, depending on the commodity. ?(3) heat injury results from exposure to direct sunlight or to excessively high temperatures.Symptoms include surface scalding, uneven ripening, excessive softening, and desiccation. ?(4) very low (<1%) oxygen and/or elevated (>20%) carbon dioxide concentration can result in physiological breakdown of all fruits.Physical damageVarious types of physical damage (surface injuries, impact bruising, vibration bruising, etc.) Are major contributors to deterioration. Mechanical injuries are not only unsightly, but also accelerate water loss, stimulate higher respiration and ethylene production rates, and favor decay incidence.Pathological breakdownDecay is one of the most common or apparent causes of deterioration; however, attack by many microorganisms usually follows mechanical injury or physiological breakdown, which allows entry to the microorganism. Pathogens can infect healthy tissues and become the primary cause of deterioration.Environmental factors influencing deterioration of fruits（影响⽔果变坏的环境因素）Temperature，Relative humidity，Air movement，Atmospheric composition，Ethylene，Harvesting procedures Postharvest handling proceduresDumping、Sorting、Sizing、Cooling、Storage、RipeningDumping：Fresh fruits should be handled with care throughout the postharvest handling system in order to minimize mechanical injuries. Dumping in water or in flotation tanks should be used for fruits. If dry dumping systems are used, they should be well padded bruising. Sorting：Manual sorting is usually carried out to eliminate fruit exhibiting defects or decay. For some fruits, it may also be necessary to sort the fruit into two or more classes of maturity or ripeness.Mechanical sorters, which operate on the basis of color, soluble solids, moisture, or fat content, are being implemented and may greatly reduce time and labor requirements. Sizing：In some cases, sizing the fruits into two or more size categories may be required before processing. Sizing can be done mechanically on the basis of fruit dimension or by weight.Mechanical sizing can be a major source of physical damage to the fruit if the machines are not adequately padded and adjusted to the minimum possible fruit drop heights Ripening：Ripening before processing may be required for certain fruits (banana, kiwifruit, mango, papaya, peach, pear, plum, melon) that are picked mature but unripe. Ethylene treatment can be used to obtain faster and more uniform ripening. The optimum temperature range for ripening is 15-25℃and, within this range, the higher the temperature, the faster the ripening. Relative humidity should be maintained between 90% and 95 % during ripening. Cooling：Cooling is utilized to remove field heat and lower the fresh fruit's temperature to near its optimum storage temperature. Cooling can be done using cold water (hydrocooling) or cold air (forced-air cooling or "pressure cooling"). Highly perishable fruits, such as strawberries, bush berries, and apricots, should be cooled to near 4℃within six hours of harvest. Other fruits should be cooled to their optimum temperature within twelve hours of harvest. Storage：Short-term or long-term storage of fresh fruits may be needed before processing to regulate the product flow and extend the processing season. The relative humidity in the storage facility should be kept between 90% and 95%.To reduce decay, elevated c02 (15-20%) may be added to the atmosphere within pallet covers for strawberries, bush berries, and cherries, and sulfur dioxide (200 ppm) fumigation may be used on grapes.1.8 quality measurementsMany quality measurements can be made before a fruit crop is picked in order to determine if proper maturity or degree of ripeness has developed.ColourColour may be measured with instruments or by comparing the colour of fruit on the tree with standard picture charts. TextureTexture may be measured by compression by hand or by simple type of plungers.Soluble solidsAs fruit mature on the tree its concentration of juice solids, which are mostly sugars, changes. The concentration of soluble solids in the juice can be estimated with arefractometer or a hydrometer液体⽐重计.Acid contentThe acid content of fruit changes with maturity and affects flavour. Acid concentration can be measured by a simple chemical titration on the fruit juice. But for many fruits the tartness and flavour are really affected by the ratio of sugar to acid. Sugar to acid ratioIn describing the taste of tartness of several fruits and fruit juices, the term "sugar to acid ratio" or "brix to acid ratio" are commonly used. The higher the brix the greater the sugar concentration in the juice; the higher the "brix to acid ratio" the sweeter and lees tart is the juice.1.9 preprocessing1.9.1 harvestingThe above and other measurements, plus experience, indicate when fruit is ready for harvesting and subsequent processing.1.9.2 reception - quality and quantity1.9.3 temporary storage before processing1.9.4 washingHarvested fruit is washed to remove soil, micro-organisms and pesticide residues.Fruit washing is a mandatory processing step; it would be wise to eliminate spoiled fruit before washing in order to avoid the pollution of washing tools and/or equipment and the contamination of fruit during washing.1.9.5 sortingFruit sorting covers two main separate processing operations:Removal of damaged fruit and any foreign bodies (which might have been left behind after washing);Qualitative sorting based on organoleptic criteria and maturity stage.Mechanical sorting for size is usually not done at the preliminary stage. The most important initial sorting is for variety and maturity.1.9.6 trimming and peeling (skin removal)This processing step aims at removing the parts of the fruit which are either not edible or difficult to digest especially the skin.Up to now the industrial peeling of fruit and vegetables was performed by three procedures: Mechanically;By using water steam;Chemically; this method consists in treating fruit and vegetables by dipping them in a caustic soda solution at a temperature of 90 to 100°c; the concentration of this solution as well asthe dipping or immersion time varying according to each specific case.1.9.7 cuttingThis step is performed according to the specific requirements of the fruit processing technology.1.9.8 blanchingA brief heat treatment to vegetables some fruits to inactivate oxidative enzyme systems such as catalase, peroxidase, polyphenoloxidase, ascorbic acid oxidase, and lipoxygenase. ?When the unblanched tissue is disrupted or bruised and exposed to air, these enzymes come in contact with substrates causing softening, discoloration, and the production of off flavors. ?It is most often standard practice to blanch fruits in order to prevent quality deterioration. ?Although the primary purpose of blanching is enzyme inactivation.There are several other benefits blanching initially cleanses the product;Decreases the microbial load,Preheats the product before processing.Softens the fruit, facilitates compact packing in the can.Expell intercellular gases in the raw fruitImproved heat transfer during heat processing.Water blanching is generally of the immersion type or spray type as the product moves on a conveyor.Steam blanching often involves belt or chain conveyors upon which the product moves through a tunnel containing live steam.adequacy of blanching is usually based on inactivation of one of the heat resistant enzymes (peroxidase or polyphenol oxidase).During the blanching process, it is imperative that certain enzymes that have the potential to cause flavour and textural changes be inactiviated. The process involves a brief heattreatment applied to most vegetables and also to some fruits in order to inactivate oxidative enzyme system such as catalase, peroxidase, polyphenoloxidase,ascorbic acid oxidase, and lipoxygenase.When unblanched tissue is disrupted or bruised and exposed to air,these enzymes come in contact with substrate causing softening,discoloration, and the production of off-flavours.Since this action can potentially occur during the period prior to heat processing, it is most often standard practice to blanch fruits in order to prevent quality deterioration.1.9.9 ascorbic/citric acid dipAscorbic acid or vitamin c minimises fruit oxidation primarily by acting as an antioxidant and itself becoming oxidised in preference to catechol⼉茶酚-tannin compounds.It has been found that increased acidity also helps retard oxidative colour changes and so ascorbic acid plus citric acid may be used together. Citric acid further reacts with (chelates) metal ions thus removing these catalysts of oxidation from the system.1.9.10 sulphur dioxide treatmentSulphur dioxide may function in several ways:Sulphur dioxide is an enzyme poison against common oxidising enzymes;It also has antioxidant properties; i.e., it is an oxygen acceptor (as is ascorbic acid);Further so2 minimises non enzymatic maillard type browning by reacting with aldehyde醛groups of sugars so that they are no longer free to combine with amino acids;Sulphur dioxide also interferes with microbial growth.In many fruit processing pre-treatments two factors must be considered:Sulphur dioxide must be given time to penetrate the fruit tissues;So2 must not be used in excess because it has a characteristic unpleasant taste and odour, and international food laws limit the so2 content of fruit products, especially of those which are consumer oriented (e.g. Except semi-processed products oriented to further industrial utilisation).5.2.11 sugar syrupSugar syrup addition is one of the oldest methods of minimising oxidation.Sugar syrup minimises oxidation by coating the fruit and thereby preventing contact withatmospheric oxygen.Sugar syrup also offers some protection against loss of volatile 挥发性的fruit esters 酯and itcontributes sweet taste to otherwise tart fruits.It is common today to dissolve ascorbic acid and citric acid in the sugar syrup for addedeffect or to include sugar syrup after an so 2 treatment.QuestionsWhat factors influence the quality of fruits after harvest?How to maintain the fruit in good quality before the processing begin?第⼀节果蔬原料特性新鲜果蔬原料的特点 ? 果蔬原料的化学成分原料的化学成分与加⼯的关系1.新鲜果蔬原料的特点易腐性、季节性、区域性2.果蔬中的化学成分（chemical composition in fruits and vegetables ）3.化学成分与加⼯的关系（relation between chemical composition and processing ）3.1 ⽔分(water)果蔬中⽔的含量：⼤多数在80%以上，含⽔量⾼的如冬⽠(wax gourd)可达96%以上。

小学上册英语第五单元寒假试卷英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.Which holiday involves dressing up in costumes?A. ThanksgivingB. ChristmasC. HalloweenD. New Year's2.He is a musician, ______ (他是一位音乐家), playing in a band.3.The ______ is known for her amazing voice.4.What do you call the time of day when the sun rises?A. NightB. MorningC. AfternoonD. EveningB5.What is the term for a baby pig?A. CalfB. PigletC. KidD. LambB6.I enjoy watching the parrot _______ (说话).7.Many plants have different __________ (颜色).8.I enjoy ________ (外出) on weekends.9.My brother is a ______. He enjoys rock climbing.10.The fall of the Berlin Wall happened in __________ (1989).11.Who is the author of "Harry Potter"?A. J.K. RowlingB. Roald DahlC. Mark TwainD. Dr. Seuss12.What do you call the person who drives a bus?A. TeacherB. DriverC. PilotD. Engineer13.Every Friday, we have a ________ (电影之夜) at home. We watch movies and eat ________ (爆米花).14.The rain makes everything _____ (wet/dry).15. A _____ (植物互动) can encourage community involvement.16.In a chemical equation, coefficients are used to balance the number of _____ on each side.17.We planted ________ in the backyard.18.Where do bees live?A. NestB. HiveC. DenD. BurrowB19.What is the opposite of "big"?A. SmallB. TallC. HeavyD. LightA20. A ________ (鸟) can fly high in the sky and sings beautifully.21. A __________ is a piece of land surrounded by water on three sides. (半岛)22.She loves to ______ (dance).23.What is the primary function of the heart?A. Pump bloodB. Digest foodC. Filter airD. Protect the body24.The __________ can indicate areas of potential geological instability.25.The _____ (运动) is exciting.26.I saw a cute ______ (小狗) at the shelter.27.The ________ is a popular pet for families.28.What is the main purpose of the skeletal system?A. To protect internal organsB. To produce blood cellsC. To provide structure and supportD. All of the aboveD All of the above29.What is 10 3?A. 7B. 6C. 5D. 4A30.The ______ is a group of animals that includes elephants and hippos.31.Rust is an example of a _____ (chemical change).32.The ________ (桥) connects two sides of the river.33.The __________ (历史的社会构成) shape narratives.34.The ____ can dive deep underwater to catch fish.35.What do we celebrate on December 25th?A. HalloweenB. ThanksgivingC. ChristmasD. New Year's36.The _______ of a plant can change in different seasons.37.What is the freezing point of water?A. 0 degreesB. 32 degreesC. 100 degreesD. 212 degreesA38.The main component of antioxidants is _____.39.What do we call the science of numbers?A. ChemistryB. PhysicsC. MathematicsD. BiologyC40. A chihuahua is one of the smallest _______ (犬种).41.The chemical formula for aluminum sulfate is ______.42.What is the name of the famous river in Egypt?A. AmazonB. NileC. YangtzeD. Mississippi43.The chemical structure of DNA consists of ______ chains.44.I planted ________ in the flower pot.45.What instrument do you play to make music with your mouth?A. FluteB. GuitarC. ViolinD. TambourineA46.What is 8 3?A. 4B. 5C. 6D. 7B47.bays) provide shelter for ships. The ____48.The garden is full of ______ (vegetables).49.She is a great ________.50.What is the name of the famous theme park located in California?A. DisneylandB. Universal StudiosC. SeaWorldD. LegolandA51.What is the main ingredient in soup?A. WaterB. FlourC. SugarD. RiceA52.How many fingers do we have on one hand?A. FourB. FiveC. SixD. Seven53.The chef, ______ (厨师), creates delicious desserts.54.We are going to a ______ (birthday) party this weekend.55.The bike is _____ in the garage. (parked)56.The chemical formula for acetic acid is ________.57.What do you call a vehicle that travels on water?A. PlaneB. CarC. BoatD. TrainC58.The ancient Romans constructed ________ for public gatherings.59.The process of converting a solid directly into a gas is called _______.60.How many continents are there on Earth?A. FiveB. SixC. SevenD. EightC61.The _______ of a solution refers to how much solute is dissolved in a solvent.62.Which instrument has 88 keys?A. OrganB. HarpC. PianoD. Accordion答案:C63.The _______ (小金鱼) swims in its bowl all day.64.What do you call a group of elephants?A. HerdB. PackC. FlockD. Gaggle65.The _____ (marigold) repels pests naturally.66. A telescope helps us see _____ objects in space.67. A ______ is a measure of how much solute can dissolve in a solvent.68.An observatory is a place where people study _____.69.The _____ (枝条) can be pruned for better growth.70.What do you call the act of taking care of a garden?A. PruningB. WeedingC. GardeningD. Planting71.I like to _______ my own lunch.72.My grandma loves her ______.73.She has a ________ (goal) to achieve.74.The invention of ________ has significantly influenced education.75.What do we call the device used to look at distant objects?A. MicroscopeB. TelescopeC. PeriscopeD. Kaleidoscope76. A __________ can form from rocks that have been heated and pressured.77.I enjoy listening to ________ (音乐) while I do my homework. It helps me________ (放松).78.What is the capital of Namibia?A. WindhoekB. SwakopmundC. Walvis BayD. OshakatiA79.The blue jay is a type of _________. (鸟)80.What do we call the place where we can buy groceries?A. SchoolB. StoreC. RestaurantD. Library81.Which animal is known for its long neck?A. ElephantB. GiraffeC. ZebraD. KangarooB82.What do you call the large landmass where we live?A. CityB. CountryC. ContinentD. IslandC83.The main function of nucleic acids is to store _____.84.She is a good ________.85.The process of splitting water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen is called ______.86. A hamster runs on its ________________ (跑轮).87.What is the name of the famous artist known for his paintings of water lilies?A. Claude MonetB. Vincent van GoghC. Pablo PicassoD. Leonardo da Vinci88.What is the term for a young snake?A. HatchlingB. PupC. KitD. CalfA Hatchling89.My brother has a toy ______ (赛车). He loves to race it on the ______ (地板).90.The engineer, ______ (工程师), develops new technologies.91.What is the name of the famous landmark in Egypt?A. Great WallB. PyramidsC. ColosseumD. StonehengeB92.The _______ can help control pests naturally.93.The __________ (历史的回忆) inform our identities.94. A compound that contains both hydrogen and oxygen is called a ______.95.What is the main function of leaves on a plant?A. To attract insectsB. To absorb sunlightC. To hold waterD. To provide supportB96.The ______ teaches us about literature.97.What is the term for an animal that hunts other animals for food?A. PredatorB. PreyC. ScavengerD. HerbivoreA98. A __________ (生态研究) can help protect plant species.99. A __________ is a type of chemical reaction where heat is absorbed.100.I enjoy making my own games using my ________ (玩具名). It sparks my imagination.。