Papers in Linguistics.

Linguistics语言学，the study of human language。

包括Theoretical linguistics，Applied linguistics，Sociolinguistics，Cognitive linguistics和Historical linguistics。

这里主要考Theoretical linguistics，包括:1.Lexis词汇学, the study of what is a word and where words come from2.Semantics语义学，the study of meaning in a language3.Phonetics语音学，the study of speech sounds (voice).4.Phonology音位学/音系学,the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication5.Morphology形态学，the study of the structure and form of words and phrases6.Syntax句法学，the study of the rules, or "patterned relations" that govern the way the words in a sentence come together，与morphology形态学并称grammer语法学7.Stylistics文体学，the study of style used in literary, and verbal language and the effect the writer/speaker wishes to communicate to the reader/hearer.8.Pragmatics语用学，generally the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings.补充：general linguistics, the study of the structure and development of language in generalChapter 1 IntroductionⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. T2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. F3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. F4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. T5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. T6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. T7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. T8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. F9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. T10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. T11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. T12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. T13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. T14. Social changes can often bring about language changes. T15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. T16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. T17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. T19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure. FⅡ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.22. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23. D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g_______ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P _______ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s _______ study of language.Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be _______.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _______.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _______.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedC. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a _______ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36. Saussure took a(n) _______ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD.semantic…linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the mem- bers of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _______ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called _______,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _______, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BⅣ. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics42. Phonology43. Syntax44. Pragmatics45. Psycholinguistics46. Language47. Phonetics48. Morphology49. Semantics50. Sociolinguistics51. Applied Linguistics52. Arbitrariness53. Productivity54. Displacement55. Duality56. Design Features57. Competence58. Performance59. Langue60. ParoleⅤ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human commu- nication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Chapter 2 PhonologyⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. V oicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speakerissues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. V owel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.Ⅱ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. A_______ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22. A_______ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23. The four sounds /p/, /b/, /m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e., they are all b_______ sounds.24. Of all the speech organs, the t_______ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25. English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.26. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.27. S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s_______ rules.29. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31. P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.32. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.33. T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 35 Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords36. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal37. __________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D. /b/38. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar39. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40. The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called _______.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme44.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophonesⅣ. Define the terms below:45. phonology46. phoneme47. allophone48. international phonetic alphabet 49. intonation 50. phonetics51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics53. phone54. phonemic contrast55. tone56. minimal pairⅤ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?。

语言学试题及答案英语一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. The term "phoneme" refers to:A. The smallest unit of sound in a languageB. The smallest unit of meaning in a languageC. The smallest unit of grammar in a languageD. The smallest unit of writing in a language答案：A2. Which of the following is a characteristic of the English language?A. It is a tonal languageB. It has a fixed word orderC. It has no grammatical genderD. It uses ideograms答案：B3. In linguistics, "morpheme" is defined as:A. A unit of soundB. A unit of meaningC. A unit of grammarD. A unit of writing答案：B4. The study of language change over time is known as:A. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. SyntaxD. Historical Linguistics答案：D5. The branch of linguistics that deals with the meaning of words is called:A. SemanticsB. PragmaticsC. SyntaxD. Phonology答案：A二、填空题（每题1分，共10分）1. The study of the physical properties of speech sounds is known as ____________.答案：Phonetics2. The process of changing one language into another is known as ____________.答案：Translation3. The smallest unit of meaning in a language is called a____________.答案：Lexeme4. The study of how language is used in social contexts is known as ____________.答案：Sociolinguistics5. The study of language acquisition in children is known as ____________.答案：Child Language Acquisition三、简答题（每题5分，共20分）1. Explain the difference between a phoneme and an allophone. 答案：A phoneme is a linguistic unit that distinguishes meaning in a language, whereas an allophone is a variant of a phoneme that does not change the meaning of a word.2. What is the role of syntax in language?答案：Syntax is the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences in a language, determining how words combine to form phrases, clauses, and complex sentences.3. Describe the function of morphology in language.答案：Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words and how they are formed by combining morphemes, which are the smallest meaningful units of language.4. How does sociolinguistics contribute to our understanding of language?答案：Sociolinguistics contributes to our understanding of language by examining how social factors such as class, gender, age, and ethnicity influence language variation and use in different social contexts.四、论述题（共20分）1. Discuss the importance of pragmatics in language communication.答案：Pragmatics is crucial in language communication as it deals with the study of how context influences the meaning of linguistic expressions. It helps us understand how speakersconvey intended meanings beyond the literal interpretation of words and sentences, taking into account factors such as tone, body language, and shared knowledge between speakers.2. Explain the significance of historical linguistics in understanding language evolution.答案：Historical linguistics is significant in understanding language evolution as it traces the development of languages over time, revealing how languages change, diverge, and sometimes converge. It provides insights into therelationships between languages, the migration of people, and the cultural history of language communities.。

英语学术论文中转述动词的对比研究论文英语学术论文中转述动词的对比研究全文如下：摘要：转述动词是学术论文中一种普遍的语言现象，它表明作者对被转述人研究成果的态度，从而为自己的研究建立空间。

本文以人文学科一定量的英语学术论文为语料，对比分析了转述动词在这些语料的文献综述部分中的运用，表明转述动词的合理使用能够使作者的观点更具有说服力，从而增强其对学术语篇应用的驾驭能力。

关键词：学术论文，转述动词1. 转述动词及其分类转述动词指在陈述相关事实和阐释观点时所使用的动词。

在英语学术语篇的转述结构中，转述动词作为传递相关信息的转述标记，具有预示和支配语篇意义的功能。

转述动词的恰当使用能够使作者有效地将自己的论述和已有的研究成果联系起来，从而使得自己的论述更具有说服力。

Hyland2002根据所转述的动作类型，将转述动词分为三类：研究型转述动词表示研究的结果或过程，其中，研究结果类型又进一步分为叙实、反叙实和非叙实三小类;认知型转述动词主要与心理过程有关，进一步分为积极，批评、迟疑和中立四小类;话语型转述动词与话语表述有关，可以再分为三种类型：怀疑、确信和反对。

2. 实例分析本文在对转述动词进行分析时采用了Hyland提出的转述动词分类框架，分别从CNKI 和PQDT选取4篇学术论文中的文献综述部分，建立两个小型语料库，即中国学者学术期刊语料库CEJ和国际学者学术期刊语料库IEJ，由于这两个语料库库存相近，因此可比性比较大。

笔者首先从这些语料中统计出转述动词出现的总量，其次分别统计出中国学者和外国学者使用转述动词的次数，并将这些动词进行分类整理，得出相关数据。

由数据整理所得，CEJ中转述动词的出现次数为52次，IEJ中转述动词的出现次数为64次，中外学者在撰写学术论文时使用的转述动词数量差别不大。

在CEJ中，出现次数最多的转述动词分别是point out，believe，define，indicate，prove，refer to 和 so on;在IEJ中，出现次数最多的转述动词分别是define，state，note，argue，view，acknowledge，refer to 和 so on。

四、名词解释：四、名词解释： 1) Parole 话语：① it refers to the realization of langue in actual use.② it is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. ③ it is concrete, refers to the naturally occurring language events.④ it varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.2) Applied linguistics 应用语言学：findings in linguistic studies can often beapplied to the solution of such practical problems as recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is known as applied linguistics.3) Reference （所指）语义: It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real,physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 4) Illocutionary act 言外行为：the act of expressing the speaker’s intention,it is th the act of expressing the speaker’s intention,it is the e act preformed in saying something.5) Regional dialect 地域方言：it is a linguistic variety used by people living in thesame geographical region. It has been found that regional dialect boundaries often coincide with geographical barriers such as mountains, rivers and swamps. 6) LAD(Language Acquisition Device)语言习得机制：It was described as animaginary "black box" existing somewhere in the human brain.7) CA （Contrastive Analysis ）对比分析：starting with describing comparablefeatures of the native language and the target language, CA compares the forms and meanings across these two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so that people can predict the possible learning difficulty learners may encounter. 8) Neurolinguistics （神经语言学）：it is the study of two related areas ：language disorders and the relationship between the brain and language. It includes research into how the brain is structured and what function each part of the brain performs, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language. 9) Predication analysis 述谓结构分析：① It is proposed by the British Linguist G It is proposed by the British Linguist G.Leech..Leech. ② The basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.③ This applies to all forms of a sentence.④ A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.10) Cross-cultural communication(intercultural communication)跨文化交流：itis communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.11) Cross-association 互相联想：In English we sometimes may come across wordswhich are similar in meaning. Their spelling and pronunciation are also alike. The close association of the two leads to confusion. Such interference is often referred as cross-association.12) CPH （Critical Period Hypothesis ）临界期假说：a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.①The strong version of CPH suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.②The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. (Support in Victor’s and Genie’s cases)13) Prescriptive （grammer ）规定语法：if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard " behaviour in using language to ell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.14) Performance 语言运用；言语行为：the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication .15) Duality 双重性(double articulation)：language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower or basic level is of sounds, which are meaningless. The higher level can be meaningful.五、问答题：五、问答题：Chapter 11. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientificstudy of language?Linguistics studies not any particular language,but it studies languages in general.It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts,which are found to display some similarities ,and generalizations are made about them,then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure .But the hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.6. How is Saussure Saussure’’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky Chomsky’’s distinction between competence and performance?Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. their purpose is to single out the language system for serious studyThey are similar in two aspects: the definition and the content of study.On one hand, Saussure defines langue as the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole as the realization of langue in actual use.Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. We can see that langue and competence both refer to the abstract issue, conventions and knowledge, and parole and performance both are their actual realization, the concrete use.On the other hand, in Saussure’s opinion, what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole as parole is too varied and confusing. And this is the same as Chomsky. He thinks linguists should study t linguists should study the ideal speaker’s competence, not he ideal speaker’s competence, nothis performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.Two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?1) Arbitrariness: this means that there is no logical connection between meanings andsounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language.2) Productivity: Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction andinterpretation of new signals of its users.3) Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. Atthe lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system. 4) Displacement: Language can be use to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past ,present or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmission:Language is passed on from one generation to next through teachingand learning rather than by instinct.Chapter 23.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ?Broad transcription Broad transcription——one letter symbol for one sound.Narrow transcription transcription——diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sound [l]8.what’s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?① A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].② A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].③ Allophone —the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environmentsPhone is different from phoneme,The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/l/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/Chapter 51. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?1) The naming theory命名论 was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. Thelinguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken tobe labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things. Thesemantic relationship holding between words and things is the relationship of naming.2) The conceptualist view概念论: This view holds that there is no direct link between alinguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they arelinked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. This is best illustrated by thesemantic triangle suggested by Ogden and Richards:3) Contextualism语境论: Representatively proposed by the British linguist J. R. Firthwho had been influenced by the Polish anthropologist Malinowski and the Germanphilosopher Wittgenstein.It holds that meaning should be studied in terms of situation,use, context-elements closely linked with language behavior. …the meaning of a wordis its use in the language.4) Behaviourism行为主义论: Based on contextualist view by Bloomfield who drew onbehaviorist psychology in defining “meaning”. Behaviorists attempted to define themeaning of a language from as the “ situation in which the speaker utters it and theresponse it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, islinked with psychological interest.6.In what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?成分分析和把音位分析为区别性特征有何相似之处？In the light of componential analysis, the meaning of a word consists of a number of distinctive meaning features, the analysis breaks down the meaning of the word into these features; it is these different features that distinguish word meaning similarly, a phoneme is considered as a collection of distinctive sound features, a phoneme can be broken down into these distinctive sound features and its these sound features that distinguish different sounds.Chapter 65. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example.According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker the speaker’’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. Let's look at an example:"You have left the door wide open."The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the wo The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the words “you”, “have”, rds “you”, “have”, “door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean. words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.8. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答：答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle: (1) The maxim of quantity 数量原则数量原则E.g. A: When is Susan's farewell party?B: Sometimes next month.It is flouting the maxim of quantity (2) The maxim of quality 质量原则质量原则E.g. A: Would you like to join us for the picnic on Sunday?B: I'm afraid I have got a class on Sunday.(3) The maxim of relation 相关原则相关原则E.g. A: How did the math exam go today, Tom?B: We had a basketball match with the other class. (4) The maxim of manner 方式准则方式准则E.g. A: Shall we got something for the kids?B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.Chapter92. What do you think of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis? Give examples or proof to support your point of view.Sapir-Whorf believe that language filters people's perception and the way they categorize their experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. There are mainly two different interpretations about Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: a strong version and a weak one. The strong version believes that language patterns determine people people’’s thinking and behavior, the weak one holds that the former influences the later.I agree with the weak one. Here is an example, the word snow. For Eskimo snow is extremely important and so crucial to life that each of its various forms and conditions is named. In English-speaking cultures, snow is far less important and simple word snow usually suffices the need. When some needs become more specific, however, longer phrases can be made up to meet these needs: these needs: ““corn snow ”, , ““fine powder snow ”, and , and ““drifting snow ”.Chapter10 2. Among the language acquisition theories mentioned in this chapter, which one do you think is more reasonable and convincing? Explain why.1) Behaviourist view---language is behavior ,language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.In this theory,imitation and practice are preliminary(开始),discrimination（识别）（识别）and generalizaition are key to language development. 2) An innatist (语法天生主义者)view----In the human brain, there is an imaginary “black box ”called Language acquisition device which is said to contain principles that are universal to all language.Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate the LAD, which enables them to discover his language's structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular ter Chomsky prefer this innate endowment as UG and hold that if children are pre-equipped with UG, then what they have to learn is the ways in which their own language make use of these principles and the variations in those principles which may exist in the particular language they are learning.3) An interactionist(互动主义者)view----language develops as a result of the complex interplay,between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which child develops.In a word,Behaviorists view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspects,the innatist accounts most reasonable in explaining children's acquiring complex system, and the interactionist description convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment.Chapter111、To what extent is second language learning similar to first language learning? Can you list some proof from your own learning experience?(please list your own experience.)The studies on the first language acquisition have influenced enormously those on the second language acquisition at both theoretical and pratical levels. Theoretically the new findings and advances in first language acquisition in learning theories and learning process are illuminating in understanding second language acquisition. The techniques used to collect and analyze data in first language acquisition also provide insights and perspectives in the study of second language acquisition. Just as Littlewood summarizes, the first language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and undrerstanding new facts about second language learning.2. Try to observe yourself and pay attention to your own learning experience, what conclusion can you reach about the role of Chinese in your English learning? On what occasions are you more likely to use or depend on Chinese in learning and using English? Chinese plays an inseparable role in our English learning and people can't afford to ignore it. Hence, the role of Chinese in our English learning is worth careful examination. In addition, English learning have been influnenced by Chinese learning at both theoretical and practical levels.(1)Theoretically, the new findings and advanced in Chinese acquisition especially in learning theories and learning process are illuminate (helping) in understanding English acquisition.(2)The techniques used to collect and analyze data in Chinese learning also provides insights and perspectives in the study of English learning.Occasion: Recent studies have discovered that there are three interacting factors in determining language transfer in second language learning:1) a learner's psychology, how a learner organizes his or her native language;2) a learner's perception of native-target language distance,3) a learner's actual knowledge of the target language.。

Quiz of LinguisticsI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False.1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( T )2. Linguistics studies particular language, not language in general. ( F )3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. ( F)4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. ( T )5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. ( T )6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistics study. ( F )7. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. ( F )8. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar. ( T )9. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.( F ) 10. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by Saussure.( F ) II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given.1. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s knowledge______ of the rules of his language.2. Langue refers to the abstract_______ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.3. Duality______ is one of the desing features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.4. Language is a system of arbitrary_________vocal symbols used for human communication.5. Parole____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.6. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such application is generally known as applied_____ linguistics.7. Language is productive________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.8. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific______ study of languge.9. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive_______.10. Modern linguistics regards the written language as secondary_______.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.D1. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. aribitrarinessB. displacementC. dualityD. MeaningfulnessD2. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because______.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedC. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. all of the above.B3. A historical study of language is a ________ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparativeA4. Sausure took a(n) ________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ______ point of view.A. sociological, psychologicalB. psychological, sociologicalC. applied, pragmaticD. semantic, linguisticC5. According to Saussure, ______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. languageB6. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _______ and meaning.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideasA7. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_______.A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmissionD8. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _______rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BC9. Which of the following words is not motivated?A. bangB. blackboardC. penD. meowD10. What is the function of the sentence: “Hi! How are you this moring?”A. emotive functionB. conative functionC. poetic functionD. phatic functionIV. Terms explanation1.linguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.nguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication 3.arbitrarinessArbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings andsounds.4.productivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.5.displacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.ngueLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.7.paroleParole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.petenceChomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.9.performanceChomsky defines performance as the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.10.dualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.V. Short answer questions1. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.2. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?3. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?4. What are the major distinction between langue and parole?5. How do you understand competence and performance?6. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?7. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?8. What are the main functions of language according to Jacobson’s framework?9. Explains the three macrofunctions of language in Holliday’s system.10. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?。

Morphology1.What is morphology?2.How are words classified?3.What is the relationship between word category and its meaning?4.How can you identify the meaning of a word?5.What is a morpheme?6.What is a morph and an allomorph?7.How many morphemes are there in each of the following words?a) superasegmental b) interactionistc) industrialization d) decentralized8.How many allomorphs does the plural morpheme ｛s｝have? What are they?9. How are morphemes classified?10. What is an inflectional morpheme? And what is a derivational one?11. How many inflectional morphemes does modern English have? What are they?12. How are the following words formed?antislavery; greenhouse;skin the apple; UFO; TESOL; medicare; adSyntax1.What is syntax?2.What is a syntactic category?3.What are endocentric and exocentric constructions?4.What are phrase structure rules like?5What are the three syntactic relations like?6. What is sentence rule like?7. What is IC Analysis?8. What are deep structures and surface structure?9. What are transformational rules?10. Are you able to analyze sentences with tree diagrams? Introduction: Language1. What’s your understanding of la nguage?2. What are the well-known theories about the origin of language?3. What are the design features of human language?4. What functions does language have?Introduction: Linguistics1. What is linguistics?2. What are the main branches of linguistics?3. Please describe the scope of research for each branch of linguistics.4. What are the interdisciplinary studies of language?5. What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?6. What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies of language?7. What is the difference between langue and parole?8. What is the difference between competence and performance? Introduction: Language & LinguisticsI. Fill in the blanks.(1) Language, broadly speaking, is a means of human communication.(2) Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is metalingual.(3) The theory that language arose from human beings instinctive need for contact with his companion has been called the pooh-pooh theory.(4) Modern linguistics is descriptive in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.(5) One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing.(6) The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.(7) Saussure put forward two important concepts. competence refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.(8) In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limitedrules.This feature is usually termed Productivity/creativity.II.. Decide whether the following sentences are T or F.T(1) Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.F(2) Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us how to speak correct language.T(3)Competence and performance refer respectively to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situations.F(4) Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language.T(5) Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation. As a foreign language learner, the latter is more important for us.T(6) By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and development of language.T(7) Language is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.F(8) Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.T(9) In language classrooms nowadays the grammar taught to studentsis basically descriptive, and more attention is paid to the developing learners’ communicative skills.F(10) Language is a system of arbitrary, written signs which permit all the people in a given culture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture, to communicate or interact.F(11) Saussure’s exposition of synchronic analysis led to the school of historical linguistics.T(12) Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.Language and society1.What is sociolinguistics?2.speech community3.speech variety4.dialectal varieties5.Idiolect6.Register7.pidgin and creole8.bilingualism and diglossiaLanguage and culture1.What is culture?2.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (SWH)3.The significance of culture in language classroomsSemantics1. What is semantics?2. How many kinds of meaning did linguists find and study?3. How many views are there concerning the study of meaning?4. What is sense and what is reference?5. What is componential analysis? Give an example to illustrate it.6. What is semantic field? Can you illustrate it?7. What are the major sense relations? Illustrate each type.8. What are the major types of synonyms in English? Illustrate each type.9. What are the major types of synonyms in English? Illustrate each type.10. How many semantic relations are there among sentences?Give examples.11. What is predication analysis?12. Fill in the blanks.(1)Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguisticform?(2)Mean and frugal are said to be emotive synonyms.(3)We call the relation between “animal” and “cow” as hyponymy.(4)“Words are names of labels for things.” This view is called namingtheory in semantic studies.(5)Cold and hot are a pair of gradable antonyms.(6)Bull: 〔BOVINE 〕〔MALE 〕〔ADULT〕is an example ofcomponential analysis.(7)“ John killed Bill but Bill didn’t die is a(an) contradiction.(8)The relation between sentence A “ My radio needs fixing.” andsentence B “ I have a radio.”is that A presupposes B/ B is a prerequisite of A.Pragmatics1. What is pragmatics? How does it differ from semantics?2. What is context?3. What is sentence meaning?4. What is utterance meaning?5. What is speech act theory?6. Explain the meanings of locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act through example?7. How are illocutionary acts classified?8. What is cooperative principle?9. What is conversational implicature?10. Can you illustrate the violation of the maxiams of the CP through some examples?11. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.F(1) A locutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s inten tion. F(2) Inviting, suggesting, warning, ordering are instances of commissives.F(3) John Austin found that natural language had its own logic and conclude cooperative principle.F(4) Y’s utterance violates the maxim of manner.X: Who was that you were with last night?Y: Did you know that you were wearing odd socks? Second Language Acquisition1.Theories of language acquisition2.Which theory do you think is more convincing and reasonable? Why?3.the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH).4.Contrastive Analysis5.Interlanguage6.Error analysisprehensible Input Hypothesisphonetics1. What is the phonic medium of human language?2. What does phonetics concern?3. How do the three branches of phonetics contribute to the study of speech sounds?4. What do speech organs include?5. How can the speech sounds be recorded?6. What are broad transcription and narrow transcription? How are they manifested in IPA?7. How are consonants different from vowels?8. In which ways may consonants be classified? And how are they classified in each way?9. How do phoneticians classify vowels? And how are they classified in each way?10. Describe the 48 speech sounds of English.Phonology1.To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ?2.Please use examples to explain the definitions of phones, phonemes and allophones.3. What do minimal pairs refer? Use an example to illustrate this linguistic phenomenon.4. What is contrastive distribution? Give an example to illustrate it.5. What is complementary distribution? Give an example to illustrate it.6. What is free variation? Give an example to illustrate it.7. Are the phones in minimal pairs different phonemes?8. Are the phones in contrastive distribution different phonemes?9. Are the phones in complementary distribution different phonemes?10.Are the phones in free variation different phonemes?11. Illustrate the sequential rule with an example.12. Illustrate the assimilation rule with an example.13. Illustrate the deletion rule with an example.14.What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?15. Fill in the blanks.(1). Articulatoy phonetics studies the movement of the vocal organs of producing the sounds of speech.(2). Consonant sounds can be either voiced or voiceless , while all vowel sounds are voiceless .(3). The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the tongue and the lips.(4). Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without obstruction .(5). In phonological analysis the words fail-veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes/f/-/v/. This is an example for illustrating minimal pairs .(6). In English there are a number of diphthongs, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.(7). Assimilation/Coarticulation refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbours.(8).Allophones are the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments.。

I. Brief Introduction of Linguistics1. Why is linguistics a vast field of study?Linguistics is a broad field of study, because language is a complicated entity with many layers and facets. It is hardly possible for a linguist to deal with all aspects of language at once. There are a number of divisions of linguistics, which can be put into two categories.1) Intra-disciplinary divisions: the study of language in general is often termed general linguistics. It is based on the view that language as a system is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.2) Inter-disciplinary divisions:a) Sociology deals with language and culture.b) Psycholinguistics deals with the relation between language and mindc) Applied linguistics is concerned with the application of linguistic theories and descriptions in other fields.All above three belong to sociolinguistics.2. How is linguistics different from traditional grammar?1) Traditional grammar is prescriptive, while modern linguistics is descriptive.2) Traditional grammatical categories are merely based on European language, while modern linguisticsstudies all languages.3) Traditional grammar lacks a theoretical framework, while modern linguistics is theoretically rather thanpedagogically oriented.3. What are the two main schools of contemporary western linguistics? What are the fundamental differences between them?TG grammar v.s systematic-functional grammarTG based on UG, studies the general principles while systematic-functional grammar studies language functions.4. On what basis do linguists regard human language as species-specific (unique to humans)? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Many philosophers and linguists believe that language is unique to man. Language is a human trait that sets us apart from other living creatures. They spell out a number of features of language which are not found in animal communication systems. These features: creativity, duality, arbitrariness, displacement, cultural transmission, interchangeability and reflexivity. These are universal features possessed by all human languages. Although some animal communication systems possess, to a very limited degree, one or another of these features except creativity and duality, none is found to have all the features. On this basis linguists tend to conclude that human languages are qualitatively different form animal communication systems.5. What is the difference between linguistic competence and communicative competence?The term linguistic competence is applied to account for a speaker’s knowledge of his language. While communicative competence is proposed to account for both the tacit knowledge of language and the ability to use it. There are four parameters that underlie a speaker’s communicative competence, namely the ability to judge: Whether (and to what degree) something is feasible/appropriate/formally possible/in fact done.II. Phonetics 语音学1. How are speech sounds described?The study of speech sounds is phonetics which includes 3 parts: 1) articulatory phonetics 2) acoustic phonetics 3) auditory phonetics.Articulatory phonetics is the primary concern in linguistics, in which speech sound is described within 3 sides: The description of consonants: a) place of articulation b) manners of articulation c) voicing d) aspirationThe description of vowels: a) monophthongs b) diphthongs c) lip rounding d) tensityIn more detailed transcription (sometimes referred to as narrow transcription), a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller symbol is added in order to mark the finer distinctions. The smaller one is called diacritic.2. What are the two classes of phonetic features? What is the fundamental difference?The two classes of phonetic features are distinctive features and non-distinctive features. Features thatdistinguish meaning are called distinctive features, in other words, those distinguishing phonemes. Non-distinctive features do not distinguish meanings, i.e. the features belong to allophones. However, whether a phonetic feature is distinctive or non-distinctive varies from one language to another language.III. Phonology 音位学1.Analyze the two English sound segments [t] and [t h], [k] and [k h], [p] and[p h] in terms of distribution and the phonetic feature that distinguishes them.[t] and [t h], [k] and [k h], [p] and [p h] are the allophones of the same phoneme /t/, /k/, /p/. They are in complementary distribution and share phonetic features.[t] is an unaspirated voiceless alveolar stop; [t h] is an aspirated voiceless alveolar stop[k] is an unaspirated voiceless velar stop; [k h] is an aspirated voiceless velar stop[p] is an unaspirated voiceless bilabial stop;[p h] is an aspirated voiceless bilabial stop/t/→ [t] / [voiceless, fricative, alveolar]_______[t h]/ elsewhere[k] and [k h], [p] and [p h] is the same as above.2.Analyze the change of feature concerning the vowels in "bean, time, farm" and generalize the rule. This rule is called nasalization, that is a vowel becomes nasalized before a nasal segment, possible followed by one or two consonants within a syllable.V →[+nasal] / ____ [+nasal]3.Analyze the relation of {im-}, {in-}, {ir-}, {il-} in English and generalize of their distribution.{im-}, {in-}, {ir-}, {il-} are the allomorphs of the same morpheme {in-},which represents the negative meaning as a prefix.{in-}→ {im-} / ________ [m,p, b] [bilabial stop, or nasal]{ir-} / _________ [r] [retroflex, alveolar]{il-} / _________ [l] [lateral, alveolar]{in-} / elsewhere4. How do you account for the relation between phonetics and phonology?1) Phonology and phonetics are both concerned with the study of speech sounds, but the two differ in perspectives.2) Phonetics, particularly articulatory phonetics, focuses on how speech sounds are produced, what phonetic features they have, and how to transcribe them. In phonetics, sound segments are assumed to be invariable; variations are overlooked.3) Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions. What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds vary in what ways in what context? What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?5. What are the functions of supra-segmental features?Supra-segmental features are distinctive features that can be found in units of syllables, words, phrases and sentences. They are stress, intonation and tone. Intonation and stress generally occur simultaneously in utterance. The simultaneous functioning of the features serves to highlight the information focus, or to eliminate ambiguity of the phrases and sentences. "a greenhouse" and "a green house", "Jack hit the ball under the desk".Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish words. English is not a tone language, but Chinese is a typical tone language in which each of the four tones means four different words.6. Analyze the change of feature concerning the liquids and nasals in flight, snow, smart, pray and generalize the rule.Liquids /l/ /r/ appear after a voiceless consonant /f/ and /p/ respectively, they are devoiced.Nasals /n//m/ appear after a voiceless consonant /s/, they are devoiced.Rule: Devoice a voiced consonant after a voiceless consonant.Or:When the English liquids, glides and the two anterior nasals appear after a voiceless consonant, it is devoiced. This rule can be expressed as follows: devoice a voiced consonant after a voiceless consonant，that is, [+voiced+consonantal] [-voiced] / [-voiced+consonantal]-. The phonology /l/ /r/ belongs to liquids, and /m//n/ belong to anterior nasals. All these four are voiced consonant, but in these words, they change to the voiceless, for they appear after voiceless consonants.7. What is distinctive feature?Features that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, in other words, just those distinguishing phonemes, such as [b] and [p] in the words between "big" and "pig".8. Analyze the relation of -er, -est and more, most in Englsih and generalize their distribution.They are in complementary distribution. -er and more, -est and most are allomorphs. More and most are put before adjectives and adverbs composed of two or more syllables.IV. Morphology 形态学1. What are the categories of lexical meaning?Lexical meaning includes:a) Referential meaning (also denotative meaning) is the central meaning and it is more stable and universal.b) Associative meanings. Associative meanings are meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meaning, which are less stable and more culture-specific.Types of associative meanings: connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning,collective meaning2. How are words decomposed into their constituents?1) Words are composed of one or more than one morphemes.2) Morphemes are the smallest meaningful unit of language.3) A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.4) Morphemes can be categorized into 2 kinds. a) Free morphemes (they constitute words by themselves)b) bound morphemes (they are never used independently)5) Bound morphemes include inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes.6) The distinction between a free morpheme and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.V. Syntax 句法1.What are the aspects of syntactic knowledge?Knowing which strings of words are grammatical and which are not is part of syntactic knowledge. In addition, native speakers know at least the following:1) structural ambiguity---which strings of words have more than one meaning.2) word order---different arrangements of the same words have different meanings.3) grammatical relations---what element relates to what other element directly or indirectly4) recursion---the repeated use of the same rules to create infinite sentences5) sentence relatedness---sentences may be structurally variant but semantically related6) syntactic categories---a class of words or phrases that can substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality.2. How does transformational grammar (转换生成语法)account for sentence- relatedness?1) Sentence- relatedness: sentences may be structurally variant but semantically related.2) According to Chomsky, a grammar as the tacit shared knowledge of all speakers is a system of finite rules by which an infinite number of sentences can be generated. He attempts to account for this aspect of syntax by postulating that deep structures and surface structures.3) Deep structures are the basic structures generated by phrase structure rules.4) Surface structures are derived structures, the structures of sentences that we actually speak. Surface structures are derived from deep structures through transformational rules which include replacement, insertion, deletion and coping, etc.5) There are five transformations: particle movement transformation, replacement, insertion, deletion and copying.3. What is the advantage of immediate constituent analysis compared with traditional grammar?1) The concept of immediate constituent is an important concept of structural grammar, which is characterized by a top-down analysis. A sentence is seen as a constituent structure, i.e. all the components of the sentence are constituent. A sentence can be cut into sections. Each section is its immediate constituent. Then each section can be further cut into constituents. This on-going cutting is termed immediate constituent analysis.2) Traditional grammar mainly analyzes a sentence horizontally with a synthetic (bottom-up) approach. It focuses on the product of a sentence rather than the procedure. It is prescriptive in nature.3) Therefore, immediate constituent analysis adds a new dimension to the analysis of sentence structure. In this way, sentence structure is analyzed not only horizontally but also vertically. In other words, this way of syntactic analysis can account for the linearity and the hierarchy of sentence structure, and, therefore, structural ambiguity.4.What part of syntax can phrase structure rules account for and what they cannot?1) Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories.2) Deep structures are the basic structures generated by phrase structure rules, but the surface structures are derived from the deep structures, and is generated by transformational rules.3) All in all, phrase structure rules can account for structural ambiguity, word order, grammatical relations, recursion, and syntactic categories; but they cannot account for sentence relatedness.5. Analyze the sentence in terms of type of process, mood structure, and theme and rheme:The academician will address the issue of the legitimacy of cloning at the conference.1) It is the verbal process. In this sentence, the sayer is the academician, the receivers are the people at the conference though it is not mentioned but we can infer it from the sentence. The verbiage is the issue of the legitimacy of cloning.2) This sentence is the realization of linguistic interaction; it is the giving of information. Its syntactic form is statement. The subject is the academician; the finite is the verbal operator “will”.3) The constituent that stands for the starting-point for the message is termed theme; all the rest of the sentence is labeled rheme. In this sentence, the theme is the academician and “the issue of the legitimacy of cloning at the conference” is the rheme.VI. Semantics语义学1. What are the components of metaphor?Target domain and source domain are the components of metaphors. That is to say all metaphors are composed of two components. This allows us to understand one domain of experience in terms of another. The domain to be conceptualized is called target domain, while the conceptualizing domain is termed the source domain. The transference of properties of the source domain to the target domain is referred to by some cognitive linguistics as mapping. The source domain is concrete and familiar. The target domain is abstract and novel.2. Why is metaphor essential in cognition?Our linguistic knowledge is part of general cognition and linguistic categorization is a product of the human mind. According to this view, meaning is based on conventionalized conceptual structures. Semantic structure reflcects the mental categories which are formed on the basis of experiences. Metaphor is an essential element in our categorization of the world and our thinking process. Cognitive linguistics has shown that metaphor is not an unusual or deviant way of using language. The use of metaphor is not confined to literature, rhetoric and art. It is actually ubiquitous in everyday communication. Metaphors as linguistic expressions are possible precisely because there are metaphors in a person's conceptual systems.3. How is word meaning analyzed? And what are the limitations of the method of analysis?1) In modern linguistics, semanticists manifest that the sense of a word can be analyzed in terms of a set of more general sense components (or semantic properties/features). The approach that analyzes word meaning by decomposing it into its atomic features is called componential analysis (CA).2) The limitations of componential analysis are apparent. It cannot be applied to the analysis of all lexicons, merely to words within the same semantic field. It is controversial whether semantic features are universal prime of word meanings in all languages.3) Advantages: a. It is a breakthrough in the formal representation of meaning. Once formally represented,meaning components can be seen. b. It reveals the impreciseness of the terminology in the traditional approach to meaning analysis. CA examines the components of sense. The more semantic features a word has, the narrower its reference is.4. Analyze the semantic properties of the given cooking terms, using the features [+/- WATER], [+/-FAT], [+/- PAN], [+/- POT], [+/- OVEN], [+/- SIEVE], etc.boil: [+WATER] [-FAT] [- PAN] [+ POT] [- OVEN] [- SIEVE]fry: [- WATER] [+FAT] [+ PAN] [- POT], [- OVEN] [+SIEVE]steam: [+WATER] [-FAT] [- PAN] [+POT] [-OVEN] [- SIEVE]stew: [+WATER] [+FAT] [- PAN] [+ POT] [- OVEN] [- SIEVE]bake: [- WATER] [+FAT] [- PAN] [- POT] [+ OVEN] [- SIEVE]5. Analyze the semantic differences of father and daddy in the given sentences, using Leech's classification of lexical meanings.It is easy for every man to be a father, but not to be a daddy.They differ in affective meaning. Affective meaning is what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker or writer toward what is referred to. "Father" is commending in sense while "daddy" is rich in passion.6. Analyze the difference between summon and call in terms of register.Register refers to varieties according to use. Summon is a formal word, used in court of law to order sb to appear, while call is widely used in daily life.7. Point out the semantic problem of the sentence “The orphan is staying with his parents.”There are some sentences which sound grammatical but meaningless. The sentence "the orphan is staying with his parents” is just one example. This sentence is always false which is called contradiction. An orphan is a child whose parents are dead, or a child who has been deprived of parental care. The theme (the orphan) and the rheme (is staying with his parents) are incompatible.VII. Pragmatics 语用学1.Write 3 sentences, each of which contains it in either euphoric reference or endothermic reference(anaphoric or cataphoric)1) It is rather foggy these days."It" here refers to the weather. It is an euphoric reference, referring to the word outside linguistic forms.2) It is so far hard to tell how many lives are claimed in the catastrophe."It" refers to the following expression "how many lives are claimed in the catastrophe", which is a linguistic form. Thus, it is an endothermic reference, specifically, cataphoric reference.3) The most powerful earthquakes triggered massive tidal waves that slammed into coastlines across Asia yesterday. It killed over 30,000 people in Sri Lanka, Indonesia, India, Thailand, Malaysia, Myanmar, Bangladeshand Maldives."It" refers to the preceding expression that "massive tidal waves slammed into coastlines across Asia yesterday". Therefore, it is an endothermic reference, specifically, anaphoric reference..2. Point out the maxim flouted and the implicature of B `s utterance:A: Did you notice something odd between the host and hostess?B: Have another glass of beer?The maxim of relation is violated. The implicature of B’s utterance: the hearer doesn’t want to gossip about those people.3. Point out the degree of formality of:It is gratifying that cooperative program has been proceeding smoothly. Degree of formal4. Analyze the ambiguity of the two sentences, telling the difference:1) Flying planes can be dangerous.2) She cannot bear children.1) a. The behavior of flying planes can be dangerous.b. Planes which are flying can be dangerous.2) a. She cannot tolerate children.b. She cannot give birth to a baby..c. she can not carry a child.★How do you account for the relation between semantics and pragmatics.They are two separate fields. Both study meaning, but semantics studies the conventional meaning of a word while pragmatics studies the international meaning, the meaning in use. Semantics is bilateral while pragmatics is trilateral. Semantics studies the relationship between sign and meaning, but pragmatics studies the sign, meaning and user.VIII. Sociolinguistics 社会语言学1. How do sociolinguists classify the varieties of English?1) The term variety is the label given to the form of a language used by any group of speakers or used in a particular field. A variety is characterized by the basic lexicon, phonology, syntax shared by members of the group. Varieties of a language are of four types: the standard variety, regional dialects, sociolects and registers.2) The standard variety is the form of a language used by the government and communication media, taught in schools and universities and is the main or only written form.3) A regional dialect is a variety of a language spoken by people living in an area. For example, the English language has many regional dialects. British English, American English, Australian English. Indian English, South African English, etc. are all regional varieties of the language. One dialect is distinctive from another phonologically, lexically and grammatically.2. Analyze the cause of the error that some Chinese speakers of English use although and but within one sentence.In the process of analyzing learners' language, error analysis is a milestone. Explaining errors is the final but very important step in error analysis. In terms of sources, errors are divided into interlingual errors and intralingual errors. Interlingual errors are caused by mother tongue interference which means the negative role one's knowledge of L1 to L2 learning. In Chinese, we can use “不但”，“而且”in the same sentence, so some Chinese speakers transfer this expression directly to English. But according t o English grammar, “although” and “but” can not appear in the same sentence. This phenomenon is a kind of negative transfer of learners' syntactic knowledge. This is a typical phenomenon of interference in learning.。

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《英语语言学概论》配套习题（五）（问答题）答案Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics1.What are design features of language?Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of anima communication.2.What are the characteristics of human language?The characteristics of human language include arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, discreteness, transferability and linearity.3・Explain the characteristic of arbitrariness・What are the relationship between arbitrariness and convention?Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation.4.What does productivity mean for language?It means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. It refers to the property that language enables language users to produce or understand an indefinite number of sentences including novel sentences by use of finite set of rules.5・ What functions does language have?Language has at least seven funcitons: informative, interpersonal, performative, emotive, phatic, recreational and metalingual.6・ Explain the metalingual function of language・The metalingual function of language refers to the fact that language can be used to talk about itself.7・ What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?Synchronic linguistics takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. In contrast, diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history; therefore, it is also called historical linguistics.8・ What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies of language?The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, norms, of correctness, which are in the scope of prescriptive linguistics.Chapter 2 Phonology1・ What does phonetics concern?Phonetis is the scientific study of speech sounds of human beings. Phonetics can be suv-classified into articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and auditory phonetics. 2・ How do the three branches of phonetics contribute to the study of speech sounds?Articualtory phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speeech. Auditory phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.3・ How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Consonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. By contrast, a vowel is produced without such obstruction so no turbulance or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.4.In which two ways may consonants be classified?The categories of consonants are established on two important factors, which are termed as manners of articulation and places of articulation.5.How do phoneticians classify vowels?The di scription of vowels includes four aspects: the height of tongue raising(high, mid, low); the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back); the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short) and lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).6.T0 what extent does phonology differ from phonetics?Phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way wounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. 7.What do minimal pair refer? Give an example to illustrate・Certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word, whereas other sounds do not. For instance, the word big can be described in a phonetic transcription [big]. If [g] is replaced by [t], there is another word: bit.[g] and [t] are called minimal pairs. Therefore, when sound substitutions cause differences of meaning, these sounds are minimal pairs.8.What kind of phenomenon is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution. For example, the aspirated English stops never occur after [s], and the unaspirated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of [1], for instance, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occur only before a vowel, the dark [1] occur after a consonant or at the end of a word.Chapter 3 Morphology1・ What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?Morpheme may be classified into free and bound. A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning, it can exist on its own without a bound morpheme.A free morpheme is a word, in the traditional sense. Man, book, take and red are free morphemes.A bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance. It must appear with at least one other morphem, free or bound, like un- in unhappy, past tensemorpheme in worked.2・ What is the difference between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?An inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. It does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is added. The inflecitonal affixes today are the plural marker, the genetive case, the verbal endings, the comparative degrees and superlative degrees. Inflectional affixes have only their particualr grammatical meanings, so they are also called grammatical meanings, so they are also called grammatical affixes.A derivational affix serves to derive a new word when it is added to another morpheme. Derivational affix has lexical meaning, but less important than the meaning of the root in the same word, like -able in the word workable. Derivaitonal affixes are commonly subdivided into prefixes and suffixes.3・ What is compounding?Compounding or composition is a word-formation process by joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word. Compounds can be divided into three categories according to parts of the speech: (1) noun compounds (like hearbeat);(2)adjective compounds (like dutyfree); (3) verb compounds (like housekeep).4.What are the criteria of a compound word?(1)Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: solid (like airmail).hyphenated (like air-conditioning) and open (like air raid).(2)Phonologically, many compounds have a so-called compound accent, that is, asingle stress on the first element, as in "space rocket; or a main stress on the first element and a secondary stress on the second element.(3)Semantically, compounds can be said to have a meaning which may be relatedto, but cannot always be inferred from the meaning of its component parts.5.What is acronymy?Acronymy is a type of shortening by using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase・ If the shortened word is pronounced letter by letter, it is an initialism like BBC; if the shortened word is pronounced as word rather than as a sequence of letters, it is an acronym like SAM(for surface-to-air missile).6.What is blending?Blending is a preocess of word・forniation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news+ broadcast), brunch (breakfast +lunch).7.Decide which way of word formation is used to form the following words.Comsat (from communications + satellite, by blending)Motel (from motor + hotel, by blending)Lase (from laser, by back-formation)Memo (from memorandom, by back clipping)Nightmare (from daymare, by analogy)ASEAN(from the Association for South-East Asian Nations, by acronymy)ROM(from read-only memory, by initialism)Bit(from binary + digit, by blending))Babysit(from babysitter, by back・fonnatioii)cock-a・doodle・do(from the sound produced by cock, by onomatopoeia))grunt (from the sound produced by pig, by onomatopoeia)8・ What are closed-class words and open-class words?A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc., are all closed items.The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.With the emergence of new ideas, inventions, etc., new expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.Chapter4 Syntax1.What is syntax?Syntax is a sub-field of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. Specifically, It is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are joined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.2.What is a simple, compound, or complex sentence?A simple sentence is made up of one independent clause with dependent clause attached. It consists of at least one subject and one predicate. Either the subject or the complement may be compound (consisting of more than one element joined with a coordinating conjunction), and modifiers and phrases may be added as well.A compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses, but no dependent clauses. The clauses are joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction, a comma and a correlative conjunction, or a semicolon with no conjunction.A complex sentence uses one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.For example, the following five sentences are simple, compound, complex, compound, and complex sentence respectively.(1)He and I understood.(2)Lucy watches football on television, but she never goes to a game.(3)You can borrow my pen if you need one.(4)Paul likes football and David likes chess.(5)We had to go inside when it started raining.3.What is the hierarchical structure?The hierarchical structure is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.4.Howto distinguish immediate constituents from ultimate constituents?An immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constituent a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible.An ultimate constituent is one of the grammatically irreducible units that constitutea construction.For example, the immediate constituents of the sentence You eat bananas are you and eat bananas; the ultimate constituents of the sentence are you. eat. banana, and —s.5.What are subordinate and coordinate constructions?Subordinate and coordinate constructions are two subtypes of endocentric constructions. Those in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constituent dependent, are subordinate constructions. For example, the short expression Lovely Lucy is a subordinate construction with Lucy as its head. While coordinate constructions have more than one head. For example, boys and girls, coffee or tea, the city Rome, are coordinate constructions, in which, both the two content constituents, boys and girls, coffee and tea, the city and Rome, are capable of serving as the head. They are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependent on the other.6・ What are deep and surface structures?Deep structure is a central theoretical term in generative grammar, opposed to surface structure. It is the abstract syntactic representation of a sentence一an underlying level of structural organization which specifies all the factors governing the way the sentence should be interpreted.Surface structure is a central theoretical term in generative grammar, opposed to deep structure. It is the final stage in the syntactic representation of a sentence, which provides the input to the phonological component of the grammar, and which thus most closely corresponds to the structure we articulate and hear.7. Can you describe the syntactic structure of the sentence “The old tree swayed in the wind” by using a tree diagram?8・ How to reveal the differences in sentential meaning in the sentence “The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon” by drawing tree diagrams?The sentence is an ambiguous sentence, which can be interpreted in two different ways, so it could assigned two tree diagram, as would be shown below: Tree Diagram (1):the wind The old tree swayed in NPDetTree Diagram (2):Chapter 5 Semantics1. What is a semantic field? Can you illustrate it?It is an organizational principle that the lexicon and groups of words in the lexicon can be semantically related, rather than a listing of words as in a published dictionary. On a very general and intuitive level, we can say that the words in a semantic field, though not synonymous, are all used to talk about the same general phenomenon, and there is a meaning inclusion relation between the items in the field and the field category itself. Classical examples of semantic fields include color terms (red, green, blue, yellow), kinship terms (mother, father, sister, brother), and cooking terms (boil, fry, broil, steam) as semantic fields.2・ What are the major types of synonyms in English?They are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantic synonyms. Examples are as follows:fond of, keen on (collocational)autumn, fall (dialectal)dad, father (stylistic)thrifty, miserly, economical (emotive) escape, flee (semantic)3・ In what way do the following pairs offer contrast?earth l.our planet. 2. the soil on the surface of our planet.bank l.a financial institution. 2. side of a river, bear 1. a wild animal, bare:naked.bow a. an inclination of the head or body, as in greeting, consent, courtesy, acknowledgement, submission, or veneration.(e) lead a. go in front of a group of people. 2. a soft heavy easily melted grayish-blue metal(f) found: 1. of find. 2. establish or set upThe five entities show different semantic relations of words.(a) is an example of polysemy, and it is different from the next which fall into the category of homography. (b) is an example of perfect homonymy, while “beaf and “bare" in (c) are homophones, those in (d) are homographs, and the words in (e) are homophones. \JZ \)z \)z abed z(\ /(\ /k z(\Swill arrive soonAux VPPolysemy and homonymy both deal with multiple senses of the same phonological word, but polysemy is invoked if the senses are judged to be related. Homonymous senses, however, are unrelated. Homonymy can be classified into partial homonymy and perfect homonymy. Words falling under the category of partial homonymy can be homophones or homographs. Perfect homonymy is exemplified by the words which are identical in sound and spelling or both in sound-form and part of speech.4. Categorize the following pairs: child・kid，alive-dead, big-small, husband-wife・Child-kid can be categorized under synonymy, alive-dead complementary antonymy, old-young gradable antonymy, and husband-wife converse antonymy.5・What is hyponymy composed of? Illustrate whether there is always a superordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate・Hyponymy is composed of a superordinate and hyponyms; the hyponyms under the same superordinate are co-hyponyms. there is not always a superordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate. Sometimes a superordinate may be a superordiante to itself. For example, the word "animal" may only include beasts like “tigef, “lion", "elephant”，"cow”，“horse" and is a co-hyponym of “hum arT. But it is also the superordinate to both “human" and "animal" in contrast to “bircT,"行sh", and “insect”，when it is used in the sense of "mammal". It can further be the superordinate to “bird'',"行sh", "insect”，and "mammal" in contrast to “pbnt". From the hyponym's point of view, “animal" is a hyponym of itself, and may be called autohyponym.6・ How is meronymy different from hyponymy?Meronymy is a term used to describe a part-whole relationship between lexical items. We can identify this relationship by using sentence frames like "X is part of or 66Y has as in "A page is part of a book", or book has pages". While hyponymy has to do with inclusiveness, we cannot do the same with hyponymy. For example, bird is the superordinate to crow, hawk, duck, and se cannot say that bird has crows, or hawks'：and so on.Meronymy also differs from hyponymy in transitivity. Hyponymy is always transitive, for example bird is the superordinate to hawk, hawk is the superordinate to sparrowhawk, and thus bird is the superordinate to sparrowhawk. But meronymy may or may not be so. A transitive example is: nail is a meronym of finger, md finger of hand. We can see that nail is a meronym of finger, and finger of hand. We can see that nail is a meronym of hand. A non-transitive example is: pane is a meronym of window, and window of room; but pane is not a meronym of room.7. Why may a sentence be ambiguous?The ambiguity of a sentence may arise from lexical ambiguity or structural ambiguity. Lexical ambiguity arises from polysemy or homonymy which can not be determined by the context. For example,(a)The table is fascinating.(b)She couldn't bear children.Table in (a) is an example of polysemy. It can be a piece of furniture, or the stated kind or quality of food served at a meal here. The ambiguity of (b) lies in the two meanings of the homonym bear一endure or produce children.The following sentence is an example of structural ambiguity.(c)The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon.8・ What predication analysis? What is a no-place, one-place，two-place, or three-place predicate? Give examples・Predication analysis is a new approach for sentential meaning analysis which is to break down the sentence into their smaller constituents: argument and predicate. The predicate is the major or pivotal element governing the argument. The argument is the logical participant.A no-place predicate is a predicate which governs no argument; a one-place predicate, one argument; a two-place predicate, two arguments; and a three-place predicate, three arguments. Respective examples are:(a)It is snowing. (SNOW)(b)Baby is sleeping. SLEEP(JOHN, MARY)(c)John loves Mary. LOVE(JOHN, MARY)(d)John gave Mary a book. GIVE(JOHN, MARY, BOOK)Chapter 6 Pragmatics1・ What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. It is a comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics; its development and establishment in the 1960s an dl970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics. Generally it deals with how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. The scope of pragmatic study includes “speech act theory'', “context", '"conversational implicature,\ presupposition, etc.The basic difference between pragmatics and traditional semantics is that pragmatics considers meaning in context and traditionally semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use. It may be said that pragmatics studies the meaning that is not accounted by semantics. It can also be expressed in the formula: pragmatics=meaning-semantics. G. Leech, in his principles of pragmatics holds that: Semantics answers the question: What does X mean? Pragmatics answer the question: What did you mean by X?2・ How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; the former is concrete and context-dependent and the latter is abstract and decontextualized.3・ What is contextual meaning?It is the meaning a linguistic item has in context, for example the meaning a word has within a particular sentence, or a sentence has in a particular paragraph. The question Do you know the meaning of wo厂？For example, may have two different contextual meanings:i.it may mean Do you know the meaning of the word war? , when said by alanguage teacher to a class of students.ii.It may mean war produces death, injury, and suffering, when said by an injured soldier to a politician who favors war.4.Explain the meanings of locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionaryact through examples.A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of Speech Acts between three different types of act involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence.A locutional act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood. For example, saying the sentence Shoot the snake is a locutionary act is hearers understand the words shoot, the. snake and can identify the particular snake referred to.5.What is cooperative principle(CP)?The "'cooperative principle", proposed and formulated by P Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible to carry on the talk. The principle has the four following maxims:Quantityi.Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the currentpurposes of the exchange).ii.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. QualityTry to make your contribution one that is true.(1)Do not say what you believe to false.(2)Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.RelationBe relevant.MannerBe perspicuous.(1)Avoid obscurity of expression.(2)Avoid ambiguity.(3)Be brief.(4)Be orderly.6・ What is conversational implicature?It is an additional unstated meaning that has to be assumed in order to maintain the cooperative principle, e.g. if someone says "The President is a mouse", something that is literally false, the hearer must assume the speaker means to convey more than is being said.7. How does the violation of the maxims of CP give rise to conversationalimplicature?There are circumstances where speakers may not follow the maxims of the cooperative principle. For example, in conversation, a speaker may violate the maxim expectations by using an expression like "No comment^^ in response to a question. Although it is typically not "as informative as is required?, in the context, it is naturally interpreted as communicating more than is said (i.e. the speaker knows the answer). This typical reaction (i.e. there must be something “special" here) of listeners to any apparent violation of the maxims is actually the key to the notion of conversational implicature.When we violate any of these maxims, our language becomes indirect. In this way, we can convey more than is literally said.8.What is adjacency pair?It refers to a sequence of two utterances by different speakers in conversation. The second is a response to the first, e.g. question-answer.Chapter 8 Language and Society1. What is sociolinguistics?Sociolinguistics is the field that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.2・ What is speech community?It is a group of people who form a community, e.g. a village, a region, a nation, and who have at least one speech variety in common as well as similar linguistic norms.In bilingual and multilingual communities, people would usually have more than one speech variety in commons.3.What is dialect?It is a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country, or by people belonging to a particular social class, which is different in some words, grammar, an/or pronunciation from other forms of the same language.4.What is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?It is a belief that our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the one hand, language may determine out thinking patterns; one the other hand, similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. As this hypothesis was strongly put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, it has often been called the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.5.What is speech variety?It is a term sometimes used instead of language, dialect, sociolect, pidgin, creole, etc. because it is considered more neutral than such terms. It may also be used for different varieties of one language, e.g. American English, Australian English, Indian English.6.What is standard language?It is also called standard variety. It is the variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.7.What is pidgin?It is a language which develops as a contact language when groups of people who speak different languages try to communicate with one another on a regular basis. For example, this might occur where foreign traders have to communicate with the local population or groups of workers from different language backgrounds on plantations or in factories. A pidgin usually has a limited vocabulary and a reduced grammaticalstructure which may expand when a pidgin is used over a long period and for many purposes.8.What is bilingualism?It is the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group of speakers.A bilingual is a person who knows and uses two languages.9.What is multilingualism?It refers to the use of three or more languages by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. Multilingualism is common in, for example, some countries of west Africa, Malaysia, Singapore, and Israel.Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1.What is psycholinguistics?It is the study of language in relation to the mind, with focus on the processes of language comprehension, production and acquisition. It takes upon itself the job of exploring the biological basis of human language, critical periods for child language acquisition, and the relationship between the language and thought.2.What is bottom-up processing and what is top-down processing?We may define bottom-up processing as that which proceeds from the lowest level to the highest level of processing in such a way that all of levels. That is, the identification operate without influence from the higher levels. That is, the identification of phonemes is not affected by the lexical, syntactic, or discourse levels; the retrieval of words is not affected by syntactic or discourse levels; and so on.A top-down processing model, in contrast, states that information at the higher levels may influence processing at the lower levels. For instance, a sentence context may affect the identification of words within that sentence.3.What are the six major types of speech error? Give examples of each・Six major types of speech error are:i.Exchange errors: hissed all my mystery lectures (missed all my historylectures)ii.Anticipation errors: a leading list (reading list)iii.Perseveration errors: a phonological fool (phonological rule)iv.Blends: moinly(mostly, mainly), impostinatiorfimposteE impersonator)v.Shifts: Mermaid_moves (mermaids move) their legs togethervi.Substitutions: sympathy for symphony (form), finger for toe (meaning) 4.What is the critical period for language acquisition?Language development takes place during a very specific maturational stage of human development. Sometime during the second year of life (at roughly anywhere from 12 to 18 months), children begin uttering their first words. During the following 4 to 5 years, linguistic development occurs quite rapidly. By the time children enter school, they have mastered the major structural features of their language. Refinements of the major features continue to appear, and the ability to learn language (one's native language or foreign languages) continues to be strong until the onset of puberty. At this point, for reasons that are not fully understood, the '"knack for languages95 begins to decline, to a。

1.3考研真题与典型题详解I. Fill in the blanks. 1. The features that define our human languages can be called ______ features. (北二外2006研)2. Linguistics is usually defined as the ______study of language. (北二外2003研)3. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of______ communication.4. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences ba sed on limited rules. This feature is usually termed______5. Linguistics is the scientific study of______.6. Modern linguistic is______ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rul es for people to observe.7. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of ______ over writing.8. The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of a language is called ______. (北二外2003研)9. The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words is called______. (北二外2004研)10. ______mainly studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. (北二外2005研)11. Semantics and ______investigate different aspects of linguistic meaning. (北二外2007研)12. In linguistics, ______ refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a lang uage, or simply, the study of the formation as sentence. (中山大学2008研)13. ______can be defined as the study of language in use. Sociolinguistics, on the other hand, attempts to show the relations hip between language and society.14. The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of sentence is called _______. (北二外2008研)15. Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utteran ces) as and . The former refers to the abstract linguisticlinguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and the latter is the concrete manifestation of language either through speech or through writing. (人大2006研)16. The description of a language as it changes through time is a ______ study.17. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Cho msky’s______.18. One of the important distinctions in linguistics is ______ and parole. The former is the French word for “language”, whi ch is the abstract knowledge necessary for speaking，listening，writing and reading. The latter is concerned about the actual use of language by people in speech or writing. Parole is more variable and may change according to contextual factors.19. One of the important distinctions in linguistics is and performance. (人大2006研)20. Chomsky initiated the distinction between ______ and performances. (北二外2007研)II. Multiple Choice1.Which of the following is NOT a frequently discussed design feature? (大连外国语学院2008研)A. ArbitrarinessB. ConventionC. Duality2.Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary? (西安交大2008研)A. treeB. crashC. typewriterD. bang3. A linguist regards the changes in language and languages use as______.A. unnaturalB. something to be fearedC. naturalD. abnormal4. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, d ue to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation? A. Transferability.B. Duality.C. Displacement.D. Arbitrariness:5. The study of physical properties of the sounds produced in speech is closely connected with______. (大连外国语学院2008研)A. articulatory phoneticsB. acoustic phoneticsC. auditory phonetics6. Which of the following statements is true of Jacobson’s framework of language functions?A. The referential function is to indulge in language for its own sake.B. The emotive function is to convey message and inf ormation.C. The conative function is to clear up intentions, words and meanings.D. The phatic function is to establish communion w ith others.7.Which of the following is a main branch of linguistics? (大连外国语学院2008研)A. MacrolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. Sociolinguistics8. ______ refers to the system of a language, i. e. the arrangement of sounds and words which speakers of a language have a shared knowledge of. (西安外国语学院2006研)A. LangueB. CompetenceC. Communicative competenceD. Linguistic potential9.The study of language at one point in time is a _______ study. (北二外2010研)A. historicalB. synchronicC. descriptiveD. diachronic10. “An refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2,000 years ago. ” This shows that language has the design feature of _ ____.A. arbitrarinessB. creativityC. dualityD. displacement11. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degree Centigrade” is .A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative 12.Saussure is closely connected with______. (大连外国语学院2008研) A. Langue B. Competence C. EticIII. True or False1. Onomatopoeic words can show the arbitrary nature of language. (清华2000研)2. Competence and performance refer respectively to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situations.3. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language4. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation. As a foreign language learner, the latter is mere important for us.5. The features that define our human languages can be called DESIGN FEATURES. (大连外国语学院2008研)6. By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and development of language.7. Langue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.8. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.9. In language classrooms nowadays the grammar taught to students is basically descriptive, and more attention is paid to the developing learners’ communicative skills.10. Language is a system of arbitrary, written signs which permit all the people in a given culture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture, to communicate or interact.11. Saussure’s exposition of synchronic analysis led to the school of historical linguistics.12. Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.13. Wherever humans exist, language exists. (对外经贸2006研)14. Historical linguistics equals to the study of synchronic study.15. Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.16. Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us how to speak correct language. IV. Explain the following terms.1.Duality (北二外2010研；南开大学2010研)2.Design featurespetence4.Displacement (南开大学2010研；清华2001研)5.Diachronic linguistics6. Descriptive linguistics7.Arbitrariness(四川大学2006研)V. Short answer questions1. Briefly explain what phonetics and phonology are concerned with and what kind of relationships hold between the two. (北外2002研)参考答案及解析I.Fill in the blanks.1.Design (人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。

linguistics的分类Linguistics（语言学）是一门研究语言的学科，它可以分为以下几类：1. Phonetics（语音学）：研究语言的声音系统，包括语音的产生、传输和感知。

它关注语音的物理特性、音位的区别以及语音在不同语言中的变化。

2. Phonology（音系学）：研究语言中的声音模式和语音规则。

它关注音位的组合、音节结构、重音和语调等方面，以及它们在语言中的作用和变化。

3. Morphology（形态学）：研究单词的结构和形式。

它包括词素、词根、词缀和词形变化等方面，探讨单词的构成和派生规则。

4. Syntax（句法）：研究句子的结构和组成规则。

它关注句子中的词语顺序、句子成分的关系以及句子的类型和结构。

5. Semantics（语义学）：研究语言的意义和语义关系。

它探讨词汇和句子的意义、词义的演变、语义场和语义角色等方面。

6. Pragmatics（语用学）：研究语言在实际交际中的使用和理解。

它关注语言的语境依赖、言外之意、会话原则和话语分析等方面。

7. Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：研究语言与社会之间的关系。

它包括语言的社会变体、语言政策、语言习得、语言与身份等方面。

8. Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）：研究语言的心理过程和认知机制。

它关注语言的产生、理解、记忆和学习等方面，以及语言与思维和认知的关系。

9. Computational Linguistics（计算语言学）：应用计算机技术来处理和分析自然语言。

它包括自然语言处理、机器翻译、信息检索、文本挖掘等方面。

这些分类是语言学的主要领域，每个领域都有其特定的研究对象和方法。

不同领域之间相互关联和交叉，共同构成了对语言的全面研究。

What is Applied Linguistics ？•In a broad sense, applied linguistics is the application of linguistic knowledge to solve practical problems of other fields of linguistics.•In a narrow sense, applied linguistics means the scientific study of the principles and practices of foreign language teaching and learning.General Areas in Applied Linguistics.•Basic AreasGrammar, V ocabulary, Pragmatics, Semantics, Discourse Analysis, Corpus Linguistics•Essential AreasSecond Language Acquisition, Psycholinguistics, SociolinguisticsThe Development of Applied Linguistics•Early HistoryA . The ancient GreeksPlato and Aristotle ;The design of curriculum beginning with good writing and effective discourse.B. The second half of the eighteenth century.a. Samuel Johnson; Dictionary of the English LanguageStandardizing English spelling;Authority on the meanings of English words.b. Robert Lowth ; Short Introduction to English GrammarTreated as correct English;More prescribing than describing with English grammar rules.•The twentieth centuryA. Three methods until World War Ⅱ.a. Grammar-translationIt focused on the ability to “ analyze ” l anguage , and not the ability to “ use” it.b. Direct methodThis emphasized exposure to oral language, with listening and speaking as the primary skills.c. Reading methodIt attempted to make this possible by promoting reading skills through vocabulary management.B. Some more methods and theories.Audiolingualism / Army method (World War Ⅱ)Universal grammar ( Chomsky , 1959 )Communicative competence ( Hymes , 1972 )Systemic-functional grammar ( Halliday ,1973 )Communicative language teaching ( Littlewood, 1981 )Spoken and written discourseSpeaking and writing•Discourse analysis is the analysis of language in its social context .•When the focus in linguistics was primarily on written language and restricted to the study of isolated sentences, spoken language was seen as formless and ungrammatical and written language as highly structured and organized.•However, recent research shows that spoken English does have a consistent describable structure and that in many respects the language patterning is the same as written English.How dependent each text is on the context•Spoken text•Context plays a significant role in using of the spoken language and there isa close relationship between context and spoken text.•Example 1 : “ Can you tell me where those are? ”•This sentence means the speaker ask the listener where the “ those” are, and “ those” can be apples, shoes, boxes and anything else.•But in this dialogue, it means “ Can you tell me where are the casual shirts ? ” , and “ those ” here refer to the casual shirts.•Written text•In most situation, written language can be regarded as context-free which is different from spoken language.•Example : “ Richard didn’t go out of the city until he and his friends had a picnic in a cool village last summer .”•This sentence has a clear meaning which is that Richard didn’t go out of the city until he had a picnic with his friends last summer. It won’t make any influence to our understanding about this sentence without this context.The nature of the vocabulary in each text•Spoken text•The nature of the vocabulary in spoken text is usually casual, informal, ungrammatical, spontaneous, overlapping and “ imperfect ”.Furthermore, spoken language often use some words like “ Ok, …… ”, “Well, ……” to make the conve rsation more successful.•Example : “ Ok, let me see. Right over here, sir. ”•Firstly, the salesperson use “ Ok, let me see. ” to make the customer become more patient, and then the salesperson can take some time to find the shirts. Secondly, the vocabulary in this sentence is quiet short and formless.•Written text•The nature of the vocabulary in written text is grammatical, planned, redrafted and “ perfect ”.•Example : “ They sang ,drew and swam in the river when they felt hot or cooked some food wh en they were hungry . ”•Using of vocabulary in this sentence is quite strict and there arefull of notional words.The grammatical complexity of each text•Spoken text•The grammatical structure in spoken text is very brief and not quiet strict. There are usually some short and lucid sentence to make the conversation more successful.•Example : “ Medium. ”•This word is very simple, but it is really easy to understand in this context. It means that the costumer want the shirts in medium size.•Written text•Compared with spoken text, the grammatical structure in the written text is highly structured and complex. There are usually some tedious and complicated sentences which are not quiet easy to understand like spoken ones.•Example : “ Richard didn’t go out of the city until he and his friends had a picnic in a cool village last summer .”•In this sentence, the writer use “ not……until ” to connect two different sentences together and it makes the grammatical complexity higher.The lexical density of each text•Spoken text•The lexical density in spoken text is usually on a low level. Firstly, there has no enough notional words in the spoken text. Secondly, some words in spoken text are only meaningful in a certain context.•Example :C: Excuse me, I'm looking for your casual shirts. Can you tell me where those are?S: Ok, let me see. Right over here, sir. What-size do you wear?C: Medium.•In this conversation, the word “ Medium ” is a notional word itself, but it doesn’t ma ke any sense here without the relation of the whole context.•The lexical density in this text is : 12/65= 18 %•Written text•The lexical density in written text is much higher than that in spoken text. There full of notional words in the written text.•Exam ple: “They sang ,drew and swam in the river when they felt hot or cooked some food when they were hungry. ”•In this sentence, these words “ sing, draw, swim, river, hot, cook, food, hungry ” are all belong to the notional words. These notional words make the text more meaningful and complex.•The lexical density in this text is : 35/95= 37 %•In conclusion, the written language is highly structured, more grammatical, planned, redrafted, academic and context-free.•While the spoken language is formless, ungrammatical, spontaneous, casual, overlapping and it has a close relationship withcontext in it.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art .The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function.The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function. Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J. Searle’s “Indirect speech act theory” at least, serve the purpose of direction too.informative function---- Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true (truth) or false (falsehood).interrogative function---- When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well.The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!”The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion.performative function----This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are performatives。

Some important distinctions in Linguistics语言学里一些重要术语的区分Linguistics is a scientific study of language. It is a major branch of social science. Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general.语言学是一种对语言的科学研究，也社会科学的一个主要分支。

语言学不仅仅研究任何一个社会的一种语言，还研究整个人类社会的一般性语言。

2.Some Important Distinctions in Linguistics语言学里一些重要术语的区分（1）Descriptive vs. Prescriptive（1）“描写式”和“规定式”They represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.它们代表语言学研究的两个不同类型。

英语语言学考研真题与典型题详解I. Fill in the blanks. 1. The features that define our human languages can be call ed ______ features. (北二外2006研)2. Linguistics is usually defined as the ______study of language. (北二外2003研)3. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of______ communication.4. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually ter med______5. Linguistics is the scientific study of______.6. Modern linguistic is______ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover whatlanguage is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.7. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of ______ over writing.8. The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of a language is called______. (北二外2003研)9. The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words is called______ . (北二外2004研)10. ______mainly studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. (北二外2005研)11. Semantics and ______investigate different aspects of linguistic meaning. (北二外2007研)12. In linguistics, ______ refers to the study of the rules governing the way wordsare combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the studyof the formation as sentence. (中山大学2008研)13. ______can be defined as the study of language in use. Sociolinguistics, on the other hand, attempts to show the relationship between language and society.14. The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of sentence is called_______. (北二外2008研)15. Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual ph enomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as and . The former refers to the abstract linguisticlinguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and the latter is the concrete manifestation of language either through speech or through writing. (人大2006研)16. The description of a language as it changes through time is a ______ study.17. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s______.18. One of the important distinctions in linguistics is ______ and parole. The formeris the French word for “language”,which is the abstract knowledge necessary for s peaking，listening，writing and reading. The latter is concerned about the actual use of language by peop le in speech or writing. Parole is more variable and may change according to contextu al factors.19. One of the important distinctions in linguistics is and performance. (人大2006研)20. Chomsky initiated the distinction between ______ and performances. (北二外2007研)II. Multiple Choice1.Which of the following is NOT a frequently discussed design feature? (大连外国语学院2008研)A. ArbitrarinessB. ConventionC. Dualityof the following words is entirely arbitrary? (西安交大2008研)A. treeB. crashC. typewriterD. bang3. A linguist regards the changes in language and languages use as______.A. unnaturalB. something to be fearedC. naturalD. abnormal4. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome thebarriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. Transferability.B. Duality.C. Displacement.D. Arbitrariness:5. The study of physical properties of the sounds produced in speech is closely con nected with______. (大连外国语学院2008研)A. articulatory phoneticsB. acoustic phoneticsC. auditory phonetics6. Which of the following statements is true of Jacobson’s framework of language func tions?A. The referential function is to indulge in language for its own sake.B. The emo tive function is to convey message and information.C. The conative function is to clear up intentions, words and meanings.D. The phat ic function is to establish communion with others.of the following is a main branch of linguistics? (大连外国语学院2008研)A. MacrolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. Sociolinguistics8. ______ refers to the system of a language, i. e. the arrangement of sounds and w ords which speakers of a language have a shared knowledge of. (西安外国语学院2006研) A. Langue B. Competence C. Communicative competence D. Linguistic potentialstudy of language at one point in time is a _______ study. (北二外2010研)A. historicalB. synchronicC. descriptiveD. diachronic10. “An refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2,000 years ago. ”This shows that language has the design feature of _____.A. arbitrarinessB. creativityC. dualityD. displacement11. The function of the sentence “Water b oils at 100 degreeCentigrade”is .A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative is closely connected with ______. (大连外国语学院2008研) A. Langue B. Competence C. EticIII. True or False1. Onomatopoeic words can show the arbitrary nature of language. (清华2000研)2. Competence and performance refer respectively to a language user’s underlying knowle dge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situations.3. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way usedby the deaf-mute is not language4. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially cre ative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to g eneration. As a foreign language learner, the latter is mere important for us.5. The features that define our human languages can be called DESIGN FEATURES. (大连外国语学院2008研)6. By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and development of language.7. Langue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.8. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.9. In language classrooms nowadays the grammar taught to students is basically descript ive, and more attention is paid to the developing learners’communicative skills.10. Language is a system of arbitrary, written signs which permit all the people ina given culture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture, to com municate or interact.11. Saussure’s exposition of synchronic analysis led to the school of historical lingu istics.12. Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles and theories to lan guage teaching and learning.13. Wherever humans exist, language exists. (对外经贸2006研)14. Historical linguistics equals to the study of synchronic study.15. Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact t hat language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of me anings.16. Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it ca n tell us how to speak correct language. IV. Explain the following terms.(北二外2010研；南开大学2010研)features(南开大学2010研；清华2001研)linguistics6. Descriptive linguistics(四川大学2006研)V. Short answer questions1. Briefly explain what phonetics and phonology are concerned with and what kind ofrelationships hold between the two. (北外2002研)参考答案及解析I.Fill in the blanks.(人类语言区不于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区不特征，是人类语言特有的特征。

研究生英文推荐信（通用5篇）研究生英文推荐信篇1I am writing to you in support of [Mr./Ms. Full Name] and [his/her] desire to attend [University Name] for the [Program Title] program. Though many students ask me to make this request on their behalf, I only recommend students whom I feel are well-suited for the program of their choice. [Mr./Ms. Last Name] is one of those students and therefore, I highly recommend that [he/she] be given the opportunity to attend your university.As [Professor’s Title] of [Professor’s Department] at [University Name], I work with many students who have substantial knowledge of [Subject]. Each year I notice that only a few outstanding students offer a unique perspective and really embrace their learning of the subject matter. [Mr./Ms. Last Name] has consistently shown such a strong desire to learn that I simply could not turn down [his/her] request for recommendation.I first met [Mr./Ms. Last Name] in my [Course Title] course during the [Season and Year] semester. Compared to the class average of [Class Average], [Mr./Ms. Last Name] earned a [Grade] in the class. [Mr./Ms. Last Name] was evaluated on [explain basis for grades, e.g., exams, papers, etc.], in which [he/she] performed exceptionally well.Though [Mr./Ms. Last Name] has consistently exceeded in all areas of [his/her] coursework, the best example of [his/her] intelligence shone through a [paper/presentation/project/etc.] on [work’s title]. The work clearly showed [his/he r] ability to deliver a clear, concise and well-thought presentation with a new perspective by demonstrating [embellish here].[Mr./Ms. Last Name] continues to impress me with [his/her]knowledge, skill and dedication to [his/her] work. I’m sure you will find [him/her] to be a student whose talents will only shine further through your graduate program. It is my hope that you will accept [his/her] admission to your university. Feel free to contact me if you require further information.Sincerely,研究生英文推荐信篇2A P. R. ChinaDear Sir/Madam,In the capacity of the former chairman of the Department of Finance and the associate dean of Business School in YYY University (P. R. China), I am writing with pleasure to recommend Ms. Sophie to your esteemed graduate school.Ms. is a distinguished student in the department. I know her well through different occasions, besides teaching her a Financial Engineering course last year. I got to know her personally 2 years ago, when she was a candidate for exchange-student program of YYY University. Concerning her unspectacular academic results and her outstanding performance, she was awarded our university’s scholarship and a chance to study abroad in ZZZ University, which only one student from our department can receive every year. Her semester-long experience there turned out to be an impressive success. Ms. showed great aptitude on all the courses she took and her GPA of that semester was 3.80. If you take the difficulty of the courses and strict grading into account, you will understand why her scores are among the top five. Undoubtedly, she got excellent scores on other core courses and ranked among the top 5% of her class when she got her bachelor’s degree.Having been Ms. ’s director while she was completing her undergraduate thesis defense in 20xx, I was greatly impressed with her skillful diagrams, and with the unified and coherent manner in which she articulated her thesis. She chose a daring topic – stock index futures arbitrage. In China, this is a very hot event. Although there are several models around the world, not one yet has been found suitable for China. She proposed a very feasible one in her thesis paper. Moreover, she also demonstrated a high level of proficiency in using statistic software in her research. Not only was the committee struck by the display of creativity at her thesis defense conference, her lucid presentation expressed clear and logic thought. Her expansive and open-minded academic perspectives really struck a chord, so it gives me a great deal of pleasure to give you my recommendation to this outstanding young lady of immense promise.After she graduated from YYY University, she still keeps in touch with me. I feel very delighted when she told me she would like to pursue her advanced studies in your honored program. I trust her academic excellence, spirit of devotion and pleasant personality warrant your serious consideration of her application. Should there be any way in which I can be of further assistance in your deliberations, please do not hesitate to contact me directly.Sincerely yours,Associate Dean of Business SchoolUniversity研究生英文推荐信篇3Cambridge UniversityEnglandDear Sir,I take pleasure in recommending to you Mr who hopes to attend your university for postgraduate studies.Mr graduated from School of Linguistic Sciences of Normal University in and passed with honors in all major courses of linguistics. Mr is planning to go in for further studies in linguistics.I am of the opinion that he is qualified to carry on postgraduate studies in linguistics in general and syntax in particular in your university. I know him to have been a promising student of intelligence and ability. I strongly recommend him in his application.It will be greatly appreciated, if you will give Mr Qian a chance to study in your university.Truly yours,Yang (signature)Prof./Doctor of Linguistics研究生英文推荐信篇4Department of FinanceBusiness School，YYY University, 430072,P. R. ChinaDear Sir/Madam,In the capacity of the former chairman of the Department of Finance and the associate dean of Business School in YYY University (P. R. China), I am writing with pleasure to recommend Ms. Sophie to your esteemed graduate school.Ms. is a distinguished student in the department. I know her well through different occasions, besides teaching her a Financial Engineering course last year. I got to know her personally 2 years ago, when she was a candidate for exchange-student program of YYY University. Concerning her unspectacular academic resultsand her outstanding performance, she was awarded our university’s scholarship and a chance to study abroad in ZZZ University, which only one student from our department can receive every year. Her semester-long experience there turned out to be an impressive success. Ms. showed great aptitude on all the courses she took and her GPA of that semester was 3.80. If you take the difficulty of the courses and strict grading into account, you will understand why her scores are among the top five. Undoubtedly, she got excellent scores on other core courses and ranked among the top 5% of her class when she got her bachelor’s degree.Having been Ms. ’s director while she was completing her undergraduate thesis defense in 20xx, I was greatly impressed with her skillful diagrams, and with the unified and coherent manner in which she articulated her thesis. She chose a daring topic – stock index futures arbitrage. In China, this is a very hot event. Although there are several models around the world, not one yet has been found suitable for China. She proposed a very feasible one in her thesis paper. Moreover, she also demonstrated a high level of proficiency in using statistic software in her research. Not only was the committee struck by the display of creativity at her thesis defense conference, her lucid presentation expressed clear and logic thought. Her expansive and open-minded academic perspectives really struck a chord, so it gives me a great deal of pleasure to give you my recommendation to this outstanding young lady of immense promise.After she graduated from YYY University, she still keeps in touch with me. I feel very delighted when she told me she would like to pursue her advanced studies in your honored program. I trust her academic excellence, spirit of devotion and pleasantpersonality warrant your serious consideration of her application. Should there be any way in which I can be of further assistance in your deliberations, please do not hesitate to contact me directly.Sincerely yours,Associate Dean of Business SchoolYYY University研究生英文推荐信篇5ear Colleagues：As a teacher in Department of Biology, Nankai University, a leading university in China, I am very pleased to take this opportunity to recommend one of my favorite students to your PhD program.In September, 20xx, Miss Zhang was my students in General Biology, the first professional course they take in the field. She likes it very much. I teach her in an open and interactive manner, she is active and passionate about answering class questions. Miss Zhang is bright, energetic and enthusiastic girl who loves speaking out her own ideas. She never escapes from those points of which she is skeptical. Apart from that, she often puts forward her ideas upon questions and exchanges all of her innovate ideas with me after class.Upon ending of General Biology course, I asked my students to write an essay upon their understanding of biology. I discovered Miss Zhang’s essay was so impressive and persuasive; her careful essay comes from dozens of references to Biology literatures. In essay Miss Zhang stretched out her creative thinking upon status quo of biological research and branches in the field of biology. All of this speaks to her creative and logical and scientific thinking capability. I am gladly to say that MissZhang has a clear understanding about General Biology, that comprehension has been reflected fully in her essay. Therefore Miss Zhang got a full point for her essay in her class, and other students took it as model essay for granted.I believe Mi ss Zhang’s industriousness, passion and dedication will make her an ideal candidate you are seeking for your program, so I highly recommend her without any hesitation to you. And I will greatly appreciate it if you could accept her into your program.Sincerely yours,Prof.。

Chapter1Introduction练习题Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION考研真题与典型题详解1.1 What is linguistics?I.Fill in the blanks.1.Linguistics is usually defined as the _______ study of language. (北二外2003研)2.The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of a language is called _______.3.The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words is called________.4.The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of sentence is called________.(北二外2003、2004、2008研)5.In linguistics, ______ refers to the study of rules governing the way words are combined toform sentences in a language, or simply , the study of the formation as sentence.(中山2008)6.Semantics and ________ investigate different aspects of linguistic meaning. (北二外2007研)7.________ can be defined as the study of language in use. Sociolinguistics, on the other hand,attempts to show the relationship between language and society.8.Modern linguistics is _________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what languageis rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.9.The description of a language as it changes through time is a ________ study.10.One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of ________ over writing.11.One of the important distinctions in linguistics is ______ and parole. The former is the Frenchword for “language”, which is the abstract knowledge necessary for speaking, listening, reading and writing. The latter is concerned about the actual use of language by people in speech and writing. Parole is more variable and may change according to contextual factors.12.Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena ordata of linguistics (utterances) as _______ and ________.The former refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and the latter is the concrete manifestation of language either through speech or through writing.(人大2006研) 13.Chomsky initiated the distinction between ________ and performances. (北二外2007研) II.Multiple choices.1.Which of the following is a main branch of linguistics?_________.(大连外2008研)A. MacrolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. Sociolinguistics2.The study of language at one point in time is a ________ study. (北二外2010研)A. historicalB. synchronicC. descriptiveD. diachronicIII.True or false.1.Applied linguistics is the application of the linguistic principles and theories to languageteaching and learning.2.Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us howto speak correct language.3.Historical linguistics equals to the study of synchronic study.4.By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and development of language./doc/479964943.html,ngue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situationalconstraints./doc/479964943.html,petence and performance refer respectively to a language us er’s underlying knowledgeabout the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situations.IV.Explain the following terms.1.Descriptive linguistics2. Diachronic linguistics3. CompetenceV.Short answer questions.1.Point out three major differences between modern linguistics and traditional grammar.VI.Essay questions1.Saussure puts forward the concept of langue and parole, and Chomsky puts forward theconcept of competence and performance. Please dwell upon he differences and similarities, if any, of two pairs: langue andparole vs. competence and performance. (北京交大2007研)1.2 What is language?I.Fill in the blanks.1.The features that define our human languages can be called ________features.(北二外2006) II.Multiple choices.1.Which of the following is NOT a frequently discussed design features?(大连外2008研)A. ArbitrarinessB. ConventionC. Duality2.Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?(西安交大2008研)A. treeB. crashC. typewriterD. bang3.Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barrierscaused by time and space, due to this feature of language, speakers are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness4.“A person can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2,000 years ago.” This shows thatlanguage has the design feature of _______.A. arbitrarinessB. creativityC. dualityD. displacement5.The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degree Centigrade” is ________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performativeIII.True or false./doc/479964943.html,nguage is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used bythe deaf-mute is not language.2.The features that define our human languages can be called DESIGN FEATRES. (大外2008)3.Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of languagemakes a language be passed from generation to generation. As a foreign learner, the latter is more important for us.4.Onomatopoeic words can show the arbitrary nature of language.(清华2000研)5.Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language hastwo levels of structures: the system of sounds and the systems of meanings.IV.Explain the following terms.1. Arbitrariness(川大2006研)2.Duality(北二外、南开2010研)3. Displacement(清华、南开2010) V.Short answer questions.1.What makes language unique to human beings? (北航2010研)VI.Essay questions1.Displacement, arbitrariness, productivity, cultural transmission and duality are sometimeslisted as the 5 core features of human language. Choose 3 out of 5 and explain with examples what they mean. (北外2002研)。