英语文体与修辞复习提纲

Lecture 1 IntroductionStep I Introduction to the course1. The importance of this courseTo sharpen our sense of style in EnglishTo help us with their systematic study of English rhetoric so that they will be able to read and write betterTo raise our levels of attainment in EnglishTo facilitate students‟ understanding of the history of rhetoric in human historyTo make a comparison of English and Chinese rhetoric2. RequirementsClass attendance is required, not optional.Study should not be confined to the teaching material.3. Reference books《英语修辞大全》，冯翠华，外语教学与研究出版社《英语文体学引论》，王佐良、丁往道，外语教学与研究出版社《文体学概论》，刘世生、朱瑞青，北京大学出版社Step II What is stylistics?王宗炎，《英汉教学语言学词典》StylisticsDifferent definitions of “style”Style as rhetoricStyle as formStyle as eloquenceStyle as proper words in proper placesStyle as personal idiosyncrasyStyle as technique of expositionStyle as the highest achievement of literatureStyle as saying the right thing in the most effectiveStyle as a shell surrounding a pre-existing core of thought or expressionStyle as the choice between alternative expressionsStyle as a set of collective characteristicsStyle as equivalenceStyle as functionStyle as foregrounding突出Style as deviation变异Style as transformationStyle as meaning potentialStyle as expressivenessGeneral speakingStylistics is the "study of the use of language in literature"Stylistics is a "meeting-ground of linguistics and literary study"Stylistics is an area of study which straddles two disciplines: literary criticism and linguistics. Ittakes literary discourse (text) as its object of study and uses linguistics as a means to that end. How to understand “style as rhetoric”?In China:1973年，陈望道《修辞学发凡》是中国现代文体学的开端。

文体学考试大纲II. Explain the following terms3. AppropriatenessWhen producing an utterance, a speaker needs to know that it is grammatical, and also that it is suitable (appropriate) for the particular situation.1. Stylistics(Modern) Stylistics: a discipline that applies concepts and techniques of modern linguistics to the study of styles of language use; simply defined, a discipline that studies the ways in which language is used; a discipline that studies the styles of language in use.10. Field of discourseThe field of discourse refers to what is happening, including what is being talked about. (话语范围)the subject matter; the linguistic reflection of the type of social activity the language user is engaged in12. Tenor of discourseThe tenor of discourse refers to the participants who are taking part in this exchange of meaning, who they are and what kind of relationship they have to one another. (话语基调)the linguistic reflection of the personal Relationships between speaker/writer and hearer/reader11. Mode of discourseThe mode of discourse refers to what part the language is playing in this particular situation, for example, in what way the language is organized to convey the meaning, and what channel is used—written or spoken or a combination of the two. (话语方式)the linguistic reflection of the relationshipthat the languageuser has to the medium of communication4. Speech eventspeech events—social activities in which language plays an important role5. Speech actSpeech act (言语行为): an utterance (语句) as a functional unit in communicationpropositional meaning (命题意义illocutionary meaning (言外意义6. Language varietyIt refers to different types of a language subject to a variety of circumstances,2. StyleStyle is an integral part of meaning（1. ）“Style”may refer to some or all of the language habits (i.e. speech and writing habits) of one person （2.）The word may refer to some or all of the language habits shared by a group of people at one time, or over a period of time （3.）The word may be used in an evaluative sense, referring to the effectiveness of a mode of expressionTo sum up, “style”on this course refers to the characteristic variation in language use.7. ContextLinguistic context is alternatively termed as Co-Text, which refers to the linguistic units preceding and/or following a particular linguistic unit in a text.8. Stative 动词状态的meaningStative meaning refers to the situation that is conceived as existing, rather than happening, and as being continuous and unchanging throughout its duration静态动词静态动词(stativeverbs)指的是一些表示相对静止状态的动词。

➢AphesisDefinition: the omission of an initial part of a word.Example: Thou on whose stream, ’mid the steep sky’s commotion 暴动、暴乱(’mid --amid)➢SyncopeDefinition: the omission of a medial part of a word.Example: A voice so thrilling ne’er was heardIn spring-time from the cuckoo-birdBreaking the silence of the seasAmong the farthest Hebrides(ne’er--never)➢ApocopeDefinition: the omission of a final part of a wordExample: Till a’ the seas gang dry, my dear.And the rocks melt wi’ the sunI will love thee still, my dear,While the sands o’ life shall run(a’—all, wi’—with, o’--of)➢GraphologyDefinition: by graphology is meant the encoding of meaning in visual symbols.Example: shape of text; type of print; grammetrics; punctuation; indentation.(Eg of type of print) Me up at doesout of the floorquietly Starea poisoned mousestill who aliveis asking whathave i done thatYou wouldn’t have➢GrammetricsDefinition: By grammetrics is meant the ways in which grammatical units are fitted into metrical units such as lines and stanzasExample:This Is Just to SayI have eatenthe plumsthat were inthe icebox →and whichyou were probablysavingfor breakfast →Forgive methey were deliciousso sweetand so cold(“→→”means a very strong pulling-forward effect; “→”means a less strong pulling-forward effect. “eaten,the, in”all indicate a strong fulling-forward effect. )➢Marked themeDefinition: the literary writer places any of the rest of clause elements in the thematic position in order to achieve certain literary effect.Example: A lone she cuts and binds the grain,And sings a melancholy strain;O listen! for the vale profoundIs overflowing with the sound(“alone” is a fronting of the adjunct that can make the element highly noticeable) ➢AffixationDefinition: affixation is the addition of a prefix or suffix to an item which already exists in the languageExample: there was a balconyful of gentlemen.(“balcony+ful” is a vivid description of the number of people staying on the balcony.) ➢CompoundingDefinition: compounding is the combination of two or more items to make a single compound one.Example: Baby wakeOpen-eyed;Open-eyed:as a verbless adjective clause, express a result➢ConversionDefinition: conversion, described as “zero affixation” is the adaptation of an item to a new grammatical function without changing its form.Example: “Don’t be such a harsh parent, father!”“Don’t father me!”(the noun”father” is changed to a verb to express the annoyance and discontent.) ➢OxymoronDefinition: Oxymoron is the yoking together of two expressions which are incompatible, so that in combination they have no conceivable literal reference to reality.e.g. As the wretched creature mumbled and chuckled in her hideous merriment, the undertaker turned to go away. (Oliver Twist)➢ParadoxDefinition: A Paradox is a statement which is absurd because it is self-evidently false.e.g. It was a bright, cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen.➢SynecdocheDefinition: Synecdoche is a type of transference of meaning which involves the substitution of a part for the whole.e.g. Return to her?...No, rather I abjure all roofs and choose…To be a comrade with the wolf and owl.➢MetonymyDefinition: Metonymy is the substitution of a word referring to an attribute of the thing that is meant, rather than the substitution of a part for the whole, or the whole for a part.e.g. Sceptre and CrownMust tumble downAnd in the dust be equal madeWith the poor crooked Scythe and Spade.(Shirley,The Glories of our Blood)Here, Sceptre and Crown represent their power and authority, and metonyms for kings and queens. Scythe and Spade are things used by peasants or farm workers, and are metonyms for peasants.➢Metaphor(重点！)Metaphor: It is associated with particular rule of transference, that is, the figurative meaning is derived from the literal meaning or it is, as it were, the literal meaning.e.g. Life's but a walking shadow, a poor playerThat struts and frets his hour upon the stageAnd then is heard no more: it is a tale( life is like a walking shadow, a poor player .)Five types:A. One type of sensory perception is expressed in terms of anotherB. A non-human referent is given human attributesC. A non-animate referent is given animate characteristicsD. An abstraction is treated as if it were animateE. A human referent is treated either as an inanimate being or an animal or a bird➢OverstatementOverstatement is termed hyperbole in traditional rhetoric. It distorts the truth by great exaggeration. It is usually used to emphasize strong feeling and to create a sentimental, satiric or comic effect.e.g. Till a' the seas gang dry, my dear,And the rocks melt wi' the sun!And I will luve thee still, my dear,While the sands o' life shall run.All the seas will never become dry and rocks will unlikely melt with the sun, the hyperbolic expressions here strongly emphasize the promise of undying love.➢UnderstatementUnderstatement: understatement is the opposite of overstatement in that it misrepresents the truth by deliberately understating it as opposed to exaggerating it. e.g. The face wasn't a bad one; It had what they called charm. (Galsworthy)The face wasn't a bad one in this context is a non-committal way of saying: the face was a very good one.➢HomophonyHomophony: words that have the same pronunciation but differ in form and meaning.e.g. When I am dead, I hope it may be said“His sins were scarlet, but his books are read.”The past participle of the verb “read” which relates to his books, and the adjective “red” relating to its hyponym scarlet in the first half of the same line.➢HolysemyPolysemy: the ambiguity of an individual word or phrase that can be used to express two or more different meaningse.g. Ben Battle was a warrior bold,And used to war's alarms;But a cannon-ball took off his legs,So he laid down his arms.In this context, “arms”can refer to the upper limbs of the said warrior as well as the weapons he carries.➢AlliterationAlliteration is the repetition of the initial consonant cluster in stressed syllables. Eg. Cold are the crabs that crawl on yonder hills,Colder the cucumbers that grow beneath…➢RhymeRhyme is the identity of sounds between words or verse lines extending back from the end to the last fully accented vowel and not further.Eg. CandyIs dandy,But liquorIs quicker.➢AssonanceAssonance is the repetition of identical vowel or diphthong in stressed syllables. Eg. Think from how many treesDead leaves are broughtTo earth on seed or wing➢ConsonanceConsonance is the repetition of the final consonat cluster in stressed syllables. Eg. Nothing lovelier than that lonely call,Bare and singular, like a gull,And three notes or four, then that was all.It drew up from the quiet like a well,Waited, sang, and vanishing, was still.➢OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeia refers to the use of words formed in imitation of the natural sounds associated with the object or action involved, and it may also be phrased as the recurrence of phonemes in a text unit that suggests certain natural sounds which reinforce the meaning conveyed in that text unit.Eg. Crack came an officer’s club on his forehead.➢IambIamb or Iambic foot is the commonest type of verse foot. It is a pattern in which one stressed syllable alternates with one unstressed syllable, beginning with the unstressed syllable.Eg. In every cry of every manIn every infant’s cry of fear➢TrocheeTrochee or throchaic foot is a pattern in which one stressed syllable alternates with one unstressed syllable, beginning with the stressed syllable.Eg. Men of England, wherefore ploughFor the Lords who lay yellow?➢AnapaestAnapaest or the anapaestic foot is a pattern in which one stressed syllable alternates with two unstressed syllables, beginning with the two unstressed syllables.Eg. The Assy rian came down like the wolf on the fold.➢DactylDactyl or dactylic foot is a pattern in which one stressed syllable alternates with two unstressed syllables, beginning with the stressed syllable.Eg. Sing me a song of a lad that is gone➢DimeterA dimeter is a verse line that has two metrical feet.Eg. One more unfortunateWeary of breathRashly importunate,Gone to her death!➢TetrameterA tetrameter a verse line that has four metrical feet.Eg. Who fought for freedom, more than lifeWho gave up all, to die in strife?➢PentameterA pentameter is a verse line that has five metrical feet.Eg. How like a winter hath my absence beenFrom thee, the pleasure of the fleeting year!➢Immediate repetitionImmediate repletion means the repeated unit immediately follows the initial unit. Eg. Do not go gentle into that good night,Old age should burn and rave at close of day,Rage, rage against the dying of light.➢Intermittent repetionEg. O, how that name befits my composition,Old Gaunt indeed, and gaunt in being old.➢Large-scale parallelismBy large-scale parallelism we mean the kind which consists of more than two juxtaposed units.Eg. I came, I saw, I conquered.➢Small-scale parallelismSmall-scale parallelism is the case which consists of only two juxtaposed units.Eg. His fees were high; his lessons were light.。

英语中的修辞手法与文体知识点修辞手法是英语写作中常用的一种表达方式，它通过运用特定的语言技巧和结构，增强语言的感染力和表达力，使文章更具艺术性和表现力。

本文将介绍英语中常见的修辞手法以及相关的文体知识点。

一、比喻比喻是运用类似的事物进行直接或间接的比较，以便更好地阐述某个意义或揭示某种感觉。

通过比喻，可以使抽象的概念更加具体形象，提升文章的吸引力和情感张力。

例如，"Life is a journey."（生活就是一场旅程）就是一个常见的比喻句。

二、拟人拟人是指将非人类的事物或概念赋予人类的特质和行为，使其更具生命力和感知能力。

通过拟人，可以让读者更加深刻地感受到某种情感或现象的存在。

例如，"The sun smiled down on us."（阳光微笑着洒落在我们身上）中的"sun smiled"就是一个拟人的表达。

三、夸张夸张是为了强调或者夸大某种情感或描述，在修辞手法中常用来渲染氛围和增加艺术感。

夸张的运用可以使文章更加引人入胜，给读者留下深刻的印象。

例如，"I've been waiting for ages!"（我等了好几个世纪了！）就使用了夸张手法来突出等待的时间之长。

四、设问设问是通过提出问题的方式引发读者的思考，增加文章的互动性和吸引力。

通过巧妙的设问，可以引导读者思考并产生共鸣，使文章更具说服力和启发性。

例如，"What would you do if you had one day left to live?"（如果你只剩下最后一天可以活，你会怎么做？）中的设问引发了读者对生活的思考。

五、对比对比是通过对两个事物进行比较，强调它们之间的不同之处或者相互关系，以达到突出或者对比的效果。

通过对比，可以使文章更加生动有趣，也更好地传达作者的观点。

例如，"His words were as sharp as a knife, while her words were as gentle as a breeze."（他的话锋锐如刀，而她的话则温柔如微风）中的对比句增加了文章的表现力和张力。

Part OneChapter One Introducing Style1.1 What is Style?1.2 Style as Saying Different Things in Different Contexts1. sentence2. vocabulary1.3 Style as Speakers from Different Background1. social status2. social class3. race4. sex: biological; social5. time1.4 Style as Functions of Texts1. interview2. commentary1.5 The Stylistic Features1. sound features: pun; rhyme; alliteration; elision2. spelling: the elision of certain sounds; alternative pronunciation; mispronunciation; contraction3. words: contexts; nominalized word and their corresponding verbs and adjectives; the same field or domain4. grammar: the manipulation of syntactic structures; the use of parallel structures; sentences with different length and complexity5. meaning: fields; personification; hyprbole / litotes; irony / satireChapter Two Lexicology2.1 Morphemic Devices(qualitative deviation or incongruity & quantitative deviation or deflection)1. Neologism: affixation; compounding; derivation; conversion; blendingnonce words2. Overregularity and High Frequency of Occurrencehomoioteteuton2.2 Lexical Devices1. Selection of WordsFeatures of register: field; tenor; mode2. Classification of WordsRegister and dialectCommoncore words and words used in different varietisDialect: regional / of age, race, profession/ social structure / temporal3. Rhetorical SeriesSimilar in certain aspectsTwo / three / four or more items4. Word ImplicationsExtended, transferred meanings; with emotive colouring (neutral / positive / negative);synonymy (ideational / interpersonal / textual)5. Play with Meaning: Rhetorical DevicesMeaning transference (simile / metaphor / personification / metonymy); Meaning extension and Contraction (hyperbole / litotes or meiosis); Contradiction in Logic (oxymoron / paradox); Meaning Conversion; Play on Homonymy (pun)Chapter Three Grammar3.1 Syntactic Deflection1. The Unexpected High Frequency of OccurrenceLong sentences (vivid, rich, exuberant, luxurious)Short sentences (direct, terse, concise, clear effect or continuous, compact, swift effect)2. The Overregular Use of Certain Patterns or ModelsParallelisms; Antithesis; Chiasmus; Antistrophe; Repetition; Epizeuxis; Ploce3.2 Syntactic Incongruity1. Unusual Syntactic StructuresLoose Sentences; Periodic Sentences; Elliptical Sentences; Inverted Sentences; Rhetorical Questions2. Violation of the Grammatical RulesUngrammatical sentencesChapter Four Phonology and Graphology4.1 Phonology1. Sound and WritingTwo ways of representing the same thing / respective features2. Phonological theoryPhoneme: synaesthesiaIncongruity: phonological transference and elision ( aphesis, syncope, apocope)Sound Pattern: Alliteration; Assonance; Consonance3. SyllableSyllable Deflection: Para-rhyme; Reverse Rhyme; Rhyme (masculine rhyme vs. Feminine rhyme) (end rhyme & internal rhyme)Defeated Expectation4. FootMeter (foot) vs. rhythm (measure)Foot DeflectionMetrical Deviation: change stress; put stress on what should be an unstressed syllable; change the order; reduce the number of feet.Onomatopoeia: synaesthetic5. Tone Group6. Suprasegmental FeaturesStress; Intonation (falling and rising); Pause4.2 Graphology1. Graphological SystemFive ranks: grapheme, words, comma, colon, period.Three factors that can produce graphological prominence: marking, space and sequence2. GraphemePunctuation Marks: period, comma, exclamation marks, quotation marks, parenthesesEllipsis of Punctuation marks3. Ill-spelled words (erroneous spelling)4. Italics5. Spatial ArrangementChapter Five Semantics5.1 Cohesion and Style1. Reference: Personal; Demonstrative; ComparativeExophora (context-bound); Endophora (context-free; anaphora and cataphora)2. Substitution and EllipsisLiveliness; conciseness; terseness3. ConjunctionConjunctions and conjunctive phrases and adverbs4. Lexical Cohesion1) Reiteration: repetition; synonymy; hyponymy; meronymy2) Collocation: provides semantic thread linking the meanings of different sentences and words together5.2 Sentence Groups, Passages and Paragraphs1. Sentence Groups (SG): argumentation; narration; description2. Paragraphs and PassagesParataxis ; hypotaxisIndependent ; surbordinate ; transition3. Patterns of Text StructuresGenerical structure potentialA buying-selling situation: five obligatory elementsA job-interview situation: five obligatory elementsFiction Writings: five or six stagesPart Two Practical Style。

Rhetorical options1、What is rhetoric Definitions of rhetoricthe art or science of communication in words; this art or science practiced or taught as a formal discipline; esp. the doctrine formulated by Aristotle and taught throughout the Middle ages; overornate or ostentatious language. Longman Modern English Dictionary2、What’s the purpose of rhetoric 两种说法①The prevailing view about the purpose of rhetoric is to express oneself well and to communicate effectively in order to secure a desired result by employing rhetorical means efficiently.②“to enlighten the understanding ; to please the imagination; to move the passion ;or to influence the will.” “促进理解、引起想象、调动感情、或者说影响人们的意志” 18世纪苏格兰修辞学家George Campbell3、What is discussed in rhetoric contents of rhetoricalRhetoric is composed of theoretical rhetoric and practical rhetoric. Theoretical rhetoric deals with the theoretical problem of rhetoric; while practical rhetoric helps us improve our ability to use the English language effectively.rhetoric covers all the elements of oral and written things;including structure; diction. Rhythm; tone; style; and anything related to the effective use of language.4、The Highest Principles of Rhetoricthe highest principle of rhetoric is to adapt to specific situation; that is; “adaptability” or “appropriateness”. Sentencesyntactic device1、What is sentenceA sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought. Generally; an effective sentence must possess five essential qualities: correctness; clearness; unity; coherence and emphasis.正确、清楚、统一、连贯、强调2、句子的组成A sentence must contain a subject and a verb although one may be implied.①words②correct grammar③meaning3、句子的分类Sentences may be classified according to Grammar or Rhetoric as to meaning and as to form:Grammatical Classification of SentencesI. As to meaning: II. As to Form:1. Declarative Sentence 1. Simple Sentence2. Interrogative Sentence 2. Compound Sentence并列3. Imperative Sentence 3. Complex Sentence 复合4. Exclamatory Sentence 4. Compound –Complex SentenceRhetorical Classification of SentencesIII. As to Arrangement1. Periodic Sentence 圆周句left-branching sentence2. Loose Sentence松散句right-branching sentence3. Balanced Sentence4、The short and long sentence①Short sentences; on the whole; are characterized by their brevity; quick tempo and force. The short sentence is relatively simple in form; clear in grammatical relation; and terse and forceful in style.②Long sentence is relatively complex in form; fully expressive in capacity; and often used in formal style to show one’s complicated mentality or various kinds of relationship of different things.5、the simple;compound and complex sentence①A Simple sentence has only one clause to make a statement; and so it is good for directness and clearness.②The Compound Sentence consists of two or more independent clauses which are of equal status; that is; the clauses are paratactic parallel; coordinate in relationship.③The complex sentence makes clear the logical relationship between events or ideas through subordination. Subordinate clauses are named according to their functions.Left-branching sentenceperiodic sentence：6、the branching sentencesRight-branching sentenceloose sentence：Left-branching sentenceperiodic sentence：the periodic sentence has its main idea at the end of the sentence.supportive or qualifying information are placed before the main clause or assertion.Right-branching sentenceloose sentence：in a loose sentence; the main idea is put at the beginning of the sentence;and supportive or qualifying information comes from it.7、Balanced sentence：When a sentence contains tow parallel clauses similar in structure but contrasted in meaning;it is balanced sentence.The main ideas are often presented in parallel phrases orclauses.⑴Parallelism排比：the main function of parallelism is to add clarity and coherence to what one wishes to communicate..⑵Antithesis对比：antithesis is the deliberate arrangement of contrasting words or ideas in balanced structural forms to achieve force and emphasis..⑶Chiasmus回文 and antimetabole交叉：chiasmus is a device that consists of two balanced statements; the second of which reverses the order of the words in the first;with or without a repetition of words..For example：①we eat for live;not live for eat..here the key words in the first statement are repeated;and reversed in order in the second..This is called antimetabole..②he was an angle on the surface;but at heart a knave..here there is no repetition of words;but the position of the nouns and adverbials are reversed. This is called chiasmus.⑷climax渐进：it is extremely effective in stirring up feelings and emotions;or in driving home a point..⑸anti-climax or bathos突降或渐降：is a device that involves stating one‘s thoughts in a descending order of significance or intensity;from strong to weak;from weight to light or frivolous..It is often used to ridicule or satirize..9、syntactic schemes of inversion句子的倒装：分为grammatical inversion语法倒装和rhetorical inversion修辞倒装；一个倒装句能倒回到正常的顺序是修辞倒装;不能倒回的是语法倒装..The inversion is not a factor of correctness; but effectiveness of that sentence.Function of emphasis; vividness; balance; close connection and compactness and rhyming verse..10、the function of sentence：The four basic sentence functions in the world's languages include the declarative; interrogative; exclamative; and the imperative.Lexical deviceword 词1、the meaning of word：两种Associative meaning and conceptual meaning..或者七种conceptual meaning;connotative meaning;social meaning;effective meaning;reflective meaning;collocating meaning;thematic meaning..2、词的分类①three layers of words：The learned; the common and the colloquial.②Four types of vocabulary：Reading vocabulary;listening vocabulary;writing vocabulary;speaking vocabulary..③short words and long words; common words or learned words; formal; informal or colloquial words; general or specific words; concrete or abstract words; referential or emotive words意义词或情感词. 3、the principle of choice of words：words for clearnesswords for accuracywords for effectiveness4、lexical repetition⑴syntactic anaphorarepetition of beginning words首语重复5、rhetorical question设问Phonetic device语音学1、修辞格Alliteration头韵Assonance类韵Homeoteleuton同韵脚Onomatopoeia拟声2、rhythm 的组成：the rhythm of English prose involves prosodic features such as stress;pitchtone;volumeloudness;pause and tempo;apart from the usual intonation patterns..Figures of speech修辞格1、what is figures of speech修辞学的定义Figure of speech is an “Ancient term for any form of expression in which the normal use of language is manipulated; stressed; or altered for rhetorical effect” P.H. Matthews.2、functions of figure of speech四大功能Figures of speech are devices to make our language figurative; they lend force to an idea; heighten effect of expression; or create suggestive imagery..3、Figures of speech大体分为三类：音韵修辞格phonological rhetorical devices词义修辞格semantic rhetorical devices句法修辞格syntactical rhetorical devices音韵修辞格phonological rhetorical devices 是利用词语的语音特点创造出来的修辞手法..它主要包括onomatopoeia; alliteration; homeoteleuton谐缀格; assonance and consonance.词义修辞格semantic rhetorical devices 词义修辞格主要借助语义的联想和语言的变化等特点创造出来的修辞手法..它们主要包括 simile; metaphor; allusion; metonymy; transferred epithet; personification; hyperbole; irony; euphemism; pun; oxymoron; zeugma; contrast 等..句法修辞格syntactical rhetorical devices 句子结构上的修辞格主要是指通过句子结构的均衡布局或是突出重点创造出来的修辞手法..这类辞格主要包括repetition; rhetorical question; antithesis; apostrophe 等..它们与汉语中的反复、设问、对偶、倒装基本相同 ..另外一种分类;分为相似修辞格4种simile;metaphor;analogy;personification..相反修辞格opposition和相关修辞格association..There are many kinds of figure of speech and they can be divided into many groups; such as :figures of similarity; figures of relationship; figures of opposition; figures of emphasis; figures of sound and so on.Simile明喻：A simile is a figure of speech which makes a comparison between two unlike elements having at least one quality or characteristic in common..Words like as;so;like..组成要素：comparing words;subject;reference;ground..功能：simile have three main uses：descriptive;illustrative and illuminative..例子：her locks were yellow as gold..Metaphor暗喻：a metaphor makes an implied comparison between two unlike elements..功能：three main uses：descriptive;illustrative and illuminative..例子：jim was a fox..Analogy类比： a comparison of two things based on their being alikein some way..Analogy is chiefly used for the purpose of persuasion or for the explanation or exposition of an idea..只有三种形式：①A is to B as C is to D②A is to B what C is to D③just as A and B so C and DPersonification拟人：is a figure of speech that gives human form or feelings to animal;or life and personal attributesMetonymy借代Synecdoche提喻Antonomasia换称Syllepsis一语双叙Zeugma轭式搭配Paradox反论Oxymoron矛盾修饰法Hyperbole夸张Understatement低调陈述Euphemism委婉Irony反讽：irony is a figure of speech that achieves emphasis by saying the opposite of what is meant;the intended meaning of the words being the opposite of their usual sense..Innuendo暗讽：a mild form of irony;hinting in a rather roundabout way at something disparaging or uncomplimentary to the person orsubject mentioned..Sarcasm反语：sarcasm is an intensity form of irony;it attacks in a taunting and bitter manner; and its aim is to disparage;ridicule and wound the feeling of the subject attacked..Transferred epithet转移修饰法Punning双关Allusion典故：An allusion is a figure of speech that makes a reference to; or representation of; a place; event; literary work; myth; or work of art; either directly or by implication.功能： It is often employed to reinforce the emotion or the ideas of one’s own work with the emotion or ideas of another work.例子：Goldilocks and the Three Bears:金凤花和三只小熊 Goldilocks now stands for anything that is “just right” for any situation. Until recently; financial markets appeared to be betting that the Goldilocks economy—neither too hot; nor too cold—was safe from the bears. The rattled markets are a reminder that sooner or later growth will slow or inflation will rise. 一直以来;金融机构似乎都笃信于经济既没过热或过冷;远离熊市;直到市场最近的恐慌才再一次提醒了人们;经济的增长迟早会减速;通胀迟早会出现.。

Rhetorical options*1、What is rhetoric?( Definitions of rhetoric)the art or science of communication in words; this art or science practiced or taught as a formal discipline, esp. the doctrine formulated by Aristotle and taught throughout the Middle ages; overornate or ostentatious language. (Longman Modern English Dictionary)2、What’s the purpose of rhetoric?（两种说法）①The prevailing view about the purpose of rhetoric is to express oneself well and to communicate effectively in order to secure a desired result by employing rhetorical means efficiently.②“to enlighten the understanding , to please the imagination, to move the passion ,or to influence the will.” “促进理解、引起想象、调动感情、或者说影响人们的意志” (18世纪苏格兰修辞学家George Campbell）*3、What is discussed in rhetoric?（contents of rhetorical）Rhetoric is composed of theoretical rhetoric and practical rhetoric. Theoretical rhetoric deals with the theoretical problem of rhetoric, while practical rhetoric helps us improve our ability to use the English language effectively.rhetoric covers all the elements of oral and written things, including structure, diction. Rhythm, tone, style, and anything related to the effective use of language.4、The Highest Principles of Rhetoricthe highest principle of rhetoric is to adapt to specific situation, that is, “adaptability”or “appropriateness”.Sentence（syntactic device）1、What is sentence？A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought. Generally, an effective sentence must possess five essential qualities: correctness, clearness, unity, coherence and emphasis.(正确、清楚、统一、连贯、强调）2、句子的组成A sentence must contain a subject and a verb (although one may be implied).①words②correct grammar③meaning3、句子的分类Sentences may be classified according to Grammar or Rhetoric as to meaning and as to form:Grammatical Classification of SentencesI. As to meaning: II. As to Form:1. Declarative Sentence 1. Simple Sentence2. Interrogative Sentence 2. Compound Sentence（并列）3. Imperative Sentence 3. Complex Sentence （复合）4. Exclamatory Sentence 4. Compound –Complex SentenceRhetorical Classification of SentencesIII. As to Arrangement1. Periodic Sentence （圆周句）left-branching sentence2. Loose Sentence（松散句）right-branching sentence3. Balanced Sentence4、The short and long sentence①Short sentences, on the whole, are characterized by their brevity, quick tempo and force. The short sentence is relatively simple in form, clear in grammatical relation, and terse and forceful in style.②Long sentence is relatively complex in form, fully expressive in capacity, and often used in formal style to show one’s complicated mentality or various kinds of relationship of different things.5、the simple，compound and complex sentence①A Simple sentence has only one clause to make a statement, and so it is good for directness and clearness.②The Compound Sentence consists of two or more independent clauses which are of equal status, that is, the clauses are paratactic (parallel; coordinate) in relationship.③The complex sentence makes clear the logical relationship between events or ideas through subordination. Subordinate clauses are named according to their functions.Left-branching sentence(periodic sentence)：*6、the branching sentencesRight-branching sentence（loose sentence）：Left-branching sentence(periodic sentence)：the periodic sentence has its main idea at the end of the sentence.supportive or qualifying information are placed before the main clause or assertion. Right-branching sentence（loose sentence）：in a loose sentence, the main idea is put at the beginning of the sentence,and supportive or qualifying information comes from it.*7、Balanced sentence：When a sentence contains tow parallel clauses similar in structure butcontrasted in meaning,it is balanced sentence.The main ideas are often presented in parallel phrases or clauses.⑴Parallelism排比：the main function of parallelism is to add clarity and coherence to what one wishes to communicate。

英语中的文体学与修辞知识点文体学和修辞学是研究语言运用和艺术表达的重要分支。

它们涉及到英语语言的不同风格和用法，以及如何通过修辞手法来提升表达的艺术性和效果。

本文将介绍英语中的文体学和修辞，包括其定义、应用和常见的知识点。

一、文体学1. 定义：文体学是研究语言表达风格和特点的学科，包括不同文体之间的差异和特征。

2. 应用：文体学可以帮助我们理解不同文本的特点，如小说、诗歌、散文和新闻报道等。

3. 知识点：- 叙述文体：用于描述事件、故事或经历的文体，如小说和传记。

- 说明文体：用于解释、阐述观点或提供事实的文体，如科学论文和说明书。

- 议论文体：用于陈述和辩论观点的文体，如论文和演讲稿。

- 描写文体：用于描绘人物、地点或对象的文体，如诗歌和旅行报道。

- 敌对文体：用于抨击和讽刺的文体，如讽刺小说和政治漫画。

二、修辞学1. 定义：修辞学是研究修辞手法和表达方式的学科，它通过运用各种修辞手法来增强语言的表达力。

2. 应用：修辞学可以用于文学作品、演讲和写作等领域，使语言更生动、美观和有说服力。

3. 知识点：- 比喻：通过对两个不同事物的比较，以便更好地理解和描绘。

- 拟人：将非人事物赋予人的特性和行为，增加描写的生动性。

- 夸张：通过夸大手法来强调某种观点或感觉。

- 反问：用问句的形式提出观点，以引发读者思考和关注。

- 排比：通过并列结构反复使用相同的词或短语，以产生韵律感和强调。

- 对偶：通过相似的句子结构和表达方式来增加语言的节奏感。

通过掌握英语中的文体学和修辞知识，我们可以更好地理解和运用英语语言，让我们的表达更加生动、有趣和具有说服力。

文体学可以帮助我们理解不同文本的特点和风格，而修辞学则可以通过运用各种修辞手法来提升语言的艺术性和表达效果。

希望本文的介绍能够对你有所启发，让你在英语学习和应用中更加得心应手。

高级英语第二册修辞汇总1. It is easier to make a beautiful dumb girl smart than to make an ugly smart girl beautiful. (antithesis)2. The children went from adult to adult like buckets in a fire brigade. (simile)3. Instantly, from the dark holes all round, there was a frenzied rush of Jews. (transferred epithet)4. Still, a white skin is always fairly conspicuous. (synecdoche)5. I leaped to my feet, bellowing like a bull. (simile)6. After the war, it was only natural that hopeful young writers, their minds and pens inflamed against war, Babbittry, and “Puritanical” gentility, should flock to the traditional artistic center. (metonymy)7. The conversation was on wings. (metaphor)8. United, there is little we cannot do in a host of co-operative ventures. Divided, there is little we can do, for we dare not meet a powerful challenge at odds and split asunder. (antithesis)9. But we shall not always expect … to remember that, in the past, those wh o foolishly sought power by riding the back of the tiger ended up inside.(metaphor)10. Polly, I love you. You are the whole world to me, and the moon and the stars and the constellations of outer space. (hyperbole)11. Greenwich Village set the pattern.(metonymy)12. Naturally, the spirit of carnival and the enthusiasm for high military adventure were soon dissipated once the eager young men had received a good taste of twentieth century warfare. (metaphor)13. The hurricane tore three large cargo ships from their moorings and beached them. (personification)14. The hurricane seized a 600,000-gallon Gulfport oil tank and dumped it 3 miles away. (personification)15. Long lines of women, bent double like inverted capital Ls, work their way slowly across the fields. (simile)16. The glow of the conversation burst into flames. (metaphor)17. If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich. (antithesis)18. But this peaceful revolution of hope cannot become the prey of hostile powers. (metaphor)19. …yet both racing to alter that uncertain balance of terror that stays the hand of mankind’s final war. (synecdoche)20. I said with a mysterious wink and closed my bag and left. (transferred epithet)21. …, an attempt to treat the worker and employee like a machine which runs better when it is well oiled. (simile)22. The slightest mention of the decade brings nostalgic recollections to the middle-aged and curious questionings by the young. (transferred epithet)23. The wind sounded like the roar of a train passing a few yards away. (simile)24. Even with the most educated and the most literate, the King’s English slips and slides in conversation. (alliteration & simile)25. Younger brothers and sisters of the war generation had suffered no real disillusionment or sense of loss, now began to imitate the manners of their elders and play with the toys of vulgar rebellion. (metaphor)26. And so, my fellow Americans ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country. (antithesis)27. And let every other power know that this hemisphere intends to remain the master of its own house. (metaphor)28. The war acted merely as a catalytic agent in this breakdown of the Victorian social structure. (metaphor)29. A moment later, the hurricane, in one mighty swipe, lifted the entire roof off the house and skimmed it 40 feet through the air. (personification)30. …, and blowndown power lines coiled like black spaghetti over the ro ads. (simile)31. …, and then more infantry, four or five thousand men in all, winding up the road with a clumping of boots and a clatter of iron wheels. (onomatopoeia)32. No one has any idea where the conversation will go as it meanders or leaps and sparkles or just glows. (metaphor)33. Let the word go forth from this time and place, to friend and foe alike, ...(alliteration)34. that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans, born in this century, tempered by war, disciplined by a hard and bitter peace, ...(parallelism)35. One more chance, I decided. But just one more. There is a limit to what flesh and blood can bear. (synecdoche)36. My brain was as powerful as a dynamo, as precise as a chemist’s scales, as penetrating as a scalpel. (simile & hyperbole)37. There follows an informal essay that ventures even beyond Lamb’s frontier. (metaphor)38. Before long the movement had become officially recognized by the pulpit (which denounced it). (metonymy)39. So let us begin anew, remembering on both sides that civility is not a sign of weakness, and sincerity is always subject to proof. (antithesis)40. To our sister republics south of our border, we offer a special pledge: to convert our good words into good deeds, in new alliance for progress, to assist free men and free government in casting off the chains of poverty. (repetition)常见成语汉译英1.爱屋及乌 Love me, love my dog.2.百闻不如一见 Seeing is believing.3.比上不足比下有余 worse off than some, better off than many; to fall short of the best, but be better than the worst.4.笨鸟先飞 A slow sparrow should make an early start.5.不眠之夜 white night6.不以物喜不以己悲 not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personnal losses7.不遗余力 spare no effort; go all out; do one's best8.不打不成交 No discord, no concord.9.拆东墙补西墙 rob Peter to pay Paul10.辞旧迎新 bid farewell to the old and usher in the new; ring out the old year and ring in the new11.大事化小小事化了 try first to make their mistake sound less serious and then to reduce it to nothing at all12.大开眼界 open one's eyes; broaden one's horizon; be an eye-opener13.国泰民安 The country flourishes and people live in peace14.过犹不及 going too far is as bad as not going far enough; beyond is as wrong as falling short; too much is as bad as too little15.功夫不负有心人 Everything comes to him who waits.16.好了伤疤忘了疼 once on shore, one prays no more17.好事不出门恶事传千里 Good news never goes beyond the gate, while bad news spread far and wide.18.和气生财 Harmony brings wealth.19.活到老学到老 One is never too old to learn.20.既往不咎 let bygones be bygones21.金无足赤人无完人 Gold can't be pure and man can't be perfect.22.金玉满堂 Treasures fill the home.23.脚踏实地 be down-to-earth24.脚踩两只船 sit on the fence25.君子之交淡如水 the friendship between gentlemen is as pure as crystal; a hedge between keeps friendship green26.老生常谈陈词滥调 cut and dried, cliché27.礼尚往来 Courtesy calls for reciprocity.28.留得青山在不怕没柴烧 Where there is life, there is hope.29.马到成功 achieve immediate victory; win instant success30.名利双收 gain in both fame and wealth31.茅塞顿开 be suddenly enlightened32.没有规矩不成方圆 Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards.33.每逢佳节倍思亲 On festive occasions more than ever one thinks of one's dear ones far away.It is on the festival occasions when one misses his dear most.34.谋事在人成事在天 The planning lies with man, the outcome with Heaven. Man proposes, God disposes.35.弄巧成拙 be too smart by half; Cunning outwits itself36.拿手好戏 masterpiece37.赔了夫人又折兵 throw good money after bad38.抛砖引玉 a modest spur to induce others to come forward with valuable contributions; throwa sprat to catch a whale39.破釜沉舟 cut off all means of retreat；burn one‘s own way of retreat and be determined tofight to the end40.抢得先机 take the preemptive opportunities41.巧妇难为无米之炊 If you have no hand you can't make a fist. One can't make bricks without straw.42.千里之行始于足下 a thousand-li journey begins with the first step--the highest eminence is to be gained step by step43.前事不忘后事之师 Past experience, if not forgotten, is a guide for the future.44.前人栽树后人乘凉 One generation plants the trees in whose shade another generation rests.One sows and another reaps.45.前怕狼后怕虎 fear the wolf in front and the tiger behind hesitate in doing something46.强龙难压地头蛇 Even a dragon (from the outside) finds it hard to control a snake in its old haunt - Powerful outsiders can hardly afford to neglect local bullies.47.强强联手 win-win co-operation48.瑞雪兆丰年 A timely snow promises a good harvest.49.人之初性本善 Man's nature at birth is good.50.人逢喜事精神爽 Joy puts heart into a man.51.人海战术 huge-crowd strategy52.世上无难事只要肯攀登 Where there is a will, there is a way.53.世外桃源 a fictitious land of peace away from the turmoil of the world;54.死而后已 until my heart stops beating55.岁岁平安 Peace all year round.56.上有天堂下有苏杭 Just as there is paradise in heaven, ther are Suzhou and Hangzhou on earth.57.塞翁失马焉知非福 Misfortune may be an actual blessing.58.三十而立 A man should be independent at the age of thirty.At thirty, a man should be able to think for himself.59.升级换代 updating and upgrading (of products)60.四十不惑 Life begins at forty.61.谁言寸草心报得三春晖 Such kindness of warm sun, can't be repaid by grass.62.水涨船高 When the river rises, the boat floats high.63.时不我待Time and tide wait for no man。

英语⽂体与修辞复习提纲（2020年整理）.pdfPart OneChapter One Introducing Style1.1 What is Style?1.2 Style as Saying Different Things in Different Contexts1. sentence2. vocabulary1.3 Style as Speakers from Different Background1. social status2. social class3. race4. sex: biological; social5. time1.4 Style as Functions of Texts1. interview2. commentary1.5 The Stylistic Features1. sound features: pun; rhyme; alliteration; elision2. spelling: the elision of certain sounds; alternative pronunciation; mispronunciation; contraction3. words: contexts; nominalized word and their corresponding verbs and adjectives; the same field or domain4. grammar: the manipulation of syntactic structures; the use of parallel structures; sentences with different length and complexity5. meaning: fields; personification; hyprbole / litotes; irony / satireChapter Two Lexicology2.1 Morphemic Devices(qualitative deviation or incongruity & quantitative deviation or deflection)1. Neologism: affixation; compounding; derivation; conversion; blendingnonce words2. Overregularity and High Frequency of Occurrencehomoioteteuton2.2 Lexical Devices1. Selection of WordsFeatures of register: field; tenor; mode2. Classification of WordsRegister and dialectCommoncore words and words used in different varietisDialect: regional / of age, race, profession/ social structure / temporal3. Rhetorical SeriesSimilar in certain aspectsTwo / three / four or more items4. Word ImplicationsExtended, transferred meanings; with emotive colouring (neutral / positive / negative);synonymy (ideational / interpersonal / textual)5. Play with Meaning: Rhetorical DevicesMeaning transference (simile / metaphor / personification / metonymy); Meaning extension and Contraction (hyperbole / litotes or meiosis); Contradiction in Logic (oxymoron / paradox); Meaning Conversion; Play on Homonymy (pun) Chapter Three Grammar3.1 Syntactic Deflection1. The Unexpected High Frequency of OccurrenceLong sentences (vivid, rich, exuberant, luxurious)Short sentences (direct, terse, concise, clear effect or continuous, compact, swift effect)2. The Overregular Use of Certain Patterns or ModelsParallelisms; Antithesis; Chiasmus; Antistrophe; Repetition; Epizeuxis; Ploce3.2 Syntactic Incongruity1. Unusual Syntactic StructuresLoose Sentences; Periodic Sentences; Elliptical Sentences; Inverted Sentences; Rhetorical Questions2. Violation of the Grammatical RulesUngrammatical sentencesChapter Four Phonology and Graphology4.1 Phonology1. Sound and WritingTwo ways of representing the same thing / respective features2. Phonological theoryPhoneme: synaesthesiaIncongruity: phonological transference and elision ( aphesis, syncope, apocope)Sound Pattern: Alliteration; Assonance; Consonance3. SyllableSyllable Deflection: Para-rhyme; Reverse Rhyme; Rhyme (masculine rhyme vs. Feminine rhyme) (end rhyme & internal rhyme)Defeated Expectation4. FootMeter (foot) vs. rhythm (measure)Foot DeflectionMetrical Deviation: change stress; put stress on what should be an unstressed syllable; change the order; reduce the number of feet.Onomatopoeia: synaesthetic5. Tone Group6. Suprasegmental FeaturesStress; Intonation (falling and rising); Pause4.2 Graphology1. Graphological SystemFive ranks: grapheme, words, comma, colon, period.Three factors that can produce graphological prominence: marking, space and sequence2. GraphemePunctuation Marks: period, comma, exclamation marks, quotation marks, parenthesesEllipsis of Punctuation marks3. Ill-spelled words (erroneous spelling)4. Italics5. Spatial ArrangementChapter Five Semantics5.1 Cohesion and Style1. Reference: Personal; Demonstrative; ComparativeExophora (context-bound); Endophora (context-free; anaphora and cataphora)2. Substitution and EllipsisLiveliness; conciseness; terseness3. ConjunctionConjunctions and conjunctive phrases and adverbs4. Lexical Cohesion1) Reiteration: repetition; synonymy; hyponymy; meronymy2) Collocation: provides semantic thread linking the meanings of different sentences and words together5.2 Sentence Groups, Passages and Paragraphs1. Sentence Groups (SG): argumentation; narration; description2. Paragraphs and PassagesParataxis ; hypotaxisIndependent ; surbordinate ; transition3. Patterns of Text StructuresGenerical structure potentialA buying-selling situation: five obligatory elements A job-interview situation: five obligatory elements Fiction Writings: five or six stagesPart Two Practical Style。

英语修辞与写作复习资料《英语修辞与写作》课程期末考试复习资料修辞手法1. Alliteration(1) Penny wise, pound foolish.(2) Wilful waste makes woeful want.(3) Without wisdom, wealth is worthless.(4) We shape our own destiny with conviction, compassion, and clear and common purpose.(B. Obama: Weekly Address, November 25th, 2010)2. Rhyme(1) Haste makes waste.(2) Man proposes, God disposes.(3) Little stokes fell great oaks.(4) His great gaunt figure filled the cabin door,And had he fallen inward on the floor,He must have measured to the further wall.(R. Frost: The Figure in the Doorway) 3. Simile(1) My roommates stood there as motionless as statues.(2) Living without an aim is like sailing without a compass.(3) Ambition is to life just what steam is to the locomotive.(4) Beauty is as summer fruits, which are easy to corrupt and cannot last.(F. Bacon: Of Beauty)4. Metaphor(1)Life is a journey.(2)Jim was a fox.(3) She is the apple of his eye.(4) The news is a dagger to his heart.5.Metonymy(1) He drank a cup.(2) She set a good table.(3) He is fond of the bottle.(4) The pen is mightier than the sword.6. Synecdoche(1) The kettle is boiling.(2) Great minds think alike.(3) He smokes two packs per day.(4) The poor creature could no longer endure her sufferings.7. Personification(1) Fear gripped his heart.(2) This time fate was smiling to him.(3) His words sent a quiver through my body.(4) The morning sun greeted us as we came out on deck.8. Hyperbole(1) I'm the luckiest man in the world.(2) Belinda smiled, and all the world was gay.(3) The noise was big enough to wake the dead.(4) I loved Ophelia: forty thousand brothers could not, with all their quantity of love, make up mysum.(W. Shakespeare: Hamlet) 9.Oxymoron(1)His air was one of friendly hostility.(2) The coach had to be cruel to be kind to his trainees.(3) I like a smuggler. He was the only honest thief.(4) No light, but rather darkness visible.10. Euphemism(1) The girl is hard of hearing.(2) The boy is a bit slow for his age.(3) It's five years since he passed away.(4) I'm afraid he has distorted the fact.11.Parallelism(1)He doesn't ride, nor shoot, nor fish, nor swim.(2)Lumber, corn, tobacco, wheat, and furs moved downstream to the delta country.(3) An Englishman thinks seated; a Frenchman, standing; an American, pacing; an Irishman, afterward.(4) We can gain knowledge by reading, by reflection, by observation or by practice.12.Antithesis(1) Speech is silver; silence is gold.(2)We find ourselves rich in goods, but ragged in spirit, reaching with magnificent precision for the moon, but falling into raucous discord on earth.(R. Nixon) (3)I had walked into that reading room a happy healthy man. I crawled out a decrepit wreck.(J. K. Jerome: The Three Men in a Boat) (4) It was the best of times, it was the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness; it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity; it was the season of light, it was the season of darkness; it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair; we had everything before us, we had nothing before us; we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way.(C. Dickens: A Tale of Two Cities)13.Climax(1)I came, I saw, I conquered.(2)Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some to be chewed and digested.(F. Bacon: Of Studies)(3)But in a large sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground.14.Anticlimax(1)For God, for America, and for Yale.(2)He lost his empire, his family and his fountain pen.(3)The duties of a soldier are to protect his country and peel potatoes.(4)The explosion completely destroyed a church, two houses, and a flowerpot.词汇1. pioneer / premature/prior/past2. obstacle / fault /offense /distress3. adapt / stick / yield/ adopt4. procedure / protection / allowance / access5. bare/vacant/hollow/blank6. adopt/ acquire/ accumulate/ assemble7. reduce / fade / dim /faint8. superior/productive /splendid/ prosperous9. raise /promote /heighten/ increase10. profit/gain/reward/ price改错1) He is not only a good pianist, but also a good singer as well.2)This pretty actress keeps appearing in TV serials repeatedly.3)As a rule, students are usually not allowed to take books out of this reading room.4)According to the speaker, it is obvious that the responsibility system has helped to increaseproduction and he has no doubt about it.5)One reason why people are well informed in this country isbecause of the fact that there aremany newspapers which can easily be bought or subscribed to.6)Statistics show that in the decade from 1980 to 1990 enrollments at this school doubled: in1990 there were twice as many students as in 1980.7)There are so many inexperienced unskilled workers without training in a particular job thatproduction of the factory has been affected.8)There are about 50 patients or so in this ward, among whom many are being givenacupuncture treatment.9)His name is called James Williams.10)Whatever he does, he works seriously with great care, and does his best so as to do it well. 11）I am quiet jealous of your opportunity to study at such a famous university.12) The essay is poorly organized, there is no central idea.13) There are a number of students who want to join the drama club.He was kind enough to let me share the same umbrella with him.14)Zhao was the person who was elected the representative of the class by the whole class.15)At the present time I am taking the course of World History and in addition a course ingeography too.16)The plane circled around the airport for about ten minutes or so and then disappeared andcould no longer be seen.17)What I am trying to say is that in my opinion he has notdone his work very well and it needsimproving.18)I would like you to consider the question of whether or not you will publish your recent articleon women scientists in China in our journal.19)Owing to the fact that he had missed many lectures, he was aware that it would be possible forhim to fail the exam.20)You must first work out an outline for your paper, and then after you have done that, you needto collect all kinds of material to support your point of view.主题句：部分参照《英语写作手册(英文版)(第3版) 》相关章节。

英语修辞与写作复习资料英语修辞与写作复习资料在学习英语写作时，修辞是一项非常重要的技巧。

通过运用修辞手法，我们可以更加生动地表达自己的思想，让文章更具说服力和吸引力。

下面将介绍一些常用的英语修辞手法，希望对大家的写作复习有所帮助。

1. 比喻（Metaphor）比喻是一种将两个不同的事物进行比较的修辞手法。

通过比喻，我们可以用一个熟悉的事物来形容一个陌生的事物，使读者更容易理解和接受。

比如，我们可以说“他是一只勤奋的蜜蜂”，来形容一个工作努力的人。

2. 拟人（Personification）拟人是一种将非人物赋予人的特质或行为的修辞手法。

通过拟人，我们可以使抽象的概念或非人物更加具体和形象化。

例如，“时间在无声地流逝”中，时间被赋予了“流逝”的行为。

3. 夸张（Hyperbole）夸张是一种通过夸大手法来强调某种情感或事物的修辞手法。

通过夸张，我们可以使文章更加生动有趣。

例如，“我等了一辈子”这句话中，夸张了等待的时间，以强调作者的长久等待。

4. 对偶（Antithesis）对偶是一种通过对比两个相反或对立的词语或短语来强调某种观点或情感的修辞手法。

通过对偶，我们可以使文章更加明确和有力。

例如，“春风得意马蹄疾，一日看尽长安花”中，对比了春天的喜悦和繁华与日落西山的无常。

5. 排比（Parallelism）排比是一种通过重复相同的句式或结构来强调某种观点或情感的修辞手法。

通过排比，我们可以使文章更加有节奏感和韵律感。

例如，“我爱你，不仅仅因为你的美丽；我爱你，不仅仅因为你的温柔；我爱你，不仅仅因为你的聪明”中，通过排比强调了对某人的多重爱。

6. 反问（Rhetorical Question）反问是一种通过提出问题来引起读者思考并强调某种观点的修辞手法。

通过反问，我们可以使文章更加引人入胜。

例如，“难道我们不应该为自己的梦想而努力吗？”中，提出了一个反问，以引导读者思考。

7. 比较（Simile）比较是一种通过使用“像”、“如同”等词语将两个事物进行比较的修辞手法。

高中英语知识点归纳写作时的修辞手法和篇章结构高中英语知识点归纳：写作时的修辞手法和篇章结构高中英语写作时的修辞手法和篇章结构是学习英语写作的重要内容。

熟练掌握这些知识点有助于提升写作表达能力，使文章更具说服力和吸引力。

本文将对高中英语知识点进行归纳总结，并分析修辞手法和篇章结构的运用。

一、修辞手法修辞手法是指在表达过程中运用的一些技巧和方法，可以增加文章的美感、感染力和表达力。

以下是常见的修辞手法：1.比喻：用某种事物来描述另一种事物，以便使读者更容易理解或感受到作者要表达的意思。

例如：“她的笑容像春天的阳光。

”2.拟人：赋予无生命的事物以人的特征和行为，增加描述的生动性和形象感。

例如：“大树伸展着它的双臂，迎接着朝阳。

”3.排比：通过连续使用并列的词语或短语，加强语气，使句子更具节奏感和力度。

例如：“他勤奋、聪明、勇敢，是个很有前途的年轻人。

”4.反问：用疑问句的形式来表达肯定的观点或强调某一观点，增加说服力。

例如：“难道我们不应该保护环境吗？”5.夸张：对事物进行夸大和放大的描述，以吸引读者的注意力和产生强烈的印象。

例如：“我等了一个世纪才等到他的电话。

”二、篇章结构篇章结构是指文章中段落的组织和连接方式，合理的篇章结构能够使文章更具逻辑性和层次感，使读者更容易理解和接受文章内容。

以下是常见的篇章结构：1.总分结构：先介绍总体概况，再逐一分析各个要点或例证，最后再作总结。

例如：“环境污染是我们面临的重大问题。

首先，我们要了解造成环境污染的原因；其次，我们需要采取相应的措施来解决环境问题；最后，我们希望每个人都能意识到环境保护的重要性。

”2.时间顺序结构：按照时间的先后顺序来组织文章，逐步叙述事件的发展过程。

例如：“星期一早上，我醒来后发现外面下着大雨；接着，我听到了新闻报道说今天会有台风；然后，我决定不出门，安心待在家里。

”3.因果结构：说明某一事件的原因和结果，通过因果关系的描述使文章更有说服力。

AphesisDefinition: the omission of an initial part of a word.Example: Thou on whose stream, ’mid the steep sky’s commotion 暴动、暴乱(’mid --amid)SyncopeDefinition: the omission of a medial part of a word.Example: A voice so thrilling ne’er was heardIn spring-time from the cuckoo-birdBreaking the silence of the seasAmong the farthest Hebrides(ne’er--never)ApocopeDefinition: the omission of a final part of a wordExample: Till a’ the seas gang dry, my dear.And the rocks melt wi’ the sunI will love thee still, my dear,While the sands o’ life shall run(a’—all, wi’—with, o’--of)GraphologyDefinition: by graphology is meant the encoding of meaning in visual symbols.Example: shape of text; type of print; grammetrics; punctuation; indentation.(Eg of type of print) Me up at doesout of the floorquietly Starea poisoned mousestill who aliveis asking whathave i done thatYou wouldn’t haveGrammetricsDefinition: By grammetrics is meant the ways in which grammatical units are fitted into metrical units such as lines and stanzasExample:This Is Just to SayI have eatenthe plumsthat were inthe icebox →and whichyou were probablysavingfor breakfast →Forgive methey were deliciousso sweetand so cold(“→→”means a very strong pulling-forward effect; “→”means a less strong pulling-forward effect. “eaten,the, in”all indicate a strong fulling-forward effect. )Marked themeDefinition: the literary writer places any of the rest of clause elements in the thematic position in order to achieve certain literary effect.Example: A lone she cuts and binds the grain,And sings a melancholy strain;O listen! for the vale profoundIs overflowing with the sound(“alone” is a fronting of the adjunct that can make the element highly noticeable) AffixationDefinition: affixation is the addition of a prefix or suffix to an item which already exists in the languageExample: there was a balconyful of gentlemen.(“balcony+ful” is a vivid description of the number of people staying on the balcony.) CompoundingDefinition: compounding is the combination of two or more items to make a single compound one.Example: Baby wakeOpen-eyed;Open-eyed:as a verbless adjective clause, express a resultConversionDefinition: conversion, described as “zero affixation” is the adaptation of an item to a new grammatical function without changing its form.Example: “Don’t be such a harsh parent, father!”“Don’t father me!”(the noun”father” is changed to a verb to express the annoyance and discontent.) OxymoronDefinition: Oxymoron is the yoking together of two expressions which are incompatible, so that in combination they have no conceivable literal reference to reality.e.g. As the wretched creature mumbled and chuckled in her hideous merriment, the undertaker turned to go away. (Oliver Twist)ParadoxDefinition: A Paradox is a statement which is absurd because it is self-evidently false.e.g. It was a bright, cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen.SynecdocheDefinition: Synecdoche is a type of transference of meaning which involves the substitution of a part for the whole.e.g. Return to her?...No, rather I abjure all roofs and choose…To be a comrade with the wolf and owl.MetonymyDefinition: Metonymy is the substitution of a word referring to an attribute of the thing that is meant, rather than the substitution of a part for the whole, or the whole for a part.e.g. Sceptre and CrownMust tumble downAnd in the dust be equal madeWith the poor crooked Scythe and Spade.(Shirley,The Glories of our Blood)Here, Sceptre and Crown represent their power and authority, and metonyms for kings and queens. Scythe and Spade are things used by peasants or farm workers, and are metonyms for peasants.Metaphor(重点！)Metaphor: It is associated with particular rule of transference, that is, the figurative meaning is derived from the literal meaning or it is, as it were, the literal meaning.e.g. Life's but a walking shadow, a poor playerThat struts and frets his hour upon the stageAnd then is heard no more: it is a tale( life is like a walking shadow, a poor player .)Five types:A. One type of sensory perception is expressed in terms of anotherB. A non-human referent is given human attributesC. A non-animate referent is given animate characteristicsD. An abstraction is treated as if it were animateE. A human referent is treated either as an inanimate being or an animal or a birdOverstatementOverstatement is termed hyperbole in traditional rhetoric. It distorts the truth by great exaggeration. It is usually used to emphasize strong feeling and to create a sentimental, satiric or comic effect.e.g. Till a' the seas gang dry, my dear,And the rocks melt wi' the sun!And I will luve thee still, my dear,While the sands o' life shall run.All the seas will never become dry and rocks will unlikely melt with the sun, the hyperbolic expressions here strongly emphasize the promise of undying love.UnderstatementUnderstatement: understatement is the opposite of overstatement in that it misrepresents the truth by deliberately understating it as opposed to exaggerating it. e.g. The face wasn't a bad one; It had what they called charm. (Galsworthy)The face wasn't a bad one in this context is a non-committal way of saying: the face was a very good one.HomophonyHomophony: words that have the same pronunciation but differ in form and meaning.e.g. When I am dead, I hope it may be said“His sins were scarlet, but his books are read.”The past participle of the verb “read” which relates to his books, and the adjective “red” relating to its hyponym scarlet in the first half of the same line.HolysemyPolysemy: the ambiguity of an individual word or phrase that can be used to express two or more different meaningse.g. Ben Battle was a warrior bold,And used to war's alarms;But a cannon-ball took off his legs,So he laid down his arms.In this context, “arms”can refer to the upper limbs of the said warrior as well as the weapons he carries.AlliterationAlliteration is the repetition of the initial consonant cluster in stressed syllables. Eg. Cold are the crabs that crawl on yonder hills,Colder the cucumbers that grow beneath…RhymeRhyme is the identity of sounds between words or verse lines extending back from the end to the last fully accented vowel and not further.Eg. CandyIs dandy,But liquorIs quicker.AssonanceAssonance is the repetition of identical vowel or diphthong in stressed syllables. Eg. Think from how many treesDead leaves are broughtTo earth on seed or wingConsonanceConsonance is the repetition of the final consonat cluster in stressed syllables. Eg. Nothing lovelier than that lonely call,Bare and singular, like a gull,And three notes or four, then that was all.It drew up from the quiet like a well,Waited, sang, and vanishing, was still.OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeia refers to the use of words formed in imitation of the natural sounds associated with the object or action involved, and it may also be phrased as the recurrence of phonemes in a text unit that suggests certain natural sounds which reinforce the meaning conveyed in that text unit.Eg. Crack came an officer’s club on his forehead.IambIamb or Iambic foot is the commonest type of verse foot. It is a pattern in which one stressed syllable alternates with one unstressed syllable, beginning with the unstressed syllable.Eg. In every cry of every manIn every infant’s cry of fearTrocheeTrochee or throchaic foot is a pattern in which one stressed syllable alternates with one unstressed syllable, beginning with the stressed syllable.Eg. Men of England, wherefore ploughFor the Lords who lay yellow?AnapaestAnapaest or the anapaestic foot is a pattern in which one stressed syllable alternates with two unstressed syllables, beginning with the two unstressed syllables.Eg. The Assy rian came down like the wolf on the fold.DactylDactyl or dactylic foot is a pattern in which one stressed syllable alternates with two unstressed syllables, beginning with the stressed syllable.Eg. Sing me a song of a lad that is goneDimeterA dimeter is a verse line that has two metrical feet.Eg. One more unfortunateWeary of breathRashly importunate,Gone to her death!TetrameterA tetrameter a verse line that has four metrical feet.Eg. Who fought for freedom, more than lifeWho gave up all, to die in strife?PentameterA pentameter is a verse line that has five metrical feet.Eg. How like a winter hath my absence beenFrom thee, the pleasure of the fleeting year!Immediate repetitionImmediate repletion means the repeated unit immediately follows the initial unit. Eg. Do not go gentle into that good night,Old age should burn and rave at close of day,Rage, rage against the dying of light.Intermittent repetionEg. O, how that name befits my composition,Old Gaunt indeed, and gaunt in being old.Large-scale parallelismBy large-scale parallelism we mean the kind which consists of more than two juxtaposed units.Eg. I came, I saw, I conquered.Small-scale parallelismSmall-scale parallelism is the case which consists of only two juxtaposed units.Eg. His fees were high; his lessons were light.。

英语写作中的修辞知识归纳英语写作中的修辞知识归纳学英语写作中的修辞修辞手段一般主要用于文学性写作中。

但在大学英语的英文写作中有时也需要运用一定的具有英文特征的修辞手段，而且运用得好，会使语句生动从而增添语句亮点。

因此，掌握一些一般常用修辞手段对于实现语句亮点也是非常必要的。

对于大学英语写作来说，主要应该掌握以下修辞手段，又称语句辞格，包括结构辞格与语义辞格。

对比、排比、重复、倒装等为结构辞格，转义、双关、矛盾等则为语义辞格。

1、对比正反对比就是要巧妙地运用对称的英文句式来表达互为补充的意思，因此恰当地运用反义词语往往是必不可少的。

如果一旦所要表达的内容具有这种情况，就应尽力选用这种对称的句式并选用适当的反义词语来加强语句，实现语句的亮点。

1）如“很多人很快就会发现，他们在物质上是富裕了，精神上却很贫乏”，可以这样达：Many people will soon find themselves rich in goods, but ragged in spirit.(注：句中rich in 与 ragged in, goods 与 spirit 具有正反对比的关系和效果。

）2）如“利远远大于弊”，可以这样表达：The advantages for outweigh the disadvantages.(注：句中 the advantages 与 the disadvantages 具有正反对比的关系和效果。

）3）如“他们注意到了这些说法中的一些道理，但他们却忽视了一个重要的事实”，可以这样表达：They have noticed a grain of truth in the statements, but have ignored a more important fact.(注：句中have noticed 与 have ignored, a grain of truth in the statements 与 a more important fact 具有正反对比的关系和效果。